BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

By,
P vardhini
Assistant Professor
CIVIL Department
VIIT, Visakhapatnam
 Classification of Industrial solid waste
• The solid wastes produced by industries are broadly classified in two
categories:
(i) Non-hazardous solid waste
(ii) Hazardous solid waste

• Non-hazardous solid waste: The non-hazardous generated by various industries

can further be classified in two categories:
(i) Biodegradable
(ii) Non-biodegradable
• Biodegradable wastes: The major industries in urban areas that generate
substantial amounts of non-hazardous biodegradable solid wastes are: fruit
processing, cotton mills, sugar mills, textile factories, etc.

• Non-biodegradable wastes: The non-hazardous and non-biodegradable

solid wastes are produced by industries usually referred to as industrial
solid waste. They are usually produced by industries such as thermal
power plant – which produced coal ash, integrated iron and steel plant –
produces blast furnace slag and steel slag waste, non-ferrous industries like
aluminium, zinc, and copper industries produces red muds and tailings, etc.
• Hazardous solid waste: Some of the wastes generated by industries are deemed to be
hazardous waste because they contain substances that are toxic to plants, animals, and
humans, as well as, they are highly corrosive, explosive, and highly reactive.

• The major industries that produces hazardous wastes are metal industries, chemicals,
drugs, pharmaceutical, leather, pulp and paper, electroplating, refining, pesticides,
rubber industries, etc.

• Wastes are classified to be hazardous under the “Hazardous Wastes (Management and
Handling Rules, 2002) amendment act 2002.

• Wastes substances exceeding their prescribed limit becomes hazardous.

Table: Existing methods of industrial solid waste disposal from various
industries
 Bio-Medical Waste
• The wastes (solid and liquid waste) that are generated from hospitals, clinics,
research laboratories, diagnostic centers, and veterinary hospitals are called as
bio-medical waste. These wastes are potential sources of health hazards and
need to be disposed safely.
• In India, bio-medical wastes are handled under Biomedical Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules 1998, notified under EPA 1986.
• Under this act, every health care institute will have to make arrangements to
ensure that their produced waste is handled and managed without causing any
health impacts on human beings and environment.
• In order to safety and economic disposal of bio-medical wastes, it is necessary
to collect the waste by suitable segregation, and level them into hazardous and
non-hazardous category.
 Collection and Treatment of Bio-medical Waste
1) Segregation of Biomedical wastes into 4 categories of bins:
Yellow Red White Blue

Category Type of Bag/container Type of Waste Treatment/Disposal

methods
Non-chlorinated plastic bags • Human anatomical waste Incineration or Deep burial
• Animal anatomical waste
• Expired or discarded medicines
• Chemical waste
• Micro-bio and other clinical waste
Non-chlorinated plastic bags Contaminated waste (recyclable): tubes, bottled, Autoclaving and then sent for
or containers catheters, urine bags, syringes, and gloves. recycling or else to landfills

Translucent, leak and amber Waste sharps including metals Autoclaving or dry heat
proof containers sterilization followed by
shredding or encapsulation
Cardboard boxes with blue Glassware Disinfection using autoclave
colour marking and then sent for recycling
2) Collection and storage of sharp waste

• The sharp wastes include needles, capillary tubes, scalpel blades, syringes with attached
needles, slides, and broken glassware.
• The sharp waste always required attention as they constitute a unique category of bio-
medical waste and pose a risk factor of many infectious pathogens.
• The sharp wastes should, therefore, be placed in a puncture resistant containers with
disinfectant 1 % Na hypochlorite for 30 minutes contact time or through autoclaving.
Besides, the sharp wastes should be mutilated at the point of collection using needle
destroyer.
Levelling for identification of Bio-medical waste
• Labelling is essential for the correct identification and handling of bio-medical waste. It
warns the workers, patients, and public about the existence of waste and their potential health
hazards.
• All labelling and signs should follow the international symbols and colour coding.
• All the infected, soiled, pathological, human, and sharp wastes should be marked with bio-
hazard symbol, representing cytotoxic waste.
4) Storage of Bio-medical waste
• According to the rules, the infectious waste can not be stored for more than 48
hours.
• In hospitals, in case of unavailability of disposal system of infectious waste,
these wastes are stored on on-site available refrigerators to prevent rotting and
evolution of offensive smell.
• These wastes may then the carted and stored in off-site storage facilities away
from general public.
5) Treatment and Disposal of Bio-medical waste
• The hazardous waste from hospitals can be treated using the following
methods before their final disposal:
(i) Chemical disinfection
(ii) Autoclaving
(iii) Hydroclaving
(iv) Microwaving
(v) Incineration

(i) Chemical disinfection: In this method, the waste is disinfected by the use of
chemicals such as chlorine compounds (hypochlorite and bleaching powder),
phenolic compounds, alcohols, and formaldehyde, etc. The wastes are usually
shredded before the application of disinfectant. After shredding, wastes are kept
submerged in the disinfectant aqueous solution before their final disposal into
the landfills.
(ii) Autoclaving: Autoclaving is a high pressure and low heat thermal
process designed to bring the steam in direct contact of wastes under
pressure for sufficient duration to disinfect the waste.
• There are three basic types of autoclaving system viz. gravity system, pre-
vacuum system, and retort system.
• After autoclaving, wastes are shredded and disposed suitably either by
burial method or into the landfills.

Fig: Autoclaving of medical waste Fig: Laboratory autoclave

(iii)Hydroclaving: Hydroclaving is an advanced form of autoclaving method. In
this, indirect heating is done by providing steam into the outer jackets of a double
walled container, while the waste inside the inner wall of the container is
continuously turned using a suitable mechanism.
The continuous stirring causes waste to be fragmented and tumbled against the
hot vessel.

(iv)Microwaving: Unlike the other thermal treatment methods, where wastes are
heated externally; in microwave treatment, wastes are heated from inside. This
process involves pre-shredding of waste and heating them inside microwave using
the electromagnetic radiation having frequencies ranging between 3000 MhZ to
3,00,000 MHz.
(V) Incineration: Incineration system involves high temperature combustion,
under controlled conditions, to convert wastes containing infectious and
pathological material to inert mineral residues and gases. Generally, two types of
incinerators are used for the handling of liquid and solid hazardous waste viz.
liquid waste incinerator and rotary kiln incinerator, respectively.
Liquid waste incinerators are used for burning of liquid wastes, while, rotary kiln
incinerator that can be used to burn solid liquid, and sludge wastes.

Fig: Rotary Kiln Incinerator

 E-Waste
E-waste is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of
their useful life. This includes:
• Computers and their peripherals
• Cell phones
• Photocopier
• Digital cameras
• Laptops
Major sources of E-waste
Computers, printers, and scanners from small and medium business
house or offices.
Mobile phones from individual households or from a community center
and institutions.
Television from individual households.
Printed circuit boards from electronic industries or institutions.
Environmental Impacts of E-waste
Effect of E-waste on Human Health
 Management of E-waste
• E-waste can be managed through the impose of a strict e-wase management policy. For
example, The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change rolled out the E-Waste
(Management) Rules in 2016 to reduce e-waste production and increase recycling. Under
these rules, the government introduced EPR which makes producers liable to collect 30 per
cent to 70 per cent (over seven years) of the e-waste they produce.
• Producers need to comply with the threshold limits for the use of the hazardous such as lead,
mercury, cadmium, and chromium in the electronic devices.
• Producers has been catered with the responsibility to collect e-waste generated from the end
of life of their products, and must ensure to channelize the e-waste to registered dismantler
and recycler.
• Every e-waste recycler segregates the hazardous and non-hazardous componenets present in
e-waste. Thereafter, the recyclable materials such as as pvc boards, plastics, and heavy
metals are recycled from the e-waste for further uses and rest of the materials are discarded
to landfills. Every e-waste recycler needs to be registered with the respective state pollution
control board.
• Also by increasing the awareness about e-waste in the society and their management
techniques.
 Nuclear Waste
• Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive
material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear
research, nuclear medicines, nuclear power generation, rare earth mining , and
nuclear weapon reprocessing.
• Transuranic waste
It is a class of nuclear waste contaminated by nuclear elements heavier than
uranium, such as diluted plutonium. This waste can be disposed in the deep
geological repositories. For example, the USA has only one deep geologic
repository for the disposal of defense-related transuranic waste – the Waste
Isolation Pilot Plant, New Mexico.
 Disposal methods of nuclear waste
Followings methods can be used for the disposal of radioactive or nuclear waste:
1) Geological disposal
• The process of geological disposal centers on burrowing nuclear waste into the
ground to the point where it is out of human reach.
• The waste needs to be properly protected to stop any material from leaking out.
Seepage from the waste could contaminate the water table if the burial location
is above or below the water level.
• Furthermore, the waste needs to be properly fastened to the burial site and also
structurally supported in the event of a major seismic event, which could result
in immediate contamination.
2) Reprocessing
• Reprocessing has also emerged as a viable long term method for dealing with waste.
• As the name implies, the process involves taking waste and separating the useful components
from those that aren’t as useful. Specifically, it involves taking the fissionable material out
from the irradiated nuclear fuel.
• Concerns regarding re-processing have largely focused around nuclear proliferation and how
much easier re-processing would allow fissionable material to spread.

3) Transmutation
Transmutation also poses a solution for long term disposal. It specifically involves converting a
chemical element into another less harmful one.
The driving force behind transmutation is chemical reactions that are caused from an outside
stimulus, such as a proton hitting the reaction materials. Natural transmutation can also occur
over a long period of time. Natural transmutation also serves as the principle force behind
geological storage on the assumption that giving the waste enough isolated time will allow it to
become a non-fissionable material that poses little or no risk.
4) Space Disposal
Space disposal has emerged as an option, but not as a very viable one. Specifically, space
disposal centers around putting nuclear waste on a space shuttle and launching the shuttle
into space.
This becomes a problem from both a practicality and economic standpoint as the amount
of nuclear waste that could be shipped on a single shuttle would be extremely small
compared to the total amount of waste that would need to be dealt with. Furthermore, the
possibility of the shuttle exploding enroute to space could only make the matter worse as
such an explosion would only cause the nuclear waste to spread out far beyond any
reasonable measure of control.
 Sanitation
• Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe
disposal of human urine and faeces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the
maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection
and wastewater disposal.
• Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that
will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route.
• A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal
or reuse of human excreta and wastewater.
• There are four types of sanitation systems: Excreta management systems,
wastewater management systems, Solid waste management, and Stormwater
management.
1) Excreta Management
• Excreta management can be done using both container based system and community
led sanitation. Container based sanitation refers to a sanitation system where toilets
collect human excreta in sealable, removable containers (also called cartridges) that
are transported to treatment facilities.
• This type of sanitation involves a commercial service which provides certain types
of portable toilets, and delivers empty containers when picking up full ones. The
service transports and safely disposes of or reuses collected excreta. The cost of
collection of excreta is usually borne by the users.
• Community-led-sanitation is an approach used mainly in developing countries to
improve sanitation and hygiene practices in a community. The approach tries to
achieve behavior change in mainly rural people by a process of "triggering", leading
to spontaneous and long-term abandonment of open defecation practices.
2) Wastewater Management
• Wastewater management consists of collection, wastewater treatment (be it
municipal or industrial wastewater), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater.
The latter is also referred to as water reclamation.
• Sanitation systems in urban areas of developed countries usually consist of the
collection of wastewater in gravity driven sewers, its treatment in wastewater
treatment plants for reuse or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea.

3) Solid waste management

Disposal of solid waste is most commonly conducted in landfills, but
incineration, recycling, composting and conversion to biofuels are also avenues. In the
case of landfills, advanced countries typically have rigid protocols for daily cover with
topsoil, where underdeveloped countries customarily rely upon less stringent
protocols.[45] The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and
spreading of pathogens. Daily cover also minimizes odor emissions and reduces
windblown litter.
4) Stormwater Management
Sewers are either combined with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary
sewers. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas.
Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows
or sanitary sewer overflows, i.e., more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into
the environment.
Low-cost Sanitation Systems
2) Sulabh Sauchalaya
• Sulabh flush compost toilet is eco-friendly, technically appropriate, socio-culturally
acceptable and economically affordable.
• It is an indigenous technology and the toilet can easily be constructed by local labour and
materials. It provides health benefits by safe disposal of human excreta on-site.
• It consists of a pan with a steep slope of 25°-28° and an especially designed trap with 20
mm waterseal requiring only 1 to 1.5 litres of water for flushing, thus helping conserve
water.
• It does not need scavengers to clean the pits. There are two pits of varying size and
capacity depending on the number of users. The capacity of each pit is normally designed
for 3 years’ usage
 Sanitation Methods in Hospitals
Different areas require different levels of cleanliness, e.g. the OPD and waiting areas do not require a
very high level of cleanliness as compared to that of the Operation theatre or the ICU.

• Preparation
1. Put gumboots or disposable shoe covers
2. Hand-Gloves must always be borne by all personnel engaged in cleaning of Health Facility
3. Wear cap, mask, apron / gown
4. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for proper dilution and contact time for cleaning and disinfecting solutions.

5. Gather materials required for cleaning before entering the room

6. Visibly check and ensure all cleaning equipment itself is clean
7. Remove clutter before cleaning
8. Move cots and furniture as per the directions of the supervisor to one side.
During Cleaning
1.Progress from the least soiled areas to the most soiled areas and from high surfaces to
low surfaces.
2.Remove gross soil (visible to naked eye) prior to cleaning and disinfection.
3.Minimize turbulence to prevent the dispersion of dust that may contain micro-
organisms.
4.Use dust control mop prior to wet/damp mop. Do not use brooms.
5.Wash the mop under running water before doing wet mopping .
6.An area of 120 square feet to be mopped before re-dipping the mop in the solution.
7.Cleaning solution to be changed after cleaning an area of 240 square feet (This does
not apply to critical areas like OT and ICU).
8.Change more frequently in heavily contaminated areas, when visibly soiled and
immediately after cleaning blood and body fluid spills.
9.Be alert for needles and other sharp objects. Safely handle and dispose sharps into
puncture proof container.
10.Collect waste, handle plastic bags from the top (do not compress bags with hands)
11.Clean hands on leaving the room.
After cleaning
1.De-gown carefully, wash and let them dry.
2.Remove your cap and mask wash and let them dry.
3.Remove the gloves wash and let them dry.
4.Wash your hand as per standard procedure
 Unit - 5

Sustainable Development
Sustainable development

Sustainable development is the overarching paradigm of the United Nations. The concept of
sustainable development was described by the 1987 Bruntland Commission Report as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainable development goals

 The 193 Member States of the United Nations reached consensus on the outcome document of a new
sustainable development agenda entitled, “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development”.

 World leaders will officially adopt this universal, integrated and transformative agenda in September to spur
actions that will end poverty and build a more sustainable world over the next 15 years.
 This agenda builds on the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were
adopted in 2000 and guided development action for the last 15 years. The MDGs have proven that global
goals can lift millions out of poverty.
 The new goals are part of an ambitious, bold sustainable development agenda that will
focus on the three interconnected elements of sustainable development: economic
growth, social inclusion and environmental protection.
 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets are global in nature and
universally applicable, taking into account different national realities, capacities and
levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. They are not
independent from each other — they need to be implemented in an integrated manner.
 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets are global in nature and
universally applicable, taking into account different national realities, capacities and
levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. They are not
independent from each other — they need to be implemented in an integrated manner
 Elements of Sustainable Development
• The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next 15 years in areas of critical importance:
people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership.

 People, as we are determined to end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to
ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy
environment.
 Planet, to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and
production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change,
so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations.
 Prosperity, to ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that
economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature.
 Peace, to foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies free from fear and violence. There can
be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development.
 Partnership, to mobilize the means required to implement this Agenda through a revitalised
global partnership for sustainable development, based on a spirit of strengthened global
solidarity, focussed in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with
the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people.
 Indicators of sustainable development
• Followings are the indicators of sustainable development:

• (1) No Poverty 11) Sustainable Cities and Communities

• (2) Zero Hunger (12) Responsible Consumption and Production
• (3) Good Health and Well-being (13) Climate Action
• (4) Quality Education (14) Life Below Water
• (5) Gender Equality (15) Life On Land

• (6) Clean Water and Sanitation (16) Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions

• (7) Affordable and Clean Energy (17) Partnerships for the Goals.

• (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth

• (9) Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

• (10) Reduced Inequality

 Sustainability Strategies
• There are several sustainability strategies that illustrate business sustainability,
they include:
1. Green Space
2. Crop Rotation
3. Sustainable Design and Construction
4. Water Efficient Fixtures
5. Renewable Clean Energy
6. Waste to Energy Recycling
7. Water Treatment
Green space

• Having green spaces in an urban area isn’t just about adding a touch of nature to the cityscape. Developing green spaces
can be part of a larger design plan because of the environmental sustainability benefits that they provide, such as:

 Urban Advantages - Helps to regulate air quality, reducing air temperature from too many paved surfaces, recharging
groundwater supplies and protecting lakes and streams from polluted runoff.

 Water Quality Protection - Proper landscaping reduces nitrate leaching from the soil into the water supply and reduces
surface water runoff, keeping phosphorus and other pollutants out of our waterways

 Reduced Heat Buildup - Trees in a parking lot can reduce on-site heat buildup, decrease runoff and enhance night time cool
downs.

 Reduced Soil Erosion - A dense cover of plants and mulch holds soil in place, keeping sediment out of lakes, streams,
storm drains and roads.

 Improved Air Quality - Trees, shrubs and turf remove smoke, dust and other pollutants from the air.
Crop rotation

• Crop rotation is the practice of planting several dissimilar and different types of plants on the
same land over successive seasons. This practice is done because when the same crop is grown
at the same place for several years the soil is depleted of certain nutrients.

• By rotating crops, a crop that depletes a particular nutrient from the soil can be followed the next
season by a plant that returns that same nutrient back to the soil.

• Some of the environmental benefits of crop rotation include:

 Nitrogen Management - Crop rotation plays a key role in reducing the risk of nitrate, leaching
into surface and groundwater, by improving the availability of soil nitrogen and reducing the
nitrogen fertilizer used.

 Improved Soil Structure - Diversity in the root structure will enhance the chemical, physical
and biological structure of the soil.
 Reduced Soil Erosion - Improvement in soil tilth and microbial communities
will help bring down soil erosion due to more stable soil structure, enhanced
water infiltration and minimized surface runoff.

 Improvement in Pest and Disease Control - Differing plants take away the
host organism and causes a disruption in the annual life cycle of insects,
diseases and weeds.

 Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions - The use of nitrogen fertilizer is

drastically reduced considerably lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

 Reduced Water Pollution - Reduced use of synthetic fertilizers reduces water

pollution caused by nitrogen, and reduced use of pesticides means less run off
into groundwater.
Sustainable designs and construction

• Buildings -- and building construction -- consume resources, generate waste, create potentially harmful
emissions and fundamentally change the function of land -- including its ability to capture water and
absorb it into the ground.

• Sustainable design and construction practices seek to curb or offset the adverse impact.

• In addition to including green spaces, examples include:

 Minimizing Non-Renewable Energy Consumption - Using as many recycled products as possible.

 Using Environmentally Preferable Products - Examples include materials manufactured from recycled
products and from local sources.

 Taking Steps to Conserve Water - Examples include using dual-flush toilets and low-flow faucets.

 Retrofitting Existing Structures - Eliminates the need for demolishing and rebuilding.