STATIC ELECTRICITY (STATIC CHARGE).

An object can store electric charges that cannot flow. These charges are called static charges (Static electricity).
For example, when you wear or take off a sweater in very cold and dry season, you can get small amount of electric
shock. It is caused as a result of the sweater being charged. Another example of charge, when you rub a pen by a
tissue or your hair, it is also charged. Then, if some small pieces of tissue are placed near the pen, they are
attracted.

EXISTENCE OF STATIC CHARGES.

An electrically neutral atom has the same number of protons as electrons. We say that it has a net charge (total
charge) of zero. Since the number of protons cannot change, an atom can only gain a charge by gaining or losing
electrons. An atom is therefore;
 Positively charged if it loses some electrons.
 Negatively charged if it gains some electrons.

PROPERTIES OF STATIC CHARGES.

1. Static charges obey the law of electrostatic forces.
Its states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

2. Sparks
The force of attraction between two oppositely-charged objects may be so great that it may cause some
electrons to jump from one object to another without them touching. Each electron heats the air around it has it
jumps, with enough heat the air heats up to a point where it glows. This happens very quickly so all we can see
is a very brief spark.
3. Conservation of charge
Charge cannot be destroyed, only transferred from one material to another.
USES OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
a) Flue-ash precipitation.
An electrostatic precipitator removes the dust and ash that goes up the chimneys of coal-burning power
stations. It consists of a charged fine wire mesh which gives a similar charge to the rising particles of ash.
They are then attracted to plates with an opposite charge. These are tapped from time to time to remove the
ash, which falls to the bottom of the chimney from where it is removed.

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 b) Electrostatic induction is used in photocopying machines.
c) Inkjet printers.
In an inkjet printer tiny drops of ink are forced out of a fine nozzle, charged electrostatically and then passed
between two oppositely charged plates; a negatively charged drop will be attracted towards the positive plate
causing it to be deflected as shown below. The amount of deflection and hence the position at which the ink
strikes the page is determined by the charge on the drop and the p.d. between the plates; both of these are
controlled by a computer. About 100 precisely located drops are needed to make up an individual letter but
very fast printing speeds can be achieved.

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING AN OBJECT.

There is an equal number of electrons and protons in neutral objects. If something changes this balance, we say that
it has been charged. If the balance is restored again, we say that it has been discharged. For example, if we rub a
cloth with a plastic bag, electrons will be transferred from the cloth to the plastic bag. But if we rub a pair of
sunglasses with the cloth, electrons will be transferred from the sunglasses to the cloth.

CHARGING METHODS.
i) Friction method - objects can be charged by rubbing them against some other objects or materials. The
friction created between the two surfaces allows electrons to jump from one surface to the other.

ii) Induction method - Electrostatic induction is a process whereby a conductor becomes charged when a
charged body is brought near it but not in direct contact with it.
For charging it positively:

For charging it negatively:

Separation (induction) method.

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 How to Charge One Sphere

Factors affecting the magnitude of the force between two charged objects.
With the help of experiments we can tell that the magnitude of the force between two charged objects depend on;
 The quantity of charge i.e. the greater the quantity of charge, the greater the force between two objects.
 The distance of separation i.e. the greater the distance, the smaller the force.

DETECTION OF CHARGE USING GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE.

 It is a very sensitive instrument used for detecting and testing small electrostatic charges.
 The metal case is earthed. It can be earthed by placing it on a wooden table.

How to charge an electroscope by contact.

 Touch the brass cap with a charged rod of either sign.
 The leaf diverges from the brass plate, since the brass plate and gold leaf are similarly charged.
 The divergence persists for a long time even after the rod is removed.

How to Test the Sign of Charge on a Rod.

 Charge the electroscope positively.
 Bring a positively charged Perspex rod near but not touching.
 A positive rod will increase the divergence while a negative rod will decrease the divergence.
 Discharge the electroscope by touching it with your finger and note that the leaf collapses.

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How to charge an electroscope by induction.
 Bring a positively charged rod near the cap of an uncharged electroscope.
 The leaf diverges as the charged rod attracts the electrons upward, leaving similar charges in the plate and the
gold leaf.
 Touch with your finger to earth it.
 The leaf collapses as the electrons neutralise.
 Remove the finger and remove the rod.
 A large divergence results as the extra negative charge obtained from the earth distributes throughout the
electroscope.
 Therefore, the electroscope has been charged negatively.
 To charge it positively, repeat the above with a negative rod.

DANGERS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY.

a) Lightning.
In a thunderstorm, the clouds are charged by friction with airflow. Lightning is the discharge of electrons
occurring between two charged clouds or between a charged cloud and the earth. Due to the huge amount of
charges on the cloud, it can produce heat which can burn forests, damage houses and kill people. A tall
building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper strip fixed on the outside of the
building connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in the ground.

b) Refueling.
Sparks from static electricity can be dangerous when flammable vapour is present. For this reason, the tanks in
an oil tanker may be cleaned in an atmosphere of nitrogen – otherwise oxygen in the air could promote a fire.
c) Operating theatres
Dust and germs are attracted by charged objects and so it is essential to ensure that equipment and medical
personnel are well ‘earthed’ allowing electrons to flow to and from the ground, for example by conducting
rubber.
d) Computers.
Computers require similar ‘anti-static’ conditions as they are vulnerable to electrostatic damage.

EXERCISE
1. Two balls, A and B, are brought near each other with the following static charges. Complete the table.

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2. A and B are two balls which carry electric charges. Initially, A has a charge of +4 units and B has a charge of
–2 units.
a. If 1 unit of positive charge are added to both of them, what will be the direction of the force on A and B?
3. If 4 units of negative charge are added to both of them, what will be the direction of the force on A and B?

ELECTRICAL TERMS.
Understanding them is the first step in understanding how electricity works.

ELECTRIC CHARGE.
Electric charge is the amount of electricity that can either be positive or negative. When a material has a positive
charge it means that it has a deficiency (shortage) of electrons. When a material has a negative charge, it means
that it has an excess of electrons (it has more electrons than protons). So by removing electrons from a neutral
material the material becomes positively charged and by adding electrons to a neutral material it becomes
negatively charged.
The symbol of charge is Q, and is measured in coulombs [C].

ELECTRIC CURRENT.
When we use electrical appliances, electric current flows in the circuit. The flowing current means that the
electrons flow in the circuit. Current is the rate of flow of charge. The unit of current is ampere [A].

Instrument for measuring current is called Ammeter.

 An ammeter must be connected to a component in series.
 The positive terminal (usually red terminal) must be connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 The negative terminal (usually black terminal) must be connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

Example
1. A motor uses a current of 20A for 10s. How much charge flows through it?

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Current must have a complete path (a circuit) of conductors if it is to flow. Wires of copper are used to connect
batteries, lamps, etc. in a circuit since copper is a good electrical conductor. If the wires are covered with
insulation, such as plastic, the ends are barred from connecting up.

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The signs or symbols commonly used in circuit diagrams for various parts of electric circuits are shown in the table
below.

Example of a circuit.

CURRENT DIRECTION.
The conventional current direction is the direction the positive particles would travel in. This is the opposite of
what actually happens, as it is the negative particles (electrons) that move. Conventional current goes from the
positive side (long line in cell drawing) to the negative side. Actual current goes from the negative side (short line
in cell drawing) to the positive side.
Series and parallel circuits.
 The current at any point in a series circuit is the same.
 The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so the total current is always greater than the current in
one branch.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a cell (or battery) is defined as the energy supplied to each coulomb of charge
within it. The unit of e.m.f. is volt [V]. (1V = 1J/C)

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Energy carried by charge from a cell or a battery is consumed in electrical components like resistors, lamps, bulbs
or heaters of the circuit. For example, when charges flow through the bulbs in a circuit, their energy is converted to
light and heat energy. This consumed energy is called the potential difference across the component.
Potential difference (p.d.) is defined as the energy converted per unit charge passing through a component. The
unit of p.d. is volt [V].

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Instrument for measuring p.d. is called Voltmeter.
 A voltmeter must be connected across a component.
 The positive terminal (usually red terminal) must be connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 The negative terminal (usually black terminal) must be connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

Example
1. 60 C of charge flow through a bulb which transfers 180J of energy into light. What is the potential difference?

2. When a current of 2.5A flows for 8s through a bulb, 240J of energy are consumed.
a) How much charge flows through the bulb?
b) What is the potential difference across the bulb?

The following example may help in the understanding of e.m.f., p.d. and current.
3. If a 1.5V cell is connected to a 1.5V bulb and 2A of current flows in the circuit.
 The e.m.f. of the cell is 1.5V, that is, 1.5J of energy is supplied to one coulomb.
 The current is 2A, that is, 2C of charge flows in one second at certain point.
 The p.d. of the bulb is 1.5V, that is, 1.5J of energy is consumed by one coulomb.

4. If a 1.5V cell is connected to a 1.0V bulb and a 0.5V bulb, and 3A of current flows in the circuit.
 The e.m.f. of the cell is 1.5V, that is, 1.5J of energy is supplied to one coulomb.
 The current is 3A, that is, 3C of charge flows in one second at certain point.
 The p.d.s of bulbs are 1.0V and 0.5V, that is, 1.0J of energy is consumed by one coulomb at the first bulb
and 0.5J of energy is consumed by one coulomb at the second bulb.

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ELECTRIC CELLS.
An electric cell is a device that either converts chemical energy into electric potential energy, or uses electricity to
make chemical reactions possible. The two examples are primary and secondary cells.
PRIMARY CELLS.
A primary cell is a type of an electric cell that cannot be reused once the chemical inside it have been used up. E.g.
include disposable batteries used in radios, TV remote controls, alarm clocks etc.
Inside a primary cell, there is a positive terminal (cathode) and a negative terminal (anode), which are both
touching an electrolyte (a chemical substance that conducts electricity). Typical modern cells have a zinc anode,
which is also the metal casing around the cell, and either a carbon cathode (in zinc-carbon batteries), or a
manganese oxide cathode (in alkaline batteries), with an electrolyte paste. Cells that contain this paste are called
dry cells, because they do not contain any liquid.
When a zinc-carbon battery is connected in a circuit, the zinc anode gives off electrons which are attracted to the
positive cathode – through the conducting paste. This chemical reaction sets up a potential difference in the cell,
and this is what drives the charge (electrons) through the rest of the circuit. A typical electric cell has a potential
difference of 1.5 V, so larger batteries (such as 9V batteries) are made up of a series of 1.5 V cells.

SECONDARY CELLS.
Secondary cell is a type of electric cell that can be recharged. Example of secondary cell which is also a wet cell (a
cell that contains a liquid electrolyte) is a car battery.
Car batteries are also known as lead-acid accumulators. Six or more cells are grouped together to give the
battery a potential difference of 12 V. The cells have many cathodes and anodes in the form of thin plates that are
arranged alternatively. The cathodes are made of lead dioxide and the anodes are made of pure lead. The electrolyte
that surrounds the plates is liquid sulphuric acid, which is why this cell is called a wet cell.

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR.

In a car battery, the battery discharges as it supplies electricity to the electrical circuit of the car (lights and
indicators for example). But, while the car is running, the battery is recharged by the alternator. So, the car battery
can discharge and recharge at the same time.
At the same time, and while the car is moving, the alternator supplies electrical energy to the battery to charge it.
This charge causes the original chemical reaction to reverse, so that the lead sulphate is converted back to lead (on
the anode) and lead oxide (on the cathode).
DISPOSAL OF USED CELLS.
Batteries are expensive to produce and some contain substances that are toxic to humans and the environment, so
throwing those into landfill sites only cause toxic pollution of the soil and underground water. Reusing (recycling)

8
some of the components makes economic sense, more especially nickel-cadmium batteries which are hazardous to
the environment. Lithium-ion batteries which do not contain hazardous substances can be recycled as well.

RESISTANCE.
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current in a circuit. It is measured in Ohms [Ω], using an instrument
called ohmmeter. Some components in a circuit such as bulbs, TVs, radios, kettles heater have resistance.
 A device which provides some resistance in the circuit is called a resistor.
 A resistor or device which can vary resistance by increasing or reducing is called the rheostat.

This relationship is called Ohm’s law, which states that, the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional
to the p.d. across any two points if the temperature and other conditions are constant.
Example
1. A current of 2A flows through a conductor. The conductor has the p.d. of 12V. Find the resistance of the
conductor.

2. Find the p.d. across a 1.5Ω resistor when a current of 4A flows through it.

3. Find the current flowing through a 5Ω resistor that has 20V across it.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RESISTANCE.

i. Type of material – good conductors of electricity, such as copper, allow current to flow through them
easily, whereas poor conductors are those which have higher resistance to the flow of current. Insulators
such as glass and plastic have very high resistance.
ii. Length of the conductor – conductors have a specific resistance per unit length and therefore increasing
the length increases the resistance.
iii. Thickness of conductor – current flows more easily through a thick wire than a thin wire.
iv. Temperature – in metal conductors, an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance.

SERIES CIRCUIT

Example
1. Find
(a) the total resistance.

9
 (b) the current through the cell
(c) the p.d. of 1Ω resistor.
(d) the p.d. of 3Ω resistor.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

10
 PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT.
HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.
The most widely used effect of an electric current is that of heating used in electric kettles, stoves, heaters and
geysers are some of the common household appliances. In industry, this effect is used even more commonly.
Energy transformation in a circuit.
Electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy in any electrical circuit. The circuit may contain devices
that convert the electrical energy to light, kinetic or sound energy, but even in these circuits, some heat energy is
generated – even if this conversion is unwanted. In some cases, the generation of heat is exactly what is needed,
such as in an electric kettle. When current flows through a conductor, heat is generated – even in small amounts –
as a side effect.
Heating effect of an electric current.
Appliances that use heating effect of an electric current contain a heating element, which are made up of metal
alloys. The heating element acts as a resistor to generate as much heat as it can. Generally, the alloys used are
Nichrome (nickel and chromium), manganin (copper and manganese) or constantan (copper and nickel). These
materials have a high melting point, so that they do not accidentally melt.

The amount of heat produced as current flows in a conductor depends on:

i. The magnitude of the current: the greater the current, the greater the amount of heat produced.
ii. The resistance of the conductor: when the resistance of the conductor is high, more work has to be done to
drive current through the conductor and therefore more heat is produced.
iii. The length of time in which the current flows through the conductor: the longer the current flows through
the conductor, the lager the amount of heat generated.
Electrical energy.
The work done by electricity in overcoming the resistance is converted into heat as the current flows througth the
conductor. This work (or energy) is the product of the potential difference and the quantity of electric charge
flowing in the circuit, or W (or E) = VQ. We know that Q = It, so the equation becomes:
W (or E) = VIt, where
W or E = work done or energy consumed, in joules (J)
V = potential difference, in volts (V)
I = current, in amperes (A)
t = time, in secods (s)
Example

ELECTRICAL POWER.
Electrical power is defined as the rate of using electrical energy. The unit of electrical power is watt [W].

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A bulb of 60W converts 60J of electrical energy into light and heat energy per second.

Examples.
1. A 12V battery is giving off a current of 2A to a resistor. Find the power dissipated in the resistor.

2. A p.d. of 12V is applied across the 4Ωresistor. Find the power dissipated in the resistor.

Calculating electricity costs.

When you use the electricity supplied by ZESCO, you have the electricity meter. In the meter, you can find the unit
of kilowatt-hours (kWh). By using this unit, the cost of electrical energy is calculated. 1kWh is called 1 unit.

How to calculate the cost of electrical energy.

i. Calculate the energy consumed in kWh.
E= Pt
E Energy consumed [kWh]
P: Power of electrical components [kW]
t: time taken [hr.]
ii. Calculate the cost of electrical energy by cross multiplication.
E.g. If electrical energy costs K50 per unit, what is the total cost by using 1000kwh?
1unit → K50
1000unit →x
x = 50×1000
= K50 000.
Examples.
1. A light bulb of 100W is used for 7hours. What is the energy cost if the energy costs K50 per unit?

2. 4-security lights of 120W are turned on for 30days. What is the energy cost if it costs K60 per unit?

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 Use of electricity in the house.
When we use an electrical appliance in our house, a plug of the appliance is connected to a socket. Zambia uses
three pin plugs. (Japan uses two pin plugs.)

 Live wire is a brown wire. It supplies the electrical energy to the appliance. The line has a high voltage. If you
touch this line, it is dangerous because the current flows through your body. You may die of electric shock.
 Neutral wire is a blue wire. It makes the circuit complete in the electrical appliance.
 Earth wire is a green or yellow wire. This wire is connected to the metal casing of an electrical appliance. If
live wire is in contact with the metal casing due to any accident, the user gets the electric shock from the metal
casing. If earth wire is connected to the metal casing, the current escapes from the earth wire. It protects the
user from the electric shock.

Dangers of electricity
Contacting electricity (especially the live wire) is dangerous and causes some accidents.
 It causes the electric shock to human beings. A large current can be fatal (deadly).
 It may cause fires or burns in an electrical appliance, the plug and the socket.

Dangers of electricity can be caused by three cases shown below.

i. Damaged insulation.
The electrical wires (cables) are insulated. If those insulators are removed by the deterioration, the live wire can
be contacted to somewhere and it can cause electric shock and fire.
ii. Overheating of cables.
If a large current flows in the wires or components, it can cause overheating. Then it can melt the insulation and
start a fire. A short circuit or overloading is easy to cause this accident.
iii. Damp condition.
In damp condition such as a wet bathroom, the current flows through the human body easily. Because the
body’s resistance depends on whether the skin is wet or dry.
Safe use of electricity in the house.
To use the electricity safely, there are some electrical components. They are shown below.
 Double insulation.
Some electrical appliances are double insulated. It makes the leakage of current difficult.
 Switch.
The function of switch is to turn on or off the electrical appliance. In the case of leakage, the switch can be used
as the safety device to cut off the current. The switch should be installed on the live wire so that the electrical
appliance is disconnected from high voltage when the switch is open.

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 Fuse.
If too much current flows through an electrical component, the component can overheat or start a fire. The fuse
prevents too much current from flowing through it. If too much current flows through a fuse, a wire in the fuse
melts and it intercepts too much current from live wire. Therefore it is installed on the live wire.

Fuse rating.
The fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry without melting. We should choose a proper fuse
rating.
 If we choose a large fuse rating, it allows too much current to flow.
 If we choose a small fuse rating, the electrical appliance doesn’t work.
 The fuse rating should be slightly larger than the working current of an appliance under normal operation.
 Available fuse ratings are 3A, 5A, 13A, 15A or 30A.
EXERCISE.
1. 5A of current flows in a 12V bulb. Find the power of the bulb.
2. Two bulbs with resistance of 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in series. In the circuit, 2A of current flows.
(a) Calculate the p.d. of each bulbs.
(b) Calculate the power dissipated by each bulb.
3. A TV of 150W is switched on for 6hours. Calculate the cost assuming it costs K50 per unit.
4. A heater of 5kW and a cooker of 3kW run for 15hours. If a unit costs K60, what is the total cost?
5. An electrical cooker of 1kW uses an electrical supply of 240V. Which fuse should be used, 3A, 5A, 13A or
30A?
TRY.
1. Two identical bulbs are connected in parallel and series. In which type of circuit are the bulbs brighter?
Give a reason in terms of electrical power.
2. When two bulbs, 60W and 100W, are connected in parallel, which one of them is brighter? What if
connected in series? Explain the reason in terms of electrical power.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
If any electrical conductor (e.g. copper wire) move in the magnetic field and cut the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is
induced in the conductor. This is called Electromagnetic induction. Generators at the power plants use
electromagnetic induction to make electricity.
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
It states that the strength of the induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux.

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CONCLUSION:
If a magnet moves towards a solenoid, the solenoid makes a magnetic field tending to repel it, but if a magnet
moves away from a solenoid, the solenoid makes a magnetic field tending to attract it. Then current flows
according to the magnetic field. This law is called Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s Law states that, an induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the change or motion producing it.
Ways of Increasing the Induced e.m.f (Deflection in Galvanometer)
1. Increasing the speed at which the magnet is moved.
2. Increasing the number of turns in the solenoid.
3. Using a stronger magnet.
Electromagnetic induction occurs:
i. When there is a changing or varying magnetic field near a closed circuit.
ii. When the magnetic field lines of force linking the circuit induces an electromotive force (e.m.f) thus, an
induced current is produced.
Fleming’s right hand rule.
Fleming’s right hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the induced current in the straight conductor.
This rule states that if you extend the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand at right angles to each other with
the First finger pointing in the direction of the Field and the thuMb in the direction of Motion of the wire, then the
seCond finger points in the direction of the induced Current.

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GENERATORS.
A Generator is a machine that transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy. There are two types of
generators that is Alternating Current (A.C) generators and Direct Current (D.C) generators.

SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR (DYNAMO).

Parts of a Simple Alternating Current (A.C) Generator.

How it works.

 The direction of the induced current changes every half turn of the coil.
 The induced e.m.f has maximum output when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field. There
is no induced e.m.f when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

SIMPLE DIRECT CURRENT (D.C) GENERATOR

Parts of a Simple D.C. Generator.

16
How it Works.
 The e.m.f is zero when the coil is vertical.
 It increases to the maximum during the first quarter turn and reduces back to zero during the second quarter
turn.
 The current leaves the generator via brush d hence this brush is positive.

Ways of Increasing Induced e.m.f

i. Rotating the coil faster that is, increasing the frequency of rotation.
ii. Increasing the number of turns on the coil.
iii. Winding the coil round a soft iron core so that the magnetic field is stronger.
iv. Using a stronger magnet, or using a powerful electromagnet to make the field stronger.
NOTE:
1. The period is the time taken for one revolution of the coil.
2. The frequency of rotation is the number of revolutions of the coil per second.

DC generator current versus battery current.

Batteries and solar cells produce a direct current, which flows in one direction and is constant while the circuit is
closed. The current produced by a DC generator flows in one direction but it varies with time.

Difference between Dynamos and Motors.

When a dynamo is rotated it produces electricity, while, a motor is supplied with electricity for it to rotate.
RECTIFICATION.
Rectification is the changing of alternating current (A.C) into direct current (D.C). This is done using devices
known as diodes. A diode allows the electric current to flow only in one direction. Below are symbols of diodes.

Half-wave rectification requires a single diode. The positive half of the AC wave is allowed to pass through the
circuit, while the other half is blocked. The output voltage is lower, but still varies with time – even though it only
moves in one direction.

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Full-wave rectification requires two diodes. In this type of rectification, the whole input wave is converted, but the
negative half of each wave is flipped up into the positive range. This allows for a higher average output voltage.

TRANSFORMER.
A Transformer is a device used to vary the voltage of an a.c. supply.
Mutual induction.
A transformer is made up of two coils, both wound around the same soft iron core. One of the coils – the primary
coil – is connected to an alternating source of current. A current is produced in the other coil (the secondary coil)
through the process of mutual induction. The secondary coil is where the output current occurs. The output
current is always DC current. Mutual induction is the process of changing of current in one coil (primary coil)
causes an induced e.m.f in another coil (or secondary coil) that is placed near the first.
 When the electricity is generated at the power plant, its voltage is higher than the useful voltage for our
houses. Some transformers are connected between the power plant and our houses, and vary the voltage of
supply from the plant to the houses.
 Each country has each voltage of a.c. supply for the houses. For example, Zambia has the a.c. supply of
240V. But Japan has the a.c. supply of 100V. If Japanese electrical appliance is used in Zambia, a
transformer is needed to change the voltage of a.c. supply of 240V to 100V. If it is connected to Zambian
direct power supply, it may break because the voltage of supply is too high for the Japanese electrical
appliance.

Operation.
i. The primary coil is connected to a.c. supply, and the secondary coil is connected to loads (electrical
appliances).
ii. When the alternate current is supplied to the primary coil, it produces magnetic field and changes the
direction of magnetic field frequently.
iii. An induced e.m.f. of the same frequency is produced in the secondary coil.
NB: The voltage of secondary coil is decided by the voltage of primary coil, the number of turns in the primary coil
and the number of turns in the secondary coil. The formula is given as below.

Step-up transformer.
 The voltage in the secondary coil (output voltage) is higher than the voltage in the primary coil (input
voltage).
 The number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the number of turns in the primary coil.

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Step-down transformer.
 The voltage in the secondary coil (output voltage) is lower than the voltage in the primary coil (input
voltage).
 The number of turns in the secondary coil is fewer than the number of turns in the primary coil.

If a transformer has the efficiency of 100% (called the ideal transformer),

Ps = Pp
VsIs = VpIp

Example.
1. A step-up transformer increases the voltage of a.c. supply from 110V to 220V. The primary coil dissipates
the power of 1.1kW. And the efficiency of transformer is 100%.
(a) If the turns in the primary are 400, how many turns are in the secondary?
(b) How much current flows in each coil?
Solutions.

Advantages of high-voltage transmission.

 Energy loss is reduced: transmission lines may be hundreds of kilometers in length and the cables
provide resistance to the current. A high-current transmission would cause much heating of the cables
(energy loss).
 Voltage drop is reduced: voltage drop occurs when current moves through the components of a circuit
that offer some resistance, such as the conductors. The greater the resistance, the greater the energy loss
and the greater the voltage drop. With lower current, less energy is lost in the transmission.
 Costs are reduced: transmission cables are made of copper or aluminium. High-voltage transmission can
occur through thinner cables, so less metal is needed.
Effects of improper management of transformers.
If transformers at either ends of a transmission line are not managed properly, energy losses can occur. These can
be caused by:
 Overheating: Excessive loading and cooling problems can push the transformer above its maximum
power rating. Overheating weakens the transformer and decreases its operational life span.
 Low or high voltage: if the input voltage varies, the transformer will struggle to regulate the output
power. Over-voltage over a long period also lead to overheating of the system.
If the transformers in the transmission system are not properly managed and maintained:

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  Efficiency of electricity production decreases and costs increases. These increased costs are passed on to
the consumer, so everyone pays more for their electricity.
 They can fail, leading to blackouts that affect thousands of consumers.

Exercise.
1. A transformer has a primary coil of 8400 turns and a secondary coil of 3500 turns. Find the output voltage
if 240V is supplied to the primary coil.
2. A power plant supplies 25kV voltage of a.c. supply. The voltage increases to 230kV through a step-up
transformer.
(a) If 15000 turns coil is in the primary, calculate the number of turns in the secondary.
(b) 230kV of voltage is transformed again through a step-down transformer. The turns’ ratio of the primary
coil to the secondary coil in the transformer is 115 to 6. Calculate the voltage of the secondary coil.
3. 240V of voltage is supplied to the primary coil and 5A of current flows through it. Find the current flowing
through the secondary coil if the output voltage is 120V and the efficiency is 100%.
4. A refrigerator that is rated at 120V 480W is connected to the transformer. The transformer is connected to
the power supply of 240V. Assuming that the efficiency is 100%. Calculate
(a) the current through the refrigerator
(b) the current from the power supply
(c) if the turns in the primary are 8500, how many turns are in the secondary?
5. Find the direction of the force acting on a wire in each situation.

6. Draw the direction of an induced current in each situation.

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BASIC ELECTRONICS
THERMIONIC EMMISIONS AND ELECTRONS.
Cathode rays are thermionic emissions – if a metal or metal oxide filament is heated (to about 2000°C for
tungsten), electrons can escape it. So a thermionic emission is made of electrons. The hot conductor is the cathode
(-), the other electrode is the anode (+). When the filament (cathode) is heated, a current flows to the anode. This
happens in a vacuum tube (in air the electrons would collide with air particles and the filament would burn). A
vacuum tube is also called a thermionic diode, as the electrons can only pass one way. The current can be detected
with a milliammeter.

Characteristics of an electron.
 An electron has a smaller mass than a proton or a neutron.
 Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
 A magnetic field and an electric field change the direction of cathode rays as below.

 Electrons are negatively charged so they are attracted to the anode (positive side).
 The flow of electrons is opposite to the direction of current in the circuit. The current is called conventional
current.

Simple treatment of cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.).

A C.R.O. consists of three main parts. They are electron gun, deflection system and fluorescent screen. An
electron gun sends electrons through the vacuum to a fluorescent screen and a light spot appears on the screen.
Each part has its function as shown in the table below.

Measuring voltage.
 The C.R.O. can be used as a voltmeter. It can measure both A.C. and D.C. voltages.
 It measures the peak voltage of A.C. input signal.
 Y-gain setting indicates the voltage applied in order to deflect the beam by 1cm on the screen in the
vertical direction. If Y-gain setting is 5V/cm, it means that 1cm of the height on the screen shows 5V of
input signal.

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EXAMPLES.
1. The diagram shows the screen of C.R.O. Y-gain setting is 3V/cm. What is the peak voltage applied to the
Y-input of the C.R.O.?

2. The gain control of a C.R.O. is set at 2V/cm. If the horizontal trace is deflected upwards by 5cm, what is
the unknown voltage applied to the Y-input of the C.R.O.?

Measuring short time interval.

 C.R.O. can be used to measure short time interval.
 Time base setting indicates the time needed for the light spot to sweep through 1cm on the screen in the
horizontal direction. If the time base setting is 5ms/cm, it means that 1cm of the horizontal length on the
screen shows 5ms (millisecond).
Example
1. The diagram shows the screen of C.R.O. The time base is set to 5ms/cm.
(a) What is the period of the input a.c. signal?
(b) What is the frequency of the input a.c. signal?

Exercise.
1. The gain control of a C.R.O. is set at 0.2V/cm. If the horizontal trace is deflected upwards by 4cm, what is
the unknown voltage applied to the Y-input of the C.R.O.?
2. The time base is set to 2ms/cm in a C.R.O. If one wave has a length of 5cm, what are the (a) period and (b)
frequency?

THERMIONIC EMMISIONS AND ELECTRONS.

Cathode rays are thermionic emissions – if a metal or metal oxide filament is heated (to about 2000°C for
tungsten), electrons can escape it. So a thermionic emission is made of electrons. The hot conductor is the cathode
(-), the other electrode is the anode (+). When the filament (cathode) is heated, a current flows to the anode. This
happens in a vacuum tube (in air the electrons would collide with air particles and the filament would burn). A
vacuum tube is also called a thermionic diode, as the electrons can only pass one way. The current can be detected
with a milliammeter.

22
Characteristics of an electron.
 An electron has a smaller mass than a proton or a neutron.
 Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
 A magnetic field and an electric field change the direction of cathode rays as below.

 Electrons are negatively charged so they are attracted to the anode (positive side).
 The flow of electrons is opposite to the direction of current in the circuit. The current is called conventional
current.

Simple treatment of cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.).

A C.R.O. consists of three main parts. They are electron gun, deflection system and fluorescent screen. An
electron gun sends electrons through the vacuum to a fluorescent screen and a light spot appears on the screen.
Each part has its function as shown in the table below.

Measuring voltage.
 The C.R.O. can be used as a voltmeter. It can measure both A.C. and D.C. voltages.
 It measures the peak voltage of A.C. input signal.
 Y-gain setting indicates the voltage applied in order to deflect the beam by 1cm on the screen in the
vertical direction. If Y-gain setting is 5V/cm, it means that 1cm of the height on the screen shows 5V of
input signal.
EXAMPLES.
1. The diagram shows the screen of C.R.O. Y-gain setting is 3V/cm. What is the peak voltage applied to the
Y-input of the C.R.O.?

23
 2. The gain control of a C.R.O. is set at 2V/cm. If the horizontal trace is deflected upwards by 5cm, what is
the unknown voltage applied to the Y-input of the C.R.O.?

Measuring short time interval.

 C.R.O. can be used to measure short time interval.
 Time base setting indicates the time needed for the light spot to sweep through 1cm on the screen in the
horizontal direction. If the time base setting is 5ms/cm, it means that 1cm of the horizontal length on the
screen shows 5ms (millisecond).

Example
1. The diagram shows the screen of C.R.O. The time base is set to 5ms/cm.
(a) What is the period of the input a.c. signal?
(b) What is the frequency of the input a.c. signal?

Exercise.
1. The gain control of a C.R.O. is set at 0.2V/cm. If the horizontal trace is deflected upwards by 4cm, what is
the unknown voltage applied to the Y-input of the C.R.O.?
2. The time base is set to 2ms/cm in a C.R.O. If one wave has a length of 5cm, what are the (a) period and (b)
frequency?

NUCLEUS.
COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM.
An atom consists of proton, neutron and electron.
The structure of an atom is shown in the diagrams below.
 Protons (are positively charged) and neutrons (are neutral) are bound together in the nucleus.
 Protons and neutrons is called the nucleon.
 Electrons (are negatively charged) move round the nucleus in different orbits called shells.
 Electrons and protons carry equal numbers in an atom.
 If atom is neutral, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons.

Atomic number (Z) and Mass number (A)

 The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number or proton number (Z).
 The total number of nucleons in a nucleus is called the mass number or nucleon number (A).
 If the number of neutrons in the nucleus is N,

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An element of chemical symbol X with a mass number A and an atomic number Z is expressed,

Nuclide and Isotopes.

Each different form of nucleus is called a Nuclide. Atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers are called Isotopes of an element, e.g. carbon

 Carbon is an element

RADIOACTIVITY.
Some elements which radiate energy of itself without any excitation from outside is called radioactive elements,
E.g. Uranium, Radium, Thorium and Polonium.
 This phenomenon of matter radiating energy of itself is called the natural radioactivity.
 Experiments show that radioactive elements emit three types of radiation.
 Alpha (α) particle
 Beta (β) particle
 Gamma (γ) ray

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Characteristics of the three types of radiation

Radioactive decay.
A nucleus, which has too many or too few neutrons gains extra energy, and becomes unstable. It tends to emit
radiation such as α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays until a stable atom is reached. This emission of α-particles or β-
particles is called Radioactive decay.

 The α (alpha) decay

The radioactive decay emitting α-particle from the nucleus is called α(alpha) decay. E.g. if 226
88𝑅𝑎 emits an
alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons) from the nucleus, the mass number changes from 226 to 222 and
the atomic number changes from 88 to 86. Therefore, Radium changes into Radon (Rn) that has the mass
number of 86 from the periodic table.

 The β (Beta) decay.

The radioactive decay emitting β-particle from the nucleus is called β (beta) decay. E.g. If 241
94𝑃𝑢
emits a beta particle (1 electron) from the nucleus, the mass number doesn’t change but the atomic number changes
from 94 to 95 because 1 neutron changes to a proton. Therefore, Plutonium changes into Am (Americium) that has
the mass number of 95 from the periodic table.

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  The γ (Gamma) radiation.
 When some nucleus emit an α or β particle, they leave the nucleus in unstable energy condition.
Therefore, the nucleus emits an extra energy, a γ-ray.
 The atomic number and the mass number do not change, the daughter nuclide is the same element as
the parent nuclide.

Activity and Half-life.

Half-life of a sample of radioactive element is defined as the time taken for half of the unstable nuclei to decay. For
example, the half-life of radium is 1600 years. If there are 40g of radium initially, half of radium (20g) is decayed
in first 1600 years. Next 1600 years, half of 20g radium (10g) is decayed. After next 1600 years, half of 10g radium
(5g) is decayed.

The graph below shows a decay curve for above example.

Example
1. There is 1kg of Strontium (Sr) that has the half-life of 30 years.
(a) How many grams of Strontium are remained after 60 years?
(b) If 125g of strontium are remained, how long does it take?
Solution.

Answer (a) 250g of strontium are remained 60 years later.

Answer (b) 90 years later.
2. The diagram shows the decay curve of Uranium ( 239𝑈). What is the half-life?

27
Answer: Rate of undecayed nuclei number becomes half in 24 minutes. The half-life is 24 minutes.

Uses of radioactive substances.

In medicine
 Cobalt-60 is used to treat cancer. It emits gamma rays which can destroy cancer cells. This type of
treatment is called radiotherapy.
 Iodine-131 is used to treat an overactive thyroid gland. The radiation emitted by iodine-131 destroys excess
cells in the gland.
 Phosphorus-32 is used in the detecting the presence of cancer in body tissue, because cancerous cells tend
to accumulate this radioisotope.
In industry
 Radioisotopes are used as tracers in oil or gas pipelines so that any leaks can be detected.
 Radioisotopes are used to monitor the thickness of paper, plastic, and metal sheets.
 Radiation can also be used to detect flaws in metal joints.
Archaeology
 Carbon -14 is used to determine the age of carbon based remains. This process is known as radio carbon
dating. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years and has it decays, it activity reduces. So the more carbon -
14 a sample contains, the younger it is.
Sterilization
 Gamma rays are used to sterilize medical supplies such as needles and syringes.
 Gamma rays are also used irradiates foods to preserve them.
Agriculture
 Radioactive tracers (phosphorus-32) can be mixed with fertilizers to monitor how much fertilizer is used up
by the plant.
 Insect pests in farmlands can be controlled by means of colbalt-60 radiation.
 The sprouting of potatoes and onions can be delayed by means of gamma radiation.
Dangers of radiation.
Radiation (α-particle, β-particle, γ-ray) can cause the following to human being.
 Damage to living cells
 Genetic changes in living cells.
 Cancer.
Safety precautions
 Avoid unnecessary exposure.
 Avoid direct contact with the source.
 Never point the source to any people.
 Radioactive sources must be stored in places out of reach of the public.
 Sources must be stored inside lead box to avoid leakage of radiations.
 Thick lead shields should be installed.
 Radiation symbols must be displayed at all places where radioactive sources are used.
 Radiation workers have to wear special protective clothing and gloves.
 Use film badges to measure the amount of radiation the radiation workers receive during a certain period.
EXERCISE.

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1. There are 500g of Cobalt-60 ( 60𝐶𝑜) that has the half-life of 5years.
(a) How many grams of Cobalt are remained after 15years?
(b) If 125g of cobalt are remained, how long does it take?
2. The diagram below shows the decay curve of Phosphorus ( 30𝑃). There are 400g of Phosphorus initially.
(a) What is the half-life?
(b) How many grams of Phosphorus is there 30 days later?
(c) If 25g of Phosphorus is remained, how long does it take?

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