Thermodynamics II – Laboratory Instructions

Temperature measurements.
Exercise No 3

Theory

Definitions
Temperature is one of the most important thermodynamic parameters. It is a measurement of
average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance. It is a macroscopic intensive parameter.

Units
There are two principal types of temperature scales:

 Absolute (thermodynamic temperature) – where the zero value (regardless of specific scale
used) is the temperature at which all elements of a thermodynamic system have minimal
possible energy
 Relative scales, where certain points (e.g. 0 and 100) are defined in reference to some
physical phenomena.

There are four most popular temperature scales used in the world today:

 Celcius scale – one of the most popular (particularly in Europe) relative scales, first proposed
by Swedish astronomer Anders Celcius. Originally defined in such a way that 0°C (read:
degrees Celsius) matched water freezing point and 100°C – water boiling point, both at a
pressure of a standard atmosphere. Today the actual scientific definition is different, relating
the scale to the absolute zero and triple point of Vienna standard mean ocean water, but for
practical purposes the original definition may be used.
 Kelvin scale – an absolute scale named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin. This scale has
a zero at absolute zero and a unit size is such that interval of 1 kelvin (1 K) is equal to interval
of 1°C. Temperature of 0°C is equal to 273.15 K, therefore temperature expressed in kelvins
can be easily converted to degrees Celsius by subtracting 273.15. Kelvin is one of the seven
base units of the International System of Units (SI).
 Fahrenheit scale, proposed by Dutch-German-Polish physicist Daniel Fahrenheit. Its
definition is based on freezing point of certain brine mixture (0°F) and ice melting
temperature (32°F). A popular legend says however that original scale was based on the
coldest winter observed in Gdaosk (then Danzig) in 1708/1709 (0°F = -17.8°C) and a body
temperature (as it turns out with a slight fever – 100°F = 37.8°C) – this anecdote certainly
helps to remember key points of that scale! It is still officially used in the USA.
 Rankine scale – and absolute scale based on intervals identical to those of Fahrenheit scale
(so the relation between Rankine and Fahrenheit scale is similar to that between Celcius an
Kelvin scales). Still sometimes used in the USA.

©2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

 Thermodynamics II – Laboratory Instructions

Temperature measurements
By its nature the temperature may only be measured indirectly – by measuring some other
properties or parameters, which have known temperature dependency. Temperature measurement
instruments can be divided according to different criteria:

 According to measurement method:

o Contacting – where the measurement device comes into direct contact with body or
fluid whose temperature is measured
o Non-contacting, where temperature is measured according to properties of thermal
radiation emitted by the object’s surface.
 According to the design and working principle:
o Glass thermometers, based on thermal expansion of liquids (usually mercury or some
alcohol)
o Bi-metal mechanical thermometers – utilising different thermal expansion of two
metal elements bound together
o Thermocouples (explained below)
o Thermistors – based on special resistors whose electric resistance varies with
temperature
o Resistance temperature detectors – using dependence between conductor’s
temperature and resistance
o Pyrometers – utilising thermal radiation emitted by the object’s surface

Glass thermometer is one of the simplest, cheapest and most popular type. It is a quite accurate
device, however it has a range of limitations:

 Temperature range limited by boiling and freezing point of utilised liquid

 High inertia (long measurement time)
 Lack of possibility to feed results directly into any data acquisition system.

One of the most popular types of thermometers in the industry is the thermocouple. It is a device
which consists of two different conductors (in most cases metal alloys) joined together at both ends.
If a temperature difference between the junctions occurs, it produces a voltage between them. A
diagram of a simple thermocouple is presented in a figure below.

©2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

 Thermodynamics II – Laboratory Instructions

Figure 1. Diagram of a simple thermocouple measurement circuit (source: Wikipedia).

Voltage value is linearly dependant on that temperature difference and thus can be used to
determine the temperature difference. This means that the simplest thermocouple can only be used
to measure temperature, if the temperature of one junction (so-called cold junction – as opposed to
the hot junction which is used as an actual measuring probe) is known. This is of course impractical
and therefore a concept to compensate the cold junction was developed. Compensation is carried
out by using some other measurement device, e.g. thermistor or diode – to determine cold junction
temperature.

Exercise instructions
1. Familiarise yourself with different types of thermometers available at the laboratory. Identify
thermocouples connected to a PC unit.
2. Calibrate the thermocouple connected to a voltmeter. Using various heat sources and
ambient air, as well as other available thermometers, calibrate the thermocouple – produce
a characteristic curve showing dependence between the temperature difference (note the
temperature of the cold junction held in a thermos flask) and produced voltage.
3. Investigate inertia of various types of thermometers. Use a thermostat available at the
laboratory to produce hot water. Then check and record time it takes for each type of
thermometer to reach a stationary state after being transferred from ambient air to the hot
water, and then back to the ambient air. Record indicated values every 60 seconds.

Do not turn any equipment on unless clearly instructed to do so by your instructor!

©2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

 Thermodynamics II – Laboratory Instructions

Report
Your report should contain at least:

 Chart presenting dependence between temperature difference and voltage for the
investigated thermocouples
 Chart presenting inertia of investigated thermometers – their T(t) characteristic curves.

More detailed information on the contents of your report will be specified by your instructor during
the classes. Pay attention!

©2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering