Chemical Compounds

Contents

❑ Types of Chemical Compounds and Their

Formulas
❑ The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
❑ Composition of Chemical Compounds
❑ Combustion Analysis
❑ Oxidation States

2
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas
Two fundamental types of chemical bonds that hold
together the atoms in a compound

➢ Covalent bond: Covalent bond involves a

sharing of e-s between atoms, giving rise to
molecular compounds
➢ Ionic bond: Ionic bond involves a transfer of e-s
from one atom to another, giving rise to ionic
compounds

3
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas
• A molecular compound is made up of discrete units called
molecules
• Molecules consist of a small number of nonmetal atoms held
together by covalent bonds
• Molecular compounds are represented by chemical formulas
and each chemical formula indicates:
➢ The elements present
➢ The relative number of atoms of each element

4
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas
• An Empirical Formula: simplest formula of a compound –
shows the type of atoms and their relative numbers
➢ subscripts are reduced to their simplest whole-number ratio

• Molecular Formula: based on an actual molecule of a

compound
➢ In some cases the empirical and molecular are identical
➢ Generally, molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical
formula
Empirical formula Molecular formula
Formaldehyde CH2O CH2O
Acetic acid CH2O C2H4O2
Glucose CH2O C6H12O6
5
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas
• Structural Formula: shows the order of atoms are bonded
together in a molecule and types of bonds
• Ball and stick model: represents 3D structure of the molecules
by a ball and stick model
➢ Atoms are represented by balls and the bonds by sticks

• Space-filling model: shows that atoms in a molecule occupy

space and that they are in actual contact with one another
➢ atoms represented by spheres whose radii are proportional
to radii of atoms
➢ center-to-center distances are proportional to the distances
between the atomic nuclei, all in the same scale

6
Chemical Compounds and Formulas
Different formulas and models of acetic acid

7
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas
• Different colors are used to distinguish the various types of
atoms in ball-and-stick and space-filling models
• Sizes of spheres are different to represent their atomic sizes

8
 Chemical Compounds and Formulas

H2O2 CH3CH2Cl P4O10

CH3CH(OH)CH3 HCO2H

9
Chemical Compounds and Formulas – Ionic Compounds
• Chemical combination of a metal and a nonmetal usually
results in an ionic compound
• An ionic compound is made up of (+) and (-) ions joined
together by electrostatic forces of attraction
• The atoms of metallic elements tend to lose e- when they
combine with nonmetal atoms which tend to gain e-
• As the result of this e- transfer, the metal atom becomes a (+)
ion, and the nonmetal becomes (-) ion
• As a result of this electron transfer, the metal atom becomes a
positive ion, or cation
• The nonmetal atom becomes a negative ion, or anion
10
Chemical Compounds and Formulas – Ionic Compounds

The formula unit of an ionic compound is the smallest

electrically neutral collection of ions

11
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
• We can determine the formula mass of a compound by using
its chemical formula
• Formula mass: the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass unit
• Molecular mass: the mass of a molecule in atomic mass unit
• Molecular mass of H2O = 2(atomic mass H)+(atomic mass O)
= 2(1.008 u) +(15.999 u) = 18.015 u

• Formula mass of MgCl2 = (atomic mass Mg)+2(atomic mass Cl)

= 24.305 u + 2(35.453 u) = 95.211 u

12
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
• A mole was defined as an amount of substance having the
same number of elementary entities as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12
• We can apply the concept of a mole to any quantity that we
can represent by a symbol or formula
• The molar mass is the mass of one mole of compound
➢ one mole of molecules of a molecular compound
➢ one mole of formula units of an ionic compound

• Molecular mass and molar mass sound similar and are

related, they are not the same – units are not same

13
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
• Expressions as below provide several different types of
conversion factors to be applied in a variety problems

• Table also summarizes some common conversion factors

14
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
The volatile liquid ethyl mercaptan, C2H6S, is one of the most
odoriferous substances known. It is sometimes added to natural gas
to make gas leaks detectable. How many C2H6S molecules are
contained in a sample? The density of liquid C2H6S is 0.84 g/mL.

15
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
The volatile liquid ethyl mercaptan, C2H6S, is one of the most
odoriferous substances known. It is sometimes added to natural gas
to make gas leaks detectable. How many C2H6S molecules are
contained in a sample? The density of liquid C2H6S is 0.84 g/mL.
Solve:
• Conversion pathway is

16
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
Mole of an Element
• The atoms of some elements joined together to form molecules
• Bulk samples of them composed of collections of molecules
• Molecular formulas of elements to become familiar with are

• For these elements, we speak of an atomic mass or a molecular

mass, and molar mass can be expressed in two ways
• For example, hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.008 u and a
molecular mass of 2.016 u
• On the other hand, molar mass of hydrogen is expressed as
1.008 g H/mol H or 2.016 g H2/mol H2
17
The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds

S8 P4

18
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
• A chemical formula conveys considerable quantitative
information about a compound and its constituent elements
• For example, empirical and molecular formulas for halothane is
C2HBrClF3
• The molecular formula indicates that per mole of halothane there
are two moles of C atoms, one mole each of H, Br, and Cl atoms,
and three moles of F atoms
• Hence, conversion factors to answer such questions as, “How many
C atoms are present per mole of halothane?” could be written

19
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
How many moles of F atoms are in a 75.0 mL sample of
halothane, C2HBrClF3? (d = 1.871 g/mL)

20
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
How many moles of F atoms are in a 75.0 mL sample of
halothane, C2HBrClF3? (d = 1.871 g/mL)
Solve:
• Conversion path is

21
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Calculating Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula
1. Determine the molar mass of the compound.
2. Determine the contribution of the given element to the molar
mass
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the mass
of the compound as a whole
4. Multiply this ratio by 100% to obtain the mass percent of the
element

22
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3?

23
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3?
Solve:
The molar mass of halothane is 197.38 g/mol. The percent masses are

24
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Establishing Formulas from the Experimentally Determined
Percent Composition of Compounds
• At times, a chemist isolates a chemical compound—say, from an
exotic tropical plant—and has no idea what it is
• A report from an analytical laboratory on the percent composition
of the compound yields data needed to determine its formula
• Percent composition establishes the relative proportions of the
elements in a compound on a mass basis
• A chemical formula requires these proportions to be on a mole
basis, that is, in terms of numbers of atoms

25
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against household ants
and roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C, 9.63% H, and 27.79% O. Its
experimentally determined molecular mass is 230 u. What are the
empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?

26
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against household ants
and roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C, 9.63% H, and 27.79% O. Its
experimentally determined molecular mass is 230 u. What are the
empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
Solve:
Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100.00 g sample
62.58 g C, 9.63 g H, 27.79 g O
Step 2: Convert each of these masses to an amount in moles
1 mol
? mol C = 62.58 g x = 5.210 mol C
12.011 g
1 mol
? mol C = 9.63 g x = 9.55 mol H
1.008 g
1 mol
? mol O = 27.79 g x = 1. 737 mol H
15.999 g
27
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against household ants
and roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C, 9.63% H, and 27.79% O. Its
experimentally determined molecular mass is 230 u. What are the
empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
Solve:
Step 3: Write a tentative formula based on these numbers of moles
C5.20H9.55O1.737
Step 4: Divide each of the subscripts of the tentative formula by the
smallest subscript (1.737), and round off any subscripts that differ
only slightly from whole numbers; that is, round 2.99 to 3

C 5.20 H 9.55 O1.737 = C2.99 H5.49 O

1.737 1.737 1.737

C 5.20 H 9.55 O1.737 = C3 H5.49 O

1.737 1.737 1.737 28
 Composition of Chemical Compounds
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against household ants
and roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C, 9.63% H, and 27.79% O. Its
experimentally determined molecular mass is 230 u. What are the
empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
Solve:
Step 5: Multiply all subscripts by a small whole number to make them
integral (here by the factor 2), and write the empirical formula
C3 x 2 H5.49 x 2 O1 x 2 = C6 H10.98 O2
Empirical Formula: C6 H11 O2
• To determine molecular formula, calculate empirical formula mass
and compare with determine molecular mass
Empirical formula mass: [(6 x 12.02) + (11 x 1) + (2 x 16)]u = 115 u
Molecular Formula: C12 H22 O4
29
 Combustion Analysis
• An experimental method for establishing an empirical formula
for compounds that are easily burned is combustion analysis
• Such compounds usually contain carbon and hydrogen with
oxygen, nitrogen, and a few other elements
• In combustion analysis, a weighed sample of a compound is
burned in a stream of oxygen gas
• The water vapor and carbon dioxide gas produced in the
combustion are absorbed by appropriate substances
• The increases in mass of these absorbers correspond to the
masses of water and carbon dioxide

30
Combustion Analysis

31
 Combustion Analysis
Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a
0.2000 g sample of this carbon–hydrogen–oxygen compound yields
0.2998 g CO2 and 0.0819 g H2O. What are the percent composition and
the empirical formula of vitamin C?

32
 Combustion Analysis
Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a
0.2000 g sample of this carbon–hydrogen–oxygen compound yields
0.2998 g CO2 and 0.0819 g H2O. What are the percent composition and
the empirical formula of vitamin C?
Solve:
First, determine the mass of C in 0.2988 g CO2 by converting to mol C,

and then to g C

Do the same thing for H2O

33
 Combustion Analysis
Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a
0.2000 g sample of this carbon–hydrogen–oxygen compound yields
0.2998 g CO2 and 0.0819 g H2O. What are the percent composition and
the empirical formula of vitamin C?
Solve:
Obtain the mass of O in the 0.2000 g sample as the difference

Multiply the mass fractions by 100% to obtain mass percentages

34
 Combustion Analysis
Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a
0.2000 g sample of this carbon–hydrogen–oxygen compound yields
0.2998 g CO2 and 0.0819 g H2O. What are the percent composition and
the empirical formula of vitamin C?
Solve:
Determine also the number of moles for O

Write a tentative empirical formula, then divide by smallest number

=

Finally, multiply all the subscripts by 3 to obtain the empirical formula

35
 Oxidation State
• Oxidation state (oxidation number) is related to the number
of e-’s an atom loses, gains, or use in joining with other atoms
• The oxidation state (O.S.) can be described as “a sometimes
fictional charge”
• With monatomic ions, O.S. and charge are the same thing.
• For polyatomic ions and molecules, O.S. is fictional but equal
to what the charge would be if compounds were entirely ionic
• For example, in NaCl compound, an Na atom, a metal, loses
one electron to a Cl atom, a nonmetal
➢ The compound consists of Na+ and Cl- ions
➢ Na+ is in a +1 oxidation state and Cl- is in a -1 state
36
 Oxidation State
• Following seven rules applied to determine oxidation states
1. The oxidation state of an individual atom in a free element
(uncombined with other elements) is 0 [Examples: The O.S. of an
isolated Cl atom is 0]
2. The sum of the O.S. of all the atoms in
a) neutral species, such as isolated atoms, molecules, and formula
units, is 0 [Examples: The sum of the O.S. of all the atoms in
CH3OH and of all the ions in MgCl2 is 0]
b) an ion is equal to the charge on the ion [Examples: The O.S. of
Fe in Fe+3 is +3, for MnO4-1 the sum of O.S. is -1]
3. In their compounds, the group 1 metals have an O.S. of +1 and the
group 2 metals have an O.S. of +2 [Examples: The O.S. of K is +1 in
KCl and K2CO3; the O.S. of Mg is +2 in MgBr2 and Mg(NO3)2
37
 Oxidation State
• Following seven rules applied to determine oxidation states
4. In its compounds, the O.S. of fluorine is -1 [Examples: The O.S. of F
is -1 in HF, ClF3 and SF6]
5. In its compounds, hydrogen usually has an O.S. of +1 [Examples:
The O.S. of H is +1 in HI, H2S, NH3 and CH4]
6. In its compounds, oxygen usually has an O.S. of -2 [Examples: The
O.S. of O is -2 in H2O, CO2 and KMnO4]
7. In binary (two-element) compounds with metals, group 17
elements have an O.S. of -1, group 16 elements, -2 and group 15
elements, -3 [Examples: The O.S. of Br is -1 in the MgBr2; O.S. of S is
-2 in Li2S and the O.S. of N is -3 in Li3N.]

38
 Oxidation State
4. In its compounds, the O.S. of fluorine is -1 [Examples: The O.S. of F
is -1 in HF, ClF3 and SF6]
5. In its compounds, hydrogen usually has an O.S. of +1 [Examples:
The O.S. of H is +1 in HI, H2S, NH3 and CH4]
6. In its compounds, oxygen usually has an O.S. of -2 [Examples: The
O.S. of O is -2 in H2O, CO2 and KMnO4]
7. In binary (two-element) compounds with metals, group 17
elements have an O.S. of -1, group 16 elements, -2 and group 15
elements, -3 [Examples: The O.S. of Br is -1 in the MgBr2; O.S. of S is
-2 in Li2S and the O.S. of N is -3 in Li3N.]
The rules must be applied in the numerical order listed, and whenever
two rules appear to contradict each other (which they sometimes will),
follow the lower numbered rule
39
 Oxidation State
• MgBr → the oxidation state of Br = -1
• Li2S→ the oxidation state of S = -2
• Li3N→ the oxidation state of N = -3
• P4 → the oxidation state of P = 0
• Al2O3 → total o.s = 0 (rule 2), o.s. of O = -2 (rule 6) and o.s of
Al= +3
• MnO4- → total o.s = -1, o.s of O = -2 and o.s. of Mn= +7
• NaH→ total o.s = 0, o.s of Na = +1 (rule 3), and o.s. of H = -1
• H2O2 → total o.s = 0, o.s of H = +1 (rule 5), and o.s. of O = -1
• Fe3O4 → total o.s = 0, o.s of O = -2, and o.s. of Fe = 8/3

40
Chemical Reactions

41
 Contents
❑ Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
❑ Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
❑ Chemical Reactions in Solution
❑ Determining the Limiting Reactant
❑ Other Topics in Reaction Stoichiometry

42
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
• A chemical reaction is a process in which one set of
substances, called reactants, is converted to a new set of
substances, called product
• In other words, a chemical reaction is the process by which a
chemical change occurs
• Evidence needed to say that a reaction has occurred
• These evidences;
➢ A color change
➢ Formation of a solid
➢ Evolution of a gas
➢ Evolution or absorption of heat

43
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
• A chemical reaction is a process in which one set of
substances, called reactants, is converted to a new set of
substances, called product
• In other words, a chemical reaction is the process by which a
chemical change occurs
• Evidence needed to say that a reaction has occurred
• These evidences;
➢ A color change
➢ Formation of a solid
➢ Evolution of a gas
➢ Evolution or absorption of heat

44
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
• Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations
• In a chemical eq. formulas for the reactants are written on the
left side and for products are written on the right
• The two sides of the equation are joined by an arrow ( )
• Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any
reaction, a chemical eq. must have an equal number of atoms
on each side of the arrow – balanced equation
• The coefficients required to balance a chemical eq. are called
stoichiometric coefficients
• An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the
coefficients of formulas
45
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
In balancing chemical eq., keep the following points in mind:
1. An eq. can be balanced only by adjusting the coefficients of
formulas
NO + O2 → NO2
2NO + O2 → 2NO2

2. The eq. must include only the reactants and products.

NO + O2 → NO2 + O (incorrect)

3. Never balance an eq. by changing the formula.

NO + O2 → NO3 (incorrect)

46
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
Here are some useful strategies for balancing equations

• If an element occurs in only one compound on each side of

the eq., try balancing this element first
• When one of the reactants or products exists as the free
element, balance this element last
• In some rxns, certain group of atoms remains unchanged
• It is permissible to use fractional as well as integral numbers
as coefficients

47
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
Liquid triethylene glycol, C6H14O4, is used as a solvent for vinyl and
polyurethane plastics. Write a balanced equation for the complete
combustion of this compound.

48
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
Liquid triethylene glycol, C6H14O4, is used as a solvent for vinyl and
polyurethane plastics. Write a balanced equation for the complete
combustion of this compound.
Solve:
Identify reactants and products, write unbalanced expression and
start by balancing C and H

Balance O at last

Multiply by 2 to get rid of fractional numbers

49
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equation
States of Matter
• In chemical equations, the states of reactants and products can be
indicated by symbols in parentheses

Example
Reaction Conditions
• The reaction conditions are often written above or below the
arrow in an equation

50
 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
• The term stoichiometry means, literally, to measure the
elements
• It involves quantitative relationships involving atomic and
formula masses, chemical formulas, and chemical equations
• The coefficients in the chemical equation

• mean that

• Can be used as a stoichiometric factor that relates the

amounts, on a mole basis, of any two substances involved in a
chemical reaction; thus a stoichiometric factor is a mole ratio

51
 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
Reaction stoichiometry problems range from relatively simple to
complex, yet all can be solved by the same general strategy

52
 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
How many moles of CO2 are produced in the combustion of 2.72 mol
of triethylene glycol, C6H14O4 , in an excess of O2?

53
 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
How many moles of CO2 are produced in the combustion of 2.72 mol
of triethylene glycol, C6H14O4 , in an excess of O2?
Solve:
• The first step in a stoichiometric calculation is to write a balanced
equation for the reaction

• Thus, 12 mol CO2 are produced for every 2 mol C6H14O4 burned
• Thus, the ratio 12 mol CO2 /2 mol C6H14O4 converts from mol
C6H14O4 to mol CO2

54
 Chemical Reactions in Solution
• Most reactions in the general chemistry laboratory are carried
out in solution
• One component of a solution, called the solvent, determines
whether the solution exists as a solid, liquid, or gas
• The other components of a solution, called solutes, are
dissolved in the solvent
• Here, we will only discuss the cases where solvent is water
and the solution is an aqueous solution
• The term aqueous does not convey any information, however,
about the relative proportions of solvent and solute
• For this purpose, the property called molarity is commonly
used

55
 Chemical Reactions in Solution
• The composition of a solution may be specified by giving its
molar concentration (or molarity) defined as:
amount of solute (in moles) 𝑛
molarity = 𝑐=
volume of solution (in liters) 𝑉

• Molarity has units of mol/L or molar denoted by M

• For example, if 0.110 mol urea is present in 250.0 mL of
solution, the solution concentration, or molarity, is
0.110 mol
𝑐= = 0.440 M CO NH2 2
0.2500 L

56
 Chemical Reactions in Solution
Solution Dilution
• Fairly concentrated solutions, so-called stock solutions, are
generally used to prepare more dilute solutions

• During dilution, the amount of solute remains constant

𝑐𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑉𝑓

• i subscripts used for initial solution, f used for final solution

57
 Determining the Limiting Reactant
• When all the reactants are completely and simultaneously
consumed in a chemical reaction, the reactants are said to be in
stoichiometric proportions
• Not always all the reactants are consumed simultaneously
• In such cases, the reactant that is completely consumed—the
limiting reactant—determines the quantities of products formed

58
 Other Practical Matters in Reaction Stoichiometry
Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and Percent Yield
• The theoretical yield of a reaction is the calculated quantity of
product expected from given quantities of reactants
• The quantity of product actually produced is called the actual yield
• The percent yield is defined as
actual yield
percent yield = x 100 %
theoretical yield

• In many reactions, the actual yield almost equals the theoretical

yield and the rxns are said to be quantitative
• In some rxns the actual yield is less than the theoretical yield
• This could be due to impurities, side reactions, by-products or
even due to reverse reactions

59
 Example Questions
What mass of CO2 is formed in the reaction of 4.16 g triethylene
glycol, C6H14O4 with an excess of O2?
Solve:
Conversion pathway g C6H14O4 mol C6H14O4 mol CO2 g CO2

60
 Example Questions
What mass of O2 is consumed in the complete combustion of 6.86 g of
triethylene glycol C6H14O4?
Solve:
Conversion pathway g C6H14O4 mol C6H14O4 mol O2 g O2

Or in a single step

61
 Example Questions
An alloy used in aircraft structures consist of 93.7% Al, and 6.3% Cu by
mass. The alloy has a density of 2.85 g/cm3. A 0.691 cm3 piece of the
alloy reacts with an excess of HCl(aq). If we assume that all the Al but
none of the Cu reacts with HCl(aq), what is the mass of H2 obtained?

Chemical equation
2 Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2 (g)

62
 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
An alloy used in aircraft structures consist of 93.7% Al, and 6.3% Cu by
mass. The alloy has a density of 2.85 g/cm3. A 0.691 cm3 piece of the
alloy reacts with an excess of HCl(aq). If we assume that all the Al but
none of the Cu reacts with HCl(aq), what is the mass of H2 obtained?
Solve:
Conversion pathway

A stepwise approach can be used but better way is to use a single step

63
 Example Questions
A hydrochloric acid solution consists of 28.0% HCl by mass and has a
density of What volume of this solution is required to react
completely with 1.87 g Al in reaction?
Solve:
Conversion pathway

A stepwise approach can be used but better way is to use a single step

64
 Example Questions
A solution is prepared by dissolving 25.0 mL ethanol, CH3CH2OH (d =
0.789 g/mL) in enough water to produce 250.0 mL solution. What is
the molarity of ethanol in the solution?
Solve:
First calculate how many moles of ethanol are in a 25.0 mL sample of
pure ethanol and then determine the molarity:

As the final volume is known, we can determine molarity as

65
 Example Questions
What mass of K2CrO4 is needed to prepare exactly 0.2500 L of a 0.250
M K2CrO4 solution in water?
Solve:
The conversion pathway is

66
 Example Questions
A particular analytical chemistry procedure requires 0.0100 M K2CrO4.
What volume of 0.250 M K2CrO4 must be diluted with water to
prepare 0.2500 L of 0.0100 M K2CrO4?
Solve:
Recall that for dilution, number of moles remain constant
𝑐𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑉𝑓

Here, the unknown is Vi, so solve for that

𝑐𝑓
𝑉𝑖 = x 𝑉𝑓
𝑐𝑖
0.0100 M
𝑉𝑖 = x 0.2500 L
0.250 M
𝑉𝑖 = 0.0100 L = 10.0 mL

67
 Example Questions
A 25.00 mL pipetful of 0.250 M K2CrO4 is added to an excess of
AgNO3(aq) What mass of AgCrO4 will precipitate from the solution?

Solve:
Following pathway is better to use

68
 Example Questions
What is the maximum mass of PCl3 that can be obtained from 125 g P4
and 323 g Cl2?

Solve:

69
 Example Questions
What is the maximum mass of PCl3 that can be obtained from 125 g P4
and 323 g Cl2?

Solve:
Determine the mole numbers from mass and molar mass

There are less than 6 moles Cl2 per P4, indicating that Cl2 is limiting
Using this info, calculate the mass of product as below

70
 Example Questions
What mass of P4 remains following the reaction in previous example?
Solve:
Calculate the mass of P4 used when all of Cl2 was consumed

We know that initially there was 125 g of P4

So the remaining amount is

71
 Example Questions
Billions of kilograms of urea, CO(NH2)2 are produced annually for use
as a fertilizer. The reaction used is given below. The typical starting
reaction mixture has a mole ratio of 3 to 1. If 47.7 g urea forms per
mole of CO2 that reacts, what is the (a) theoretical yield; (b) actual
yield; and (c) percent yield?

Solve:

72
 Example Questions
When heated with sulfuric or phosphoric acid, cyclohexanol, C6H11OH
is converted to cyclohexene, C6H10? The balanced chemical equation
for the reaction is shown below. If the percent yield is 83%, what mass
of cyclohexanol must we use to obtain 25 g of cyclohexene?

Solve:
First determine the theoretical yield

Then, the mass of C6H11OH can be by following conversion

73