1

Capacitance Calculations
Antonio Carlos M. de Queiroz

[email protected]

Abstract—This document describes calculation

methods for distributed capacitances of objects with Ctwo spheres = 80aLn(2) = 154.24505a pF (6)
several particular shapes, and methods for the
evaluation of the electric fields and forces. It’s An “oblate spheroid” is the figure generated by the
fundamentally a collection of formulas, some not rotation of an ellipse around its minor axis. A “prolate
very easy to find in the literature. The algorithms spheroid” is generated by the rotation of an ellipse
were implemented in the Inca program, available at around its major axis. The capacitances of these figures
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/programs. are, considering the major axis with length 2a and the
minor axis with the length 2b [2]:
I. INTRODUCTION
a 2 − b2 (7)
Coblate = 4 0
Most of the formulas below are known since long time, a 2 − b2
sin −1
most dating from works in the XIX century. Some a
appear in Maxwell’s book [1], and some in other
collections of explicit formulas for electromagnetic a2 − b2 (8)
Cprolate = 4 0
problems, as [2], or in other early works as [3]-[5]. In a + a 2 − b2
ln
most cases I have just adapted the notation, but some b
derivations not found in other works are presented too.
Note the limits when a = b reducing to (2), and the
reduction to (3) when b = 0 in (7).
In most of the early works, capacitance is expressed in
units of length. For example, the capacitance of a
For bodies embedded in materials with other
sphere of radius a in free space is listed in [1] and [2]
permissivities, it’s just a question of multiplying 0 by
as C=a. To convert this unit to Farads, it’s necessary to
the relative permissivity  of the material. The case
multiply the value by 40, where 0 is the permissivity
when different dielectrics are present on the structure
of vacuum, 0 = 8.8541878 x 10-12. 0 can be calculated
will be not discussed here.
from the speed of light c and from the magnetic
permeability of vacuum, 0 = 4 x 10-7 (a definition), II. CAPACITANCE OF A TOROID
from the relation:
1
c=
 0 0
(1) D
The capacitance of a sphere of radius a meters is then:

Csphere = 40a = 111.26501a pF (2)

Other figures that have simple expressions for the free- a A

space capacitance are: d
A thin flat disk with radius a [2]:

Cdisk = 80a = 70.833503a pF (3)

Fig. 1. Toroid with major diameter D, minor diameter
An open hemisphere with radius a [2]: d, center radius A, and tube radius a.

Copen hemisphere = 40a(1/2+1/) = 91.049254a pF (4) From [2] (the same formula appears in [3], that is
probably the origin of this formula, but in a somewhat
A closed (with a flat disk) hemisphere with radius a different notation) the capacitance of a toroid with
[2]: major diameter D and minor diameter d, d<D/2, (fig. 1)
( )
Cclosed hemisphere = 8 0 a 1 − 1 / 3 = 94.052249 pF (5) is:

Two spheres with radius a in contact [1]:

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Doesn’t require more than 7 iterations for

 Qn −1 2 ( x)
C = 16 0 A2 − a 2   n
c between 0 and 0.9999999999.
; Reference: Pi and the AGM, J. Borwein and
n =0 Pn −1 2 ( x)
(9) P. Borwein, John Wiley & Sons.
 n = 1 2 for n = 0, 1 for n  0; }
procedure EF(c:real);
D−d d A var
A= ; a= ; x=
2 2 a a,b,a1,b1,E,i:real;
begin
where Pn−1 2 ( x) and Qn−1 2 ( x) are Legendre functions, or a:=1;
b:=sqrt(1-sqr(c));
in this case, “toroidal functions”. E:=1-sqr(c)/2;
i:=1;
repeat
These functions can be evaluated in the following way: a1:=(a+b)/2;
The first two terms can be obtained from their relations b1:=sqrt(a*b);
with the complete elliptic integrals of first and second E:=E-i*sqr((a-b)/2);
i:=2*i;
kinds: a:=a1;
b:=b1;
Q−1 2 ( x) = kK; until abs(a-b)<1e-15;
K −E Fk:=pi/(2*a);
Q1 2 ( x) = 2 − kK; Ek:=E*Fk
k (10) end;
2
P−1 2 ( x) = kK ' ;
 III. APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS FOR PARTIAL
2  2E '  TOROIDS
P1 2 ( x) =  − kK ' 
 k 
A partial toroid can be described as a surface generated
The modulus for the elliptic integrals K and E is:
by the revolution of a partial circle of radius a centered
2a at a distance A along the radial axis r from the
k= (11)
A+ a revolution axis z. The circle limits are defined by two
And for the elliptic integrals K’ and E’ (evaluated in angles 1 and 2. See fig. 2.
the same way, with modulus k’): z
k' = 1− k 2
(12)
This is enough for the evaluation of the two first terms
of the series (enough for thin toroids). The other terms
can be obtained using the recursion for Legendre 2
functions, identical for both functions: a 1
2mxPm −1 2 ( x) − (m − 1 2)Pm −1 2−1 ( x)
Pm+1 2 ( x) =
m +1 2
;
(13)
A r
2mxQm−1 2 ( x) − (m − 1 2)Qm −1 2−1 ( x)
Fig. 2: A partial toroidal surface is generated by the
Qm+1 2 ( x) = rotation of a partial circle around the vertical axis.
m +1 2
where m=n-1. All the terms can then be easily With this formulation several figures can be generated,
computed, starting with n=2 in the series (9), or m=1. as a regular toroid when 2-1 = 2 and a<A, a sphere
when A = 0, 2 = −1 = /2, an open hemisphere, etc.
The complete elliptic integrals are the irreducible Even overlapping toroids, with a>A, can be generated.
functions:
 This surface can be decomposed in a set of n infinitely
2
thin circles with axles at the z axis, positioned at

d
K = F(k ,  / 2) = F(k ) = heights zi, and with radii ri, uniformly spaced at angles
1 − k 2 sin 2  (14)
0  along the surface:

2  2 − 1
 =
E = E( k ,  / 2) = E(k ) =
0
1 − k sin  d
2 2

i = 1 +
n

+ (i − 1), i = 1...n
(15)
2
They can be quickly and precisely evaluated using the ri = A + a cos i
arithmetic-geometric mean method, below
zi = a sin i
implemented in a Pascal routine:
Each of these rings has a uniform charge distribution,
{
Complete elliptic integrals of first
with a total charge qi. The potential  due to each ring
and second classes - AGM method. i at any given position r0, z0 is given by:
Returns the global variables:
Ek=E(c) and Fk=F(c) (E and K)

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qi  2  q i
i (r0 , z0 ) = Q−1/ 2  2 − 1 = 2 i K Ei = (22)
4  0
2
r0 ri k  2  0 R1 0

2 r0 ri (16) where i is the surface charge density, uniform around

k= the ring i. For a closed surface, the electric field is
R1
entirely at the outer surface. In this case, it can be
R1 = ( ri + r0 ) 2 + ( z0 − zi ) 2 calculated directly from the charge distribution alone.
The absolute values allow correct treatment of the
cases when some radii are negative. Assuming constant voltage at the surface of the object,
the charges at the rings can be calculated by (20). The
Considering then the mutual influences among all the ring i has a length 2ri and a total charge qi. The ring
rings, a matrix P can be computed, that allows the represents a thin belt with width equal to a. The
calculation of the potentials vi at each ring, once the charge density and the electric field in a small length l
charges qi are known [1]: are then:
v = Pq qi 1 qi
i = l =
Pij = Pji = i (rj , z j ) / qi (17) 2ri la 2ri a (23)
qi
Pii = i (ri , zi + R) / qi Ei =
2ri a 0
For the calculation of the “self-potentials” Pii,
something must be assumed about the radius of the An important application of this calculation is the
rings, R. The formulation calculates then the potentials determination of the breakout voltage of the object, the
at a distance R above the rings. The maximum voltage that causes ionization of the air around it when
physically possible value of R would be when adjacent the electric field reaches about 3 MV/m:
rings touch: Vmax = 3000 /Max Ei kV (24)
 For a toroid, this value occurs at the maximum
Rmax = a sin (18)
2 diameter. In the case of open objects, it’s not possible
Any reasonable fraction of this value can be used with to calculate the surface electric field in this way,
similar results, but there is one that produces better because it is split in an unknown way between the two
results in the next calculation, that was found (by sides of the surface. The calculation is also meaningless
trying!) to, curiously, be: if the object has an edge, where the electric field is
a 
ideally infinite. A strange problem with (23) is that it
R= sin (19) fails when the rings are close to the center of a
 2
spherical surface. The last ring appears to have
This radius makes the area of the surface of the ring to significantly less charge than it should have (around
be identical to the flat area represented by it, at least in 92%). The calculations for capacitance, however,
the cases when  = n/2 and small  (as in the equator continue to result in good values.
and poles of a sphere split in many rings).
IV. GENERAL TRUNCATED CONES
The charge distribution for uniform potential V at all
the rings can be calculated by inverting the matrix P. Any other figure with circular symmetry can be
The total charge in each ring is then obtained from a analyzed by the same method. A simple case is the
sum of the corresponding lines of the inverse of P, C. revolution of a straight line around the central axle, that
The coefficients of C are the influence coefficients kij: generates figures ranging from a flat disk with a
n possible central hole to a cone or an open cylinder.
qi = V  kij
(20)
−1
j =1
z
C=P
And the capacitance of the whole assembly is simply h
the sum of all the elements of C:
n n
Ctotal =  kij (21)
i =1 j =1

Surface electric field r1 r2 r

The electric field at any point of the surface is normal Fig. 3. A line that rotates around the vertical axis.
to it and can be calculated by Gauss’ law as
proportional to the charge density at that point of the The coordinates or the rings are then:
surface:

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h capacitance matrix, it’s just a question of adding the

z = terms of the total capacitance matrix that correspond to
n
r −r the rings that belong to the objects, instead of adding
r = 2 1 (25) them all to obtain the capacitance of the entire object.
n
The charges in all the rings can be obtained from the
z
zi = + (i − 1)z , i = 1...n complete equation q=CV, with the assigned voltages in
2
the objects arranged in V in correspondence with the
r
ri = r1 + + (n − 1)r , i = 1...n rings that belong to the objects. The potential anywhere
2
around the objects is obtained by adding (16) for all the
The radius to use in the calculation of the self- rings, and the electric field by adding (28) and (29) and
potentials would be, still using the maximum divided using (30). The terms at the diagonal of the capacitance
by : matrix correspond to the capacitances of the objects to
ground when all the other objects are grounded too.
(r2 − r1 )2 + h 2 The influence coefficients out of the diagonal measure
R= (26)
2n the relation between the charge induced in one object
With this radius, the surface charge density and the and the voltage in another, when all the other objects
surface electric field (for a closed object) can be are grounded. From the capacitance matrix, a model of
calculated considering that the surface area of the ring the circuit using lumped capacitors can be derived, by
is identical to the belt area represented by it, what is observing the equivalence:
approximately valid also for the case or curves, using R  k11 k12  k1n 
given by (19): k k 22  k 2 n 
C =  12 =
qi 1 qi     
i = l =  
2ri l 2R 4 2 ri R (27) k
 1n k 2n  k nn 
q C1 + C12 + ... + C1n − C12  − C1n 
Ei = 2 i  
4 ri R 0 − C C + C + ... + C2 n  − C2 n
= 12 2 12 
     
V. ELECTRIC FIELD FROM A RING  
 − C1n − C2 n  Cn + Cnn−1 + ... + C1n 

The electric field anywhere can be calculated by adding (32)

the electric fields due to the rings. From (16), the radial C1, C2, …, Cn are direct capacitances between the
and axial components of the electric field can be elements and the ground, and the other elements are the
calculated by differentiation, resulting in: negative of the floating capacitances between the
di objects. The direct capacitance to ground for the object
Eradial = − = i is just the sum of the elements in the line, or column, i
dr0
(28) of C.
 − ( ri − r0 ) K + 
qi sign ri  
=− 2  E − k ' K  2 r0
2
 VII. MAXIMUM ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO SPHERES
3
2  0 R1  +  − k ( ri − r0 )  

 kk'2  k 

A good test for these field calculations is the known
d q ( z − z ) E formula for the maximum electric field between two
Eaxial = − i = i 2 i 30 2 (29) different spheres [4]. The expression comes directly
dz0 2  0 R1 k '
from the method of images developed by Lord Kelvin
2 2 [10]. For two spheres of radii a and b, a<b, with
Etotal = Eradial + Eaxial (30) distance between centers c, at potentials v1 and v2, the
where the derivative of the elliptic integral K in relation maximum electric field at the surface of the smaller
to the modulus k was used (the derivative of E is listed sphere (assumed as being where the surface of the
below too for reference, but was not necessary): smaller sphere intercepts the line between the centers
of the spheres) is given by:
dK E − k '2 K dE E − K
= ; = (31) Emax =
dk kk'2 dk k
k '2 = 1 − k 2   1 −  1 −  2 1 −  4  
v1  + + 2 +   (33)
VI. GENERAL CASE WITH AXIAL SYMMETRY =
(1 + )  
2 (1 +  )2
(1 +  )
2 2
( 1 +  )4 2
 
 ;
a(1 −  )   1 −  1 −  3
1 −  5 

− v2  ( +  +  + 
2

The capacitance matrix and the potential and electric   1 +  )

2
( )
1 +  3
2
( )
1 +  5
2

field around a series of objects with axial symmetry a + b b + a
= ; = ;
decomposed in thin rings can then be easily calculated. c c
The objects are decomposed in series of partial toroids  = root  1 of (a + b )(b + a ) = c 2 
conical sheets, and other shapes (as ellipses) and these This formula converges slowly when the spheres are at
parts are decomposed in rings. To obtain the small distance, but the speed is acceptable. [4]

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develops a better expression for the case of spheres at IX. POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND A TOROID
small distance too. The choice of  appears to work
correctly too when the other root is used. The formula The solution of this problem can be traced to [3]. The
works for any choice of v1 and v2, but always calculates formula for the potential also appears in [2]. The
the electric field at the point of the sphere with radius a potential around an isolated toroid in free space, with
closest to the other sphere, even when this is not the central radius A and tube radius a, at a radial distance r
point of maximum electric field (as when v1 and v2 and axial distance z from the center, is found as:
have the same sign). Note that at that point the 


2V Qn −1 2 ( x)
calculation using rings, as formulated, calculates an  (, ) = 2(cosh  − cos  ) n Pn −1/ 2 (cosh ) cos n;
 Pn −1 2 ( x)
electric field slightly smaller than the correct value. n =0

 n = 1 2 for n = 0, 1 for n  0;
A
VIII. CAPACITANCES OF TWO SPHERES x= ; c = A2 − a 2 ;
a
1 z 2 + (r + c) 2
Similar formulas, due to Kirchhoff, lead to the  = ln 2 ;
2 z + (r − c) 2
capacitance matrix of two spheres [5]. For two spheres z c
with radii a and b and distance between centers c: sin  = sinh ; cos  = cosh  − sinh 
r r
  sin  2cz
  2   = tan −1 = tan −1 2 ;
k11 = 8 0  + + + ; cos  r + z 2 − c2
1 +  2
1 +  
2 2
1 +  
4 2

(38)
   2

k22 = 8 0  + + + ; The surface electric field can be found by the
1 +  1+  1+  
2 2 2 4 2
 (34) differentiation of (38). The maximum occurs when
  2 3  cosh  = x =A/a (toroid surface) and =0 (major
k12 = −8 0  + + + ;
1 +  2
1 +  4
1 +  6
 diameter). The result, hinted in [3] but not developed,
is the series:
2  c − a 
 = 1+ − ; = ; = ; 
4 2V (x − cos  )
 Pcos n(x)
3/ 2
a 2
a b  E= (39)
(c + a + b )(c − a − b )(c + a − b )(c − a + b ) (
d x 2 − 1 ) n =0
n
n −1 2

=
2c The ideal exact breakdown voltage can then be
These formulas also converge slowly when the spheres obtained as in (24). This series converges somewhat
are at small distance. [5] shows better formulas for more slowly than (9) but still can achieve high
small distances. [11][12] have the exact solution when precision. The series (38) may lose precision due to
the spheres are touching, eq. (49). errors in the evaluation of Qn+1/2(x) by the recursion
(13).
The coefficients of the capacitance matrix represent the
ratio between the induced charges and the voltages. k11 X. OTHER CAPACITANCES
and k12 represent capacitances to ground from a sphere
with the other sphere grounded, and –k12 is the floating Other capacitances, of shapes without circular
capacitance between the spheres. The differential symmetry, are known from numerical analysis.
capacitance between the spheres is obtained by Classical cases are the capacitances of the square [13]
assuming opposite charges q on them: and triangular [6] flat plates, the cube [7] and the
2
tetrahedron [6], all with side a:
v1 − v2 k k −k
Cdiff = = 11 22 12 (35)
q k11 + k22 + 2k12 Csquare = 40a  0.3667896 = 40.81085a pF (40)
The capacitances to ground with the other sphere
floating can also be calculated, by assuming zero Ctriangle = 40a  0.25096 = 27.293a pF (41)
charge in the floating sphere:
2 2
Ccube = 40a  0.6606782 = 73.51036a pF (42)
k k −k k k −k
C10 = 11 22 12 ; C20 = 11 22 12 (36)
k22 k11 Ctetrahedron = 40a  0.35688 = 39.708a pF (43)
The capacitance of both spheres to ground is simply the
sum of the four coefficients, because both are at the XI. FORCES BETWEEN RINGS
same potential and the total charge appears in the ratio
C = Q/V. This capacitance can be used to find the The force between thin coaxial filaments can be
relation between total charge and voltage in a pith-ball calculated by an integration of the Coulomb force
electroscope. For equal spheres it varies between (6) between them. For two rings with radii A and a and
when the spheres are touching and two times (2) when separation b, containing charges q1 and q2, the force is
they are far apart: given by the double integral (44). The term cos
projects the force along the axis:
C pair = k11 + k22 + 2k12 (37)

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1 cos  The formula reduces to the well-known case of a

F=
4 0  r2
dq dq ' ; charged ring and a point charge if one ring has zero
radius. In this case k = c = 0 and (0,0) = /2:
r= A2 + a 2 + b 2 − 2 Aa cos ( − ');
q1q2b  q1q2b
cos  = b / r ; F12 = = (47)
(44)
(
2  0 A + b
2 2
)
2 3/ 2
(
2 4 0 A2 + b 2 )
3/ 2

q
dq = 1 d; To calculate the forces in conductors decomposed in
2
q rings, the charges in the rings are first calculated using
dq ' = 2 d' ; q=CV and then the forces in each ring can be obtained
2
qq
22
bdd'
by (46), by adding the values obtained between a given
F12 = 1 32  
16  0 0 0 ( A + a + b 2 − 2 Aa cos ( − ')
2 2
)
3 ring and all the others. Finally, the forces in all the
rings belonging to each conductor are added. The
This integral can be exactly solved in terms of the calculations for rings belonging to a single conductor
complete elliptic integral of the third kind (45), which can be omitted, because they add to zero (and this is a
is also easy to evaluate. The code below computes in good test of the algorithm).
few iterations the three complete elliptic integrals E(k),
F(k), and (k,c): The same result can be obtained by computing the
forces multiplying the total axial electric field seen by a
/ 2
ring by its charge, using (29):

(
d
 (k , c) = (45)
0
2
)
1 − c sin  1 − k 2sin 2
2
F12 =
q1q2b
3
(
2 2  0 r1 1 − k 2
E (k )
)
{ 2 Aa (48)
Complete elliptic integrals of first, second, k=
and third kinds - AGM r1
Returns the global variables Ek=E(k), Fk=F(k),
and IIkc=II(k,c) r1 = ( A + a )2 + b 2
Reference: Garrett, Journal of Applied
Physics, 34, 9, 1963, p. 2571 XII. EXAMPLES
}
procedure EFII(k,c:real); Some toroids analyzed by the methods above. Vmax was
var
a,b,d,e,f,a1,b1,d1,e1,f1,S,i:real; obtained from (39) and (24), except for the “holeless”
begin toroid, where (23) and (24) were used. All the
a:=1;
b:=sqrt(1-sqr(k)); capacitances (in this and the other examples) in pF:
d:=(1-sqr(c))/b;
e:=sqr(c)/(1-sqr(c)); Dxd Cexact 20 rings 200 rings Vmax (kV)
f:=0; 0.2x0.1 9.6877342 9.6862459 9.6877328 226.2
i:=1/2; 0.3x0.1 13.527991 13.526517 13.527990 282.9485
S:=i*sqr(a-b); 0.4x0.1 17.200315 17.198812 17.200313 328.9148
repeat
a1:=(a+b)/2; 0.5x0.1 20.738038 20.736480 20.738037 367.4999
b1:=sqrt(a*b);
i:=2*i; Open hemispheres (D = diameter):
S:=S+i*sqr(a1-b1);
d1:=b1/(4*a1)*(2+d+1/d);
e1:=(d*e+f)/(1+d); D Cexact 20 rings 200 rings
f1:=(e+f)/2; 0.2 9.1049254 9.0451871 9.0989244
a:=a1; 0.3 13.657388 13.567781 13.648387
b:=b1; 0.4 18.209851 18.090374 18.197849
d:=d1; 0.5 22.762314 22.612968 22.747311
e:=e1;
f:=f1;
until (abs(a-b)<1e-15) and (abs(d-1)<1e-15); Flat disks (D = diameter):
Fk:=pi/(2*a);
Ek:=Fk-Fk*(sqr(k)+S)/2;
IIkc:=Fk*f+Fk; D Cexact 20 rings 200 rings
end; 0.2 7.0833502 7.0067052 7.0757027
0.3 10.625025 10.510058 10.613554
0.4 14.166701 14.013411 14.151405
The solution for the force is: 0.5 17.708376 17.516763 17.689257
q1q2b
F12 =  (k , c )
2 2  0 r1
3 Hollow cylinders (D = diameter, h = height):
2 Aa (46) D h 20 rings 200 rings
k =c=
r1 0.2 1 27.2508153 27.5562772
0.3 1 32.7125753 33.0502066
r1 = ( A + a )2 + b 2 0.4 1 37.6883716 38.0515957
0.5 1 42.3659124 42.7508210

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7

Hollow cones (D = diameter, h = height): Dxd 20 rings 200 rings 400 rings
0.3x0.1 13.5176679 13.5296046 13.5296149
D h 20 rings 200 rings 0.4x0.1 17.2225678 17.2348074 17.2348180
0.2 1 20.6332474 20.8219907 0.5x0.1 20.8623320 20.8748605 20.8748714
0.3 1 24.3200548 24.5554254
0.4 1 27.7305014 28.0027331 Maximum electric field between spheres with opposite
0.5 1 30.9951485 31.3004301
voltages. Half of the rings to each sphere. Dimensions
as in (33). Fields in V/m/V:
In the last two cases no explicit formulas were found in
the literature, although very probably they are known. a, b, c Exact 40 rings 400 rings
0.1, 0.1, 0.5 14.7654541 14.654655 14.762658
The general algorithm for objects with axial symmetry 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 20.7165237 20.434842 20.711307
was implemented in the Inca program and used to 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 32.2318226 31.394734 32.219293
generate the next examples:
Capacitance matrix for two spheres. Half of the rings to
A closed hemisphere can be generated by the each sphere. Dimensions as in (33):
combination of an open hemisphere and a flat disk (half
of the rings for each element, D = diameter): k11 (radius a)
a, b, c Exact 40 rings 400 rings
D Cexact 20 rings 200 rings 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 11.6112177 11.6108704 11.6112174
0.2 9.4052249 9.3751321 9.4038325 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 12.3051750 12.3047650 12.3051745
0.3 14.1078374 14.0626982 14.1057488 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 13.7605384 13.7603742 13.7605373
0.4 18.8104499 18.7502642 18.8076651 k22 (radius b)
0.5 23.5130623 23.4378303 23.5095813 a, b, c Exact (pF) 40 rings 400 rings
0.1, 0.1, 0.5 11.6112177 11.6108704 11.6112174
Two spheres in contact (D = diameter, half of the rings 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 24.3154312 24.3146700 24.3154303
0.1, 0.3, 0.5 38.6334041 38.6326963 38.6334025
for each sphere):
k12
D Cexact 20 rings 200 rings a, b, c Exact (pF) 40 rings 400 rings
0.1 7.7123025 7.7105894 7.7123007 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 -2.3264588 -2.3263316 -2.3264587
0.2 15.4246050 15.4211788 15.4246014 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 -4.9456676 -4.9454137 -4.9456673
0.3 23.1369075 23.1317682 23.1369021 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 -8.3626059 -8.3626805 -8.3626051
0.4 30.8492100 30.8423576 30.8492028
0.5 38.5615125 38.5529470 38.5615035 Force between the two halves of a charged sphere. The
exact value is simply F =  0v 2 / 2 , independent of the
Two different spheres in contact. Some cases are listed radius of the sphere. The approximate calculation is
in [11][12]. For spheres of radii a and b, when a = 2b also independent of it. Values for 1 V at the sphere.
C = 4 0 a Ln 3 , and when a = 3b C = 4 0 a3 / 4 Ln 4 .
Radius (m) Exact (pN) 40 rings 400 rings
a, b Exact 40 rings 400 rings 1 13.90813 13.56727 13.87342
0.1, 0.05 12.2237103 12.2233396 12.2237099
0.1, 0.0333... 11.5684538 11.5680790 11.5684534 Force between two equal spheres at the same potential,
0.1,0.025 11.3481786 11.3477839 11.3481782 of 1 V. The exact values were computed by the
approximations in [8] and [9]. The exact value for
The last case, a = 4b, is more complicated, spheres in contact is F = 4 0v 2 (Ln 2 − 1 / 4) / 6 [10].
( (( ) ))
C = 4 0 a 1 / 2 Ln 5 + 2 5 / 10 Ln 1 + 5 / 2 . The general
case can be computed by the formula in [11] (in a a, b, c Exact (pN) 40 rings 400 rings
different form) and [12]: 0.1, 0.1, 0.2 8.217796 8.218122 8.217796
0.1, 0.1, 0.5 ~2.996884 2.996774 2.996872
ab   b   a  
C = 4 0  −   −   − 2  (49) 0.1, 0.1, 1.0 ~0.915993 0.915949 0.915993
a + b   a + b   a + b  
where (x) is the digamma function (x) = ’(x)/(x), Force between the two halves of a horned toroid at 1 V.
derivative of the logarithm of the gamma function, and This case apparently has no known exact solution. The
 is Euler’s constant,   0.577215665. force doesn’t depend on the size of the device and is
proportional to the square of the potential, as happens
A toroid with the central hole closed by a thin disk. in all cases of objects in contact. Forces in pN
Note the small difference to a regular toroid. A toroid
D (m) 40 rings 200 rings 400 rings
where the closure of the central hole doubles the
1 15.55986 16.02683 16.08724
capacitance would have an aspect ratio of about
10.0004. Half of the rings for each element, D = Force between two stacked horned toroids in contact, at
major diameter, d = diameter of the tube: 1V. The exact solution is unknown, but in this case the

Created: 5/11/2003. Last update: 7/7/2018

8

numerical analysis is expected to be precise. Forces in [8] A. Russel, “The mutual attractions and repulsions
pN. of two electrified spherical conductors,” Journal of
D (m) 40 rings 200 rings 400 rings the IEE, Vol. 48, 211, pp. 257-268, 1912.
1 10.53158 10.53005 10.53003 [9] A. Russel, “The electrostatic problem of two
conducting spheres, Journal of the IEE, Vol. 65,
The force increases as the aspect ratio of the toroids 365, pp. 517-535, May 1927.
increase. It doubles for a 12.68741 toroid. [10] W. Thomsom (Lord Kelvin), “On the mutual
attraction and repulsion between two electrified
The problem with this approach is that as the number spherical conductors,” Philosophical Magazine,
of rings increases it becomes more and more difficult to Vol. 5, 32, pp. 287-297, 1853.
invert the matrix P with precision and in reasonable [11] A. Russell, "The coefficients of capacity and the
time. The examples show that the method is not very mutual attractions or repulsions of two electrified
precise for objects with edges. The precision can be spherical conductors when close together,"
enhanced by adding more rings to the regions close to Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series
edges. For example, in the example of force between A, Vol. 82, No. 557, pp. 524-531, July 1909,
the two halves of a sphere, if the ±10 degrees around [12] A. Russell, “The electrostatic capacity of two
the equator of the sphere are modeled with 300 rings, spheres when touching one another,” Proc. Phys.
with 100 rings for the remaining surface, the obtained Soc. London 37 pp. 282-286, 1924.
force is of 13.90274 pN, with 4 correct digits. For the [13] F.H. Read, “Capacitances and singularities of the
horned toroid, the same distribution produces 16.14268 unit triangle, square, tetrahedron and cube,”
pN, or 40  0.1450832 N, possibly with similar COMPEL, 23, 2, pp. 572-578, 2004.
precision.
CHANGES
In the last page is a table of exact toroid capacitances
calculated by (9). Note that it would be enough to have 9/2/2011: Corrected eq. 9 and small corrections in the
a single column with normalized aspect ratios, since for text.
a fixed aspect ratio the capacitance is directly 6/1/2012: Corrected eq. 33.
proportional to the major (or minor) diameter. 9/1/2012: Added section IX.
10/2/2012: Added eq. 37.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to Paul Nicholson for 15/2/2012: Added section about forces.
discussions and verifications, and to Godfrey Loudner 24/2/2012: Added formula for the capacitance of two
for several papers and the derivation of (39). different spheres in contact.
25/2/2012: Added more examples of forces, small
This document is not a published paper. corrections.
7/7/2018: Better values for the capacitances of the
REFERENCES square plate and others.

[1] James Clerk Maxwell, “A Treatise on Electricity

and Magnetism, Dover Publications Inc, New York,
1954 (reprint from the original from 1873).
[2] Chester Snow, “Formulas for Computing
Capacitance and Inductance,” National Bureau of
Standards Circular #544.
[3] W. M. Hicks, “On toroidal functions,” Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, 1, 31, March 1881.
[4] Alexander Russel, “The maximum value of the
electrical stress between two unequal spherical
electrodes,” Proceedings of the Physical Society of
London, November 1911, pp. 22-29.
[5] Alexander Russel, “The capacity coefficients of
spherical electrodes,” Proceedings of the Physical
Society of London, June 1911, pp. 352-360.
[6] H.J. Wintle, “The capacitance of the regular
tetrahedron and equilateral triangle,” Journal of
Electrostatics, Volume 26, Issue 2, August 1991,
pp. 115–120.
[7] Chi-Ok Hwang and Michael Mascagni, “Electrical
capacitance of the unit cube,” J. Appl. Phys. 95,
3798 2004.

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9

Exact toroid capacitances (diameters in meters, capacitances in pF)

Minor d. 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.100 0.110 0.120 0.130 0.140 0.150 0.160 0.170 0.180
Major d.
0.100 3.707 4.148 4.431 4.653 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.125 4.468 5.001 5.340 5.598 5.816 6.010 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.150 5.205 5.827 6.221 6.518 6.764 6.979 7.174 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.175 5.923 6.630 7.080 7.417 7.691 7.929 8.143 8.339 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.200 6.625 7.414 7.919 8.295 8.600 8.861 9.094 9.306 9.503 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.225 7.313 8.182 8.740 9.156 9.492 9.778 10.029 10.258 10.469 10.667 10.854 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.250 7.990 8.937 9.547 10.002 10.369 10.679 10.951 11.196 11.422 11.632 11.831 12.019 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.275 8.657 9.679 10.340 10.834 11.232 11.567 11.860 12.122 12.362 12.586 12.796 12.995 13.184 ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
0.300 9.316 10.411 11.121 11.654 12.082 12.443 12.757 13.037 13.292 13.528 13.749 13.959 14.158 14.349 ------- ------- ------- -------
0.325 9.966 11.133 11.892 12.462 12.921 13.307 13.642 13.940 14.211 14.460 14.693 14.913 15.122 15.322 15.513 15.698 ------- -------
0.350 10.609 11.846 12.653 13.260 13.749 14.160 14.517 14.833 15.119 15.383 15.628 15.858 16.077 16.285 16.485 16.678 16.863 -------
0.375 11.246 12.551 13.405 14.048 14.567 15.003 15.381 15.716 16.019 16.296 16.553 16.794 17.023 17.240 17.449 17.649 17.842 18.029
0.400 11.876 13.250 14.149 14.828 15.376 15.838 16.237 16.590 16.909 17.200 17.470 17.722 17.961 18.187 18.404 18.612 18.812 19.006
0.425 12.502 13.941 14.886 15.600 16.177 16.663 17.084 17.456 17.791 18.096 18.379 18.643 18.891 19.126 19.351 19.567 19.775 19.976
0.450 13.122 14.627 15.616 16.365 16.970 17.481 17.922 18.313 18.664 18.984 19.280 19.555 19.814 20.059 20.292 20.516 20.731 20.938
0.475 13.737 15.306 16.340 17.122 17.756 18.291 18.753 19.162 19.530 19.865 20.173 20.460 20.729 20.984 21.226 21.457 21.680 21.894
0.500 14.348 15.981 17.057 17.874 18.535 19.093 19.577 20.005 20.389 20.738 21.060 21.358 21.638 21.902 22.153 22.392 22.622 22.844
0.525 14.955 16.650 17.769 18.619 19.308 19.890 20.394 20.840 21.240 21.604 21.939 22.250 22.540 22.814 23.074 23.322 23.559 23.787
0.550 15.558 17.315 18.476 19.358 20.075 20.680 21.204 21.668 22.085 22.464 22.812 23.135 23.436 23.720 23.989 24.245 24.489 24.725
0.575 16.157 17.975 19.177 20.092 20.836 21.464 22.009 22.491 22.924 23.317 23.678 24.013 24.326 24.619 24.897 25.162 25.414 25.657
0.600 16.753 18.631 19.874 20.821 21.591 22.242 22.807 23.307 23.756 24.164 24.539 24.886 25.209 25.513 25.800 26.073 26.334 26.584
0.625 17.346 19.284 20.567 21.546 22.342 23.016 23.601 24.118 24.583 25.006 25.393 25.752 26.087 26.401 26.698 26.979 27.248 27.505
0.650 17.935 19.932 21.256 22.265 23.088 23.784 24.388 24.924 25.405 25.842 26.243 26.614 26.959 27.284 27.590 27.880 28.157 28.421
0.675 18.522 20.577 21.940 22.981 23.829 24.547 25.171 25.724 26.221 26.672 27.086 27.469 27.826 28.161 28.477 28.776 29.060 29.333
0.700 19.105 21.218 22.621 23.692 24.566 25.306 25.949 26.520 27.032 27.498 27.925 28.320 28.688 29.033 29.358 29.666 29.959 30.239
0.725 19.686 21.856 23.298 24.399 25.298 26.060 26.723 27.310 27.838 28.318 28.759 29.166 29.545 29.900 30.235 30.552 30.853 31.141
0.750 20.265 22.492 23.971 25.103 26.027 26.810 27.492 28.097 28.640 29.134 29.588 30.007 30.397 30.763 31.107 31.433 31.742 32.037
0.775 20.841 23.124 24.641 25.803 26.751 27.556 28.257 28.879 29.438 29.946 30.412 30.843 31.245 31.621 31.974 32.309 32.627 32.930
0.800 21.414 23.753 25.308 26.499 27.472 28.299 29.018 29.657 30.231 30.753 31.232 31.675 32.088 32.474 32.837 33.181 33.507 33.818
0.825 21.985 24.379 25.972 27.192 28.190 29.037 29.775 30.430 31.020 31.556 32.048 32.503 32.926 33.323 33.696 34.048 34.383 34.702
0.850 22.554 25.003 26.633 27.882 28.904 29.772 30.529 31.200 31.805 32.355 32.859 33.326 33.761 34.167 34.550 34.912 35.255 35.581
0.875 23.121 25.625 27.292 28.569 29.615 30.504 31.279 31.967 32.586 33.150 33.667 34.146 34.591 35.008 35.400 35.771 36.122 36.457
0.900 23.686 26.244 27.947 29.253 30.323 31.232 32.025 32.729 33.364 33.941 34.471 34.961 35.417 35.845 36.246 36.626 36.986 37.328
0.925 24.249 26.860 28.600 29.934 31.027 31.957 32.768 33.489 34.138 34.728 35.271 35.773 36.240 36.677 37.089 37.477 37.846 38.196
0.950 24.810 27.474 29.250 30.613 31.729 32.679 33.508 34.245 34.908 35.513 36.068 36.581 37.059 37.507 37.927 38.325 38.702 39.060
0.975 25.369 28.086 29.898 31.288 32.428 33.398 34.245 34.997 35.676 36.293 36.861 37.386 37.874 38.332 38.762 39.169 39.554 39.920
1.000 25.927 28.696 30.543 31.962 33.124 34.114 34.979 35.747 36.440 37.071 37.650 38.187 38.686 39.154 39.594 40.009 40.403 40.777
1.025 26.482 29.304 31.186 32.632 33.818 34.827 35.709 36.494 37.201 37.845 38.437 38.985 39.495 39.973 40.422 40.846 41.248 41.630
1.050 27.036 29.910 31.827 33.300 34.509 35.538 36.437 37.237 37.959 38.616 39.220 39.779 40.300 40.788 41.246 41.680 42.090 42.480
1.075 27.588 30.514 32.466 33.966 35.197 36.246 37.163 37.978 38.714 39.384 40.000 40.571 41.102 41.600 42.068 42.510 42.929 43.327
1.100 28.139 31.116 33.103 34.630 35.883 36.951 37.885 38.716 39.466 40.149 40.778 41.360 41.901 42.409 42.886 43.337 43.764 44.170
1.125 28.688 31.716 33.737 35.291 36.567 37.654 38.605 39.452 40.215 40.912 41.552 42.145 42.698 43.215 43.701 44.161 44.596 45.010
1.150 29.236 32.315 34.370 35.950 37.248 38.355 39.323 40.185 40.962 41.671 42.324 42.928 43.491 44.018 44.513 44.982 45.425 45.847
1.175 29.782 32.911 35.001 36.608 37.927 39.053 40.038 40.915 41.706 42.428 43.092 43.708 44.281 44.818 45.323 45.800 46.252 46.681
1.200 30.327 33.506 35.629 37.263 38.604 39.749 40.751 41.643 42.448 43.183 43.859 44.485 45.068 45.615 46.129 46.615 47.075 47.513
1.225 30.871 34.100 36.256 37.916 39.279 40.443 41.461 42.368 43.187 43.935 44.622 45.259 45.853 46.409 46.933 47.427 47.895 48.341
1.250 31.413 34.692 36.882 38.567 39.952 41.134 42.169 43.091 43.924 44.684 45.383 46.031 46.635 47.201 47.734 48.237 48.713 49.166
1.275 31.953 35.282 37.505 39.216 40.623 41.824 42.875 43.812 44.658 45.431 46.142 46.801 47.415 47.990 48.532 49.043 49.528 49.989
1.300 32.493 35.871 38.127 39.864 41.292 42.511 43.579 44.531 45.390 46.175 46.898 47.568 48.192 48.777 49.327 49.848 50.341 50.809
1.325 33.031 36.458 38.747 40.510 41.959 43.197 44.281 45.247 46.120 46.918 47.652 48.332 48.966 49.561 50.121 50.649 51.150 51.627
1.350 33.568 37.044 39.365 41.154 42.624 43.880 44.980 45.961 46.848 47.658 48.403 49.094 49.739 50.343 50.911 51.448 51.957 52.442
1.375 34.104 37.628 39.982 41.796 43.287 44.562 45.678 46.674 47.574 48.395 49.152 49.854 50.509 51.122 51.699 52.245 52.762 53.254
1.400 34.639 38.211 40.598 42.436 43.949 45.241 46.374 47.384 48.297 49.131 49.899 50.612 51.276 51.899 52.485 53.039 53.565 54.064
1.425 35.172 38.792 41.212 43.075 44.609 45.919 47.068 48.092 49.019 49.865 50.644 51.367 52.041 52.674 53.269 53.831 54.364 54.872
1.450 35.705 39.373 41.824 43.713 45.267 46.595 47.760 48.799 49.738 50.596 51.387 52.120 52.805 53.446 54.050 54.621 55.162 55.677
1.475 36.236 39.952 42.435 44.349 45.923 47.270 48.450 49.503 50.456 51.326 52.128 52.872 53.566 54.216 54.829 55.408 55.957 56.480
1.500 36.766 40.530 43.045 44.983 46.578 47.942 49.138 50.206 51.171 52.053 52.866 53.621 54.324 54.984 55.606 56.193 56.751 57.280

Created: 5/11/2003. Last update: 7/7/2018