• The word translated as ‘defense’ is the

Greek word ‘apologia’

• This command to be prepared to make
a defense was given to the Church that
was being persecuted, ie. in the
context where they could lose their
lives for obeying it

• The significance of the word heart is

that it is the seat of the emotions and
 the intellect
• Before the command of ‘apologia’ is given,
we are told that we need to be spiritually
stable,
• ie. Christ is sanctified in our hearts
• Apologetics is not simply an academic
exercise; it is in fact a spiritual discipline
• A spiritual discipline is a practice that
turns the heart towards God and
encourages long-term spiritual health
• We become spiritually ineffective because
we don’t know what we believe or why

• Being ready carries the connotation of

getting fit
• The work of apologetics requires continual
hard work

• The work of apologetics is inherently tied up

with the work of evangelism
• Ex: St. Paul with King Agrippa, Acts 26
• “24 Now as he thus made his defense,
Festus said with a loud voice, “Paul, you
are beside yourself! Much learning is
driving you mad!” 25 But he said, “I am
not mad, most noble Festus, but speak
the words of truth and reason. 26 For
the king, before whom I also speak
freely, knows these things; for I am
convinced that none of these things
escapes his attention, since this thing
was not done in a corner. 27 King
Agrippa, do you believe the prophets? I
know that you do believe.” 28 Then
Agrippa said to Paul, “You almost
persuade me to become a Christian.” 29
And Paul said, “I would to God that not
only you, but also all who hear me
today, might become both almost and
altogether such as I am, except for
 these chains.” 30 When he had said
these things, the king stood up, as well
as the governor and Bernice and those
who sat with them; 31 and when they
had gone aside, they talked among
themselves, saying, “This man is doing
nothing deserving of death or chains.”
32 Then Agrippa said to Festus, “This
man might have been set free if he had
not appealed to Caesar.”” Acts 26:24-32
• When giving a defense, you will not simply
be answering other people’s questions;
You’ll also be questioning other people’s
answers, and even questioning the
questioners themselves.

• Why ask questions?

• Asking questions forces people to
examine and evaluate their general
assumptions
• “Why do you call Me good? No one is
good but One, that is, God.” Luke
18:19
• Asking questions forces people to
examine and evaluate their cultural
assumptions
• “Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or
not?”” Matt 22:17
• A cultural assumption is a premise that
is assumed to be true in one culture,
but may not be accepted from the
perspective of a different culture
• Giving the right answer to the wrong
question is always wrong
• Asking questions exposes faulty logic
• With faulty logic, any answer you give
will be wrong
• By exposing their faulty logic, Jesus
forced them to question their own
 question
• Faulty dilemma:
• “ 27 Last of all the woman died also.
28 Therefore, in the resurrection,
whose wife of the seven will she be?
For they all had her.” 29 Jesus
answered and said to them, “You are
mistaken, not knowing the Scriptures
nor the power of God. 30 For in the
resurrection they neither marry nor are
given in marriage, but are like angels
of God[b] in heaven. 31 But
concerning the resurrection of the
dead, have you not read what was
spoken to you by God, saying, 32 ‘I
am the God of Abraham, the God of
Isaac, and the God of Jacob’?[c] God
is not the God of the dead, but of the
living.” 33 And when the multitudes
 heard this, they were astonished at His
teaching.” Matt 22:27-33
• Asking questions exposes motives
• By asking a question, Christ showed
the Sadducees that they were not
really interested in the answer
• It is important to do this with
gentleness and respect, keeping a
clear conscience
• “24 But Jesus answered and said to
them, “I also will ask you one thing,
which if you tell Me, I likewise will tell
you by what authority I do these
things: 25 The baptism of John—
where was it from? From heaven or
from men?”” Matt 21:24-25
• Asking questions exposes
Contradictions
• “What do you think about the Christ?
 Whose Son is He?” Matt 22:42
• A contemporary parallel, ‘there’s no
such thing as truth
• Asking questions allows for a
conversation
• People don’t like being ‘talked at’.
They’d rather be ‘talked to’
• Asking questions makes people think
• The difference between an argument
and a discussion is that a discussion
makes people think

• A reason - Reason is the Greek word ‘logos’

from which the word logic is derived
• Christ used logic in His discourses, as He
knew it’s necessity to engage (Logs,
Pathos, Ethos)
• If the answer to why are a Christian is the
same as how you became a Christian, you
are not really giving a reason.
• Christ should be the reason why we are
Christians

• for the hope that is in you - You cannot take

the Christ out of Christian
• Any answer that does not flow from or
towards the cross is ultimately bankrupt
apologetic

• with meekness and fear - Apologetics with

meekness and fear so that our attitude does
not crowd out the gospel
• “casting down arguments and every
high thing that exalts itself against the
knowledge of God, bringing every
thought into captivity to the obedience
of Christ” 2 Cor 10:5
• “holding fast the faithful word as he has
been taught, that he may be able, by
sound doctrine, both to exhort and
convict those who contradict” Titus 1:9
• “And a servant of the Lord must not
 quarrel but be gentle to all, able to teach,
patient, in humility correcting those who are
in opposition, if God perhaps will grant them
repentance, so that they may know the
truth, and that they may come to their
senses and escape the snare of the devil,
having been taken captive by him to do his
will” 2 Timothy 2:24-26
• “Some indeed preach Christ even from
envy and strife, and some also from
goodwill: The former preach Christ from
selfish ambition, not sincerely, supposing to
add affliction to my chains; but the latter out
of love” Phil 1:16-17

• Peter Acts 2 vs Paul Acts 17 and Acts

24-26

Apologetics must be receptor-oriented.

Three examples from the New Testament
help illustrate this point.

St. Peter’s speech on the day of Pentecost,

Acts 2, is delivered to a Jewish audience.
Therefore, Peter spoke about themes that
were important to his audience and in ways
that were comprehensible to them. Peter
bases his speech on authorities that carry
weight with his audience, i.e. the Old
Testament, and uses terminology that they
could easily accept and understand, such as
his reference to Christ as ‘Lord and
Messiah’. Peter does not merely provide a
historical account of Christ, but provides an
interpretation of these events.
He demonstrates that Jesus meets the
specific expectations of Israel
He appeals to specific authorities that carry
weight with his audience
He uses language and terminology readily
accepted and understood by his audience
St. Peter does not merely assert the
historical actuality of the death and
resurrection of Jesus; he offers a specific
interpretation of them.

In Athens, Acts 17, Paul delivers a speech

to a Greek audience of philosophers. The
approach here is different in that Paul
begins with an appeal to the sense of
divinity present in his audience. The apostle
Paul relates ‘with the experiential and
cognitive world of his audience—without
compromising the integrity of the Christian
faith’ (McGrath, 64).
St. Paul appeals to the book of nature.
An appeal to God as creator thus becomes
a channel for introducing them of
redemption in Christ.
St. Paul draws upon literary authorities
with which they are familiar, to reinforce
and not to establish, like the Athenian poet
Aratus, late 4th – early 3rd century BC
‘He is not far from each one of us; 28 for in
Him we live and move and have our being,
as also some of your own poets have said,
‘For we are also His offspring.’’ Acts 17: 27-
28
St. Paul referring to the altar of the
‘Unknown God’ arguing that a god of whom
the Greeks had some implicit or intuitive
awareness is now being made known to
them by name and in full in the gospel.
Citing local authority, i.e. the poet Aratus
Exploiting a local landmark, i.e. the altar of
the ‘unknown God’
Developing a line of thought that chimed in
with some Athenians ideas about the
presence of the divine in the natural order.

In Rome, Paul gives several speeches to a

Roman audience, Acts 24-26, in a more
formal setting. In this case, Paul’s familiarity
of legal proceedings came in handy as
these speeches. Paul knew the arguments
that carried weight with his audience and
how to use them in this particular setting.
He also understood the way Christianity was
being misrepresented by his accusers.
St. Paul effectively use the rules of
engagement of the Roman legal system.
He understands the importance of
certain arguments in the eyes of those who
would make the critical decisions concerning
his future.
Knowing what really matters, he is able
to deliver the most effective defense of
himself as a believer and of the Christian
Gospel

In summary,
Address the specific audience
Identify the authorities that carry weight with
the audience
Use lines of argument that will carry weight
with the audience
Give a reason: If the answer to why are
a Christian is the same as how you
became a Christian, you are not really
giving a reason
Our attitude does not crowd out the
gospel: Meekness & Fear, Gentleness &
Patience
“So Ahab sent for all the children of
Israel, and gathered the prophets
together on Mount Carmel. 21 And Elijah
came to all the people, and said, “How
long will you falter between two opinions?
If the Lord is God, follow Him; but if Baal,
follow him.” But the people answered him
not a word. 22 Then Elijah said to the
people, “I alone am left a prophet of the
Lord; but Baal’s prophets are four
hundred and fifty men. 23 Therefore let them
give us two bulls; and let them choose one
bull for themselves, cut it in pieces, and lay it
on the wood, but put no fire under it; and I will
prepare the other bull, and lay it on the wood,
but put no fire under it. 24 Then you call on
the name of your gods, and I will call on the
name of the Lord; and the God who answers
by fire, He is God.”” 1 Kings 18:20-24

““Come now, and let us reason together,”

Says the Lord” Isa 1:18

““Present your case,” says the Lord.

“Bring forth your strong reasons,” says the
King of Jacob.” Isa 41:21
“For everyone who asks receives, and he
who seeks finds, and to him who knocks
it will be opened” Matt 7:8
John 5:31-40,
1. John the Baptist
2. The Works
3. The Father’s direct witness from
heaven, John 3:16
4. The Scriptures
“Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test
the spirits, whether they are of God; because
many false prophets have gone out into the
world. 2 By this you know the Spirit of God:
Every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ
has come in the flesh is of God, 3 and every
spirit that does not confess that[a] Jesus
Christ has come in the flesh is not of God” 1
John 4:1-3 (Docetism)
Irenaeus (c. 120-203)
Apologetics to Gnosticism
Against the Heresies
• There is only one God
• God is the creator
• Defense of the Scripture, Apostolic
teaching and tradition
 Athenagoras (c. 133-190)
Apologetics to the Roman
emperors Marcus Aurelius & his son
Commodus
Plea or Embassy for the
Christians
A plea for justice for the
Christians
An establishment of the
 principle of monotheism, citing
pagan poets and philosophers in support
of doctrines for which Christians are
condemned
A defense against the charge of
atheism, and a justification of the
Christian abstention from worshiping
Roman gods on grounds of absurdity
and indecency
Addresses the charge of
immorality directed at Christians by
explaining the Christian ideal of purity
and the sanctity of marriage, as well as
the charge of cannibalism by explaining
the high regard Christians place on
human life
Theophilus of Antioch
Apology to Autolycus
For as the soul in man is not seen,
being invisible to men, but is perceived
through the motion of the body, so God
cannot indeed be seen by human eyes,
but is beheld and perceived through His
providence and works. For, in like
manner, as any person, when he sees
a ship on the sea rigged and in sail, and
 making for the harbour, will no
doubt infer that there is a pilot in her who is
steering her; so we must perceive that God
is the governor [pilot] of the whole universe,
though He be not visible to the eyes of the
flesh, since He is incomprehensible. For if a
man cannot look upon the sun, though it be
a very small heavenly body, on account of
its exceeding heat and power, how shall not
a mortal man be much more unable to face
the glory of God, which is unutterable? For
as the pomegranate, with the rind containing
it, has within it many cells and
compartments which are separated by
tissues, and has also many seeds dwelling
in it, so the whole creation is contained by
the spirit of God, and the containing spirit is
along with the creation contained by the
hand of God. As, therefore, the seed of the
pomegranate, dwelling inside, cannot see
what is outside the rind, itself being within;
so neither can man, who along with the
whole creation is enclosed by the hand of
God, behold God. Then again, an earthly
king is believed to exist, even though he be
not seen by all; for he is recognised by his
laws and ordinances, and authorities, and
forces, and statues; and are you unwilling
that God should be recognised by His works
and mighty deeds? (1.5)
And of the gods of former times, if indeed
they were begotten, the generation was
sufficiently prolific. But now, where is their
generation exhibited? For if of old they
begot and were begotten, it is plain that
even to the present time there should be
gods begotten and born; or at least if it be
not so, such a race will be reckoned
impotent. For either they have grown old,
and on that account no longer beget, or they
have died out and no longer exist. For if the
gods were begotten, they ought to be born
even until now, as men, too, are born; yea,
much more numerous should the gods be
than men, as the Sibyl says:—
"For if the gods beget, and each remains
Immortal, then the race of gods must be
More numerous than mortals, and the
throng
So great that mortals find no room to
stand." (2.3)

But men of God carrying in them a holy spirit

and becoming prophets, being inspired and
made wise by God, became God-taught,
and holy, and righteous. Wherefore they
were also deemed worthy of receiving this
reward, that they should become
instruments of God, and contain the wisdom
that is from Him, through which wisdom they
uttered both what regarded the creation of
the world and all other things. For they
predicted also pestilences, and famines, and
wars. And there was not one or two, but
many, at various times and seasons among
the Hebrews; and also among the Greeks
there was the Sibyl; and they all have
spoken things consistent and harmonious
with each other, both what happened before
them and what happened in their own time,
and what things are now being fulfilled in our
own day: wherefore we are persuaded also
concerning the future things that they will fall
out, as also the first have been
accomplished. (2.9)
For man, being below, begins to build from
the earth, and cannot in order make the
roof, unless he has first laid the foundation.
But the power of God is shown in this, that,
first of all, He creates out of nothing,
according to His will, the things that are
made. (2.13)
 Tertullian (c. 155-235)
Became Christian in 185, but
became involved in Montanism later
in his life (a prophetic movement
that called for a reliance on the
spontaneity of the Holy Spirit,
believing in new revelations and
ecstasies)
The Prescription against
 Heretics
God’s purpose in allowing heretics
is to test and prove the faith
Heretics add and subtract from
the Scriptures and have wrong
interpretations
Dialogue with them can lead
nowhere
Apology
Answers the charge of atheism
Defends the existence and nature
of God
Defends the authenticity of the
Scriptures
Against Marcion (5 Books)
God of the NT is the same as the
God the OT
Contradictions between the
 testament unfounded
He argues against Docetism
 Origen (c. 185-253)
Against Celsus, 8 Books
(refutation of the True Doctrine)
Origen provides a point by
point refutation
Christianity borrowed from
Judaism and ancient Egyptian
beliefs
If Jesus was God, how can
 He go into hiding when humans
turned against Him, or how could He
allow Himself to be betrayed or killed?
Christ never won a convert.
Those who followed Him were
untrustworthy
The miracles of Christ were due to
sorcery
There is little evidence for the
Resurrection
Conflict between the Jews & the
Christians over the coming of the savior
How can God become man, ie.
Go from the best to the worst
 St. Augustine (c. 354-430)
The City of God, 22 Books
An apologetic defending
Christianity against Paganism. He
makes the following points,
Books 1-5, against the
worship of pagan gods for the sake
of temporal advantages
The calamities of the world
 are not attributed to the
Christian religion (book 1)
The fall of Rome was in fact
due to the corruption of manners, and
the vices of the soul (Books 2 & 3)
The extent and long duration
of the Roman is due to the will and
power of God, not to the Pagan gods
(Book 4)
The strength and dominion of
the Roman empire is due to the will and
power of God, not to coincidence,
chance or to the stars (Book 5)
Books 6-10, against the worship
of pagan gods for the sake of eternal life
Refutation of Marcus Varro’s
three kinds of theologies and their gods:
civil (to which the philosophers being the
 theologians), natural (to which
the people are the theologians) and
mythical (to which the poets are the
theologians)
Concerning Faith of Things Not
Seen
“But they are much deceived, who
think that we believe in Christ without
any proofs concerning Christ.” 5
Ecclesiastical History (10 Books)
Written by Eusebius of Caesarea in the
4th century
1. the successions of bishops in the
principal sees;
2. the history of Christian teachers;
3. the history of heresies;
4. the history of the Jews;
5. the relations to the heathen;
6. the martyrdoms.
Of Illustrious Men,
Written in Bethlehem in 392AD by St. Jerome
Short biographical and literary notes on 135
Christian authors
 Anselm (c. 1033-1109)
Employed philosophy in
addition to theology to show the
rationality of the Christian faith
“Nor do I seek to understand
so that I can believe, but rather I
believe so that I can understand. For
I believe this too, that "unless I
believe I shall not understand" (Isa.
 7:9).” Proslogium, Ch. 1
“that nothing at all in the
meditation would be argued on
Scriptural authority, but that in
unembellished style and by
unsophisticated arguments and with
uncomplicated disputation rational
necessity would tersely prove to be the
case, and truth's clarity would openly
manifest to be the case, whatever the
conclusion resulting from the distinct
inquiries would declare.” Monologium,
Preface
Proslogium, the ontological
argument
Monologium, a form of the
cosmological argument
Why God was a Man, the
 reasonableness of the belief in the
deity of Jesus Christ, and the necessity
of His crucifixion for the atonement of
humanity
 Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274)
Weaved Aristotelian philosophy
with, but without compromising,
revealed Christian truths, as a
response to Averroes (‫)ابن رشد‬, a
Spanish-arab Aristotelian
philosopher
“it is difficult because some of
them, such as the Mohammedans
 and the pagans, do not agree with
us in accepting the authority of any
Scripture, by which they may be
convinced of their error. Thus, against
the Jews we are able to argue by means
of the Old Testament, while against
heretics we are able to argue by means
of the New Testament. But the Muslims
and the pagans accept neither the one
nor the other. We must, therefore, have
recourse to the natural reason, to which
all men are forced to give their assent.
However, it is true, in divine matters the
natural reason has its failings.” Summa
contra gentiles, 1.2.3
“Some truths about God exceed
all the ability of the human reason. Such
is the truth that God is triune. But there
 are some truths which the natural
reason also is able to reach. Such are
that God exists, that He is one, and the
like. In fact, such truths about God have
been proved demonstratively by the
philosophers, guided by the light of the
natural reason.” Summa contra gentiles,
1.3.2
In Summa Theologica, he gives the
following 5 logical arguments for the
existence of God,
From motion to an Unmoved
Mover
From effect to a First Cause
From contingent being to a
Necessary Being
From degrees of perfection to a
Most Perfect Being
From design to Designer
• Sawirus ibn al-muqaffa (10th cent.),
Bishop, First major coptic theologian to
write in Arabic. Ex: al-bayan al-
mukhtasar fi al-iman, Concise
Exposition of the Faith. He also wrote
the History of the Patriarchs of the
Coptic Church of Alexandria
• Abd al-Masih Al-Isra’ili (10th cent.)
Apologist, A Jewish convert to
Christianity. He wrote a compendium of
 arguments for the truth of the Christian faith,
in particular, the Incarnation, the Trinity and
the Crucifixion, writing in Arabic
• Al-As’ad ibn al-assal (13th Cent.) Biblical
scholar, a new Arabic translation of the
Gospels from the available versions in use
by the different Christian Communities of his
day
• Al-Safi Ibn al-assal (13th Cent.), Canonist,
famous for his collection of canons called the
Nomocanon or al-Majmu Al-Safawi
• Bishop Bulus Al-Bushi (mid 13th Cent.) Kitab
al-I’tiraf, coauthored with Da’ud ibn Laqlaq
and contributions by al-as’ad ibn al’assl.
He’s also famous his treatise on the Trinity,
the Incarnation and the Truth of Christianity,
logically structured, written in Arabic
• Ibn Kabar, Shams Al-ri’asa abu al-Barakat
Ibn Kabar (14th Cent.), Priest, Scholar
• Among many of his writings in Arabic,
 He is known for Al-Sullam al-Kabir, an
early Coptic lexicography & Misbah al-
zulma wa-idah al-khidma, the lamp of
the darkness and the Illumination of the
service: Dogmatic and canonical,
practical and Liturgical

• Ibrahim al-Gawhari (?-d.1795) served as

finance minister restoring many monasteries
and churches, and even building new ones
• Patriarch Cyril IV (1854-1861), the Reformer,
established modern Coptic schools, and
brought a printing press from Europe
• Habib Girgis (1876-1951), Reformer and
Educators, founded the Sunday School
system to teach Coptic children the Christian
faith
Protestants struggling with Catholic
rationalism, Scholasticism, leaned more
towards subjective readings of Scriptures
guided not by the ecumenical intellect of
the Church, but by the principle of the
freedom of investigation and
interpretation of the Bible, which led to
Protestant rationalism, leaning more
towards the arbitrariness of individual
intellects.
Concerning Apologetics, the reformation
forced the defence of general, more important
truths to retreat to a secondary importance
before the defense of private religious
convictions.
Deism is a religious, philosophical
teaching denying Revelation and Divine
Providence.
The progenitor of deism was the
Englishman, Lord Cherberry, 17th
In the 18th century, Deism was in the form
of a recognition of God as Creator and a
denial of God as Divine Providence.
German Philosopher Immanuel Kant
gave a critique of all proofs of the
existence of God which were then known
He proposed his own proof, a special
version of the ethical proof
The idealism of German Philosophy
allowed for the spirit of liberalism and
rationalism to penetrate from philosophy
to theology, undermining Scripture and
the Church as whole.
Objections were raised against the
godliness of the origin of Christianity; the
human origin of the Holy Scripture was
asserted.
The miracles, prophecies and, in general,
everything supernatural began to be denied.
The Holy Scripture began to be studied just
like any other ancient literature.
The fruit of centuries of work of Church
Fathers and Ecumenical Councils, as well as
Holy Tradition, began to be ignored

The philosophical system of Hegel had a

powerful and long lasting influence on
Western Apologetics
Hegel gave primary importance to the
religious-philosophical outlook which
concerned itself with a scientific basis for
religious truths, and sharply objected to those
theories which denied the benefits and even
the possibility of the application of a scientific
method to theology.

The result:
God Himself was transformed into a mere
idea, and Christian theism was turned into
deism and pantheism

In the 20th century, the defense of particular

truths and the refutation of many particular
theories was chiefly the work of Catholic
theologians, while the general defense of
Christian truths became mainly the work of
Protestant theologians.
Classical: First arguing for theism and
then giving Christian evidences, through
an appeal to shared principles of
evidence and logic
Norman Geisler

Evidential: a method that the most

significant historical events in Christianity,
in particular the Resurrection, are matters
that can be established through proper
historical argumentation, even apart from any
prior arguments for the existence of God. It is
a one step argument for Christianity
John Warwick Montgomery, Gary Habermas

Presuppositional: claims that Christians

should presuppose the entire Christian
worldview and reason from this conviction with
unbelievers. It claims that unless a person
presupposes Christianity, he or she cannot
make any sense of the world morally, logically
or scientifically, since Christianity alone
supplies the required conditions for these
areas of life to be intelligible.
Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Carl Henry

Reformed Epistemology: argue that secular

thought has placed an undue burden on
Christian apologetics, demanding that
Christians offer proof for their beliefs on pain
of being irrational. Classical epistemology
holds that a belief only becomes knowledge if
that belief is true by either being self-evident,
necessarily true, evident to the senses OR the
belief can be supported by what is self-
evident, necessarily true, evident to the
senses. Critiques of classical epistemology is
that many beliefs do not fall within these
categories and that the system is self-
referential
Alvin Plantinga, Nicholas Wolterstorff, William
Alston

Cumulative: The cumulative case method is

an informal argument that pieces together
several lines or types of data into a sort of
hypothesis or theory that comprehensively
explains that data and does so better that any
alternative hypothesis.
Richard Swinburne, William Lane Craig, E.J.
Carnell