Air Pollution and Control

Lecture 1

K Sree Sandhya
Asst. Professor,
VIIT (A).

1
Self-Cleansing of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere, like a river, do possess a self-cleansing property, by which it continuously
remove the pollutants from atmosphere..
• The various natural properties that continuously clean the environment are as follows:
a) Dispersion
b) Gravitational settling
c) Absorption, including washout and scavenging
d) Rainout
e) Adsorption

2
• Dispersion: Dispersion of pollutants by wind reduces the concentration of air pollutants at one
place, although in the strict sense, it doesn’t remove them from the environment. This whole
mechanism is called the diluting process.
• Gravitational settling: It is the most important natural mechanism, under which large heavy
particles from the ambient air settle down on buildings, trees, and other objects. This generally
happens for the particles which are larger than 20 μm in size.
• Absorption: In the natural absorption process, the gaseous as well as particulate matter from
the air get collected in the rain or mist, and may settle out with that moisture. This
phenomenon takes place below the cloud level, when falling raindrops absorb the pollutants,
and is known as washout.
• Rainout: It is the process involving precipitation above the ground level, where submicron
particles present in the atmosphere, serve as the condensation nuclei, around which drops of
water may form, and fall out as raindrops.
• Adsorption: Adsorption is the phenomenon in which the gaseous, liquid or solid pollutants
present in the ambient air are kept attracted, generally electrostatically, by a surface, where
they are concentrated and retained. The particles may come in contact with such surfaces either
by gravitational settling or by inertial impaction, under which the pollutants are carried to such
surfaces by wind.
3
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
The objectives of air quality standards are:
• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of
safety to protect the public health, vegetation and property.
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant
level.
• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level.
• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

4
Indian Air Quality Standard

5
 Control of Air pollutants from Stationary Sources

• Emission control equipment's are usually classified in two general types:

(i) Particulate Control type
(ii) Gases control type.
• The gaseous pollutants can be controlled using wet adsorption and dry
adsorption methods.
• The particulate matter can be controlled using the diffusion process from
the gas stream to a collector surface.

6
 Particulate Matter Emission control
• The devices that can be used to control the particulate matter at the
source are as follows:
a) Gravitational Settling Chamber
b) Cyclone Collectors
c) Wet Scrubbers
d) Electrostatic Precipitators
e) Fabric Filters

7
 Particulate Matter Emission control
• The particulate matter in the gaseous stream consists of discrete and minute
suspended particles having diameter from 1000 μm to 0.1 μm.
• The choice of collection device depends upon the physical and chemical
characteristics of the particulate matter, as well as their size and concentration
in gas
• In general, the collection efficiency of the particulate matter is given as:

Weight of the material collected

η = 100 ×[ ]
Total amount of the particlate matter entering the collector

8
 Gravitational Settling Chambers
• Gravitational settling chambers are usually used to remove large, abrasive
particles having particle diameter (dp) usually greater than 50 μm.
• It offers low pressure drop and requires simple maintenance, but its
efficiency is quite low for particles size smaller than 50 μm.
• It is normally used as pre-cleaners prior to passing the gas through the high
efficiency collecting devices.

Figure: Gravitational Settling Chamber 9

• Terminal settling velocity of particle in the gravitational settling chamber is given as
2 (ρ −ρ )
𝑔 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑔
vt= (For Laminar Flow Re < 1)
18 μ𝑔
Where dpis the particle diameter
ρ𝑝 is the particle density (kg/m3)
ρ𝑔 is the density of carrier gas
μ𝑔 is the viscosity of the gas
• The minimum particle size that can be removed with 100 % efficiency using
gravitational settling chamber is given as
18 Q μg
dp min = n W L g (ρp −ρg )
Where L is the length of the settling chamber (m)
W is width of the settling chamber (m)
Q is the gas flow rate (m3/s)
n is the number of trays used in the settling chamber

10
11
 Cyclone Separators
• Cyclone separators utilize a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate the
particulate matter from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on the particles in a spinning gas stream
is much greater than gravity, therefore, cyclones are effective in the removal of much smaller particles
than gravitational chambers, and require much small space to handle the same volume of gases.

• In operation, the particles-laden gas upon entering the cyclone cylinder receives a rotating motion.
The vortex so formed develops a centrifugal force, which acts to throw the particles radially towards
the wall. The gas spirals downward to the bottom to the cone.

12
The simple reverse-flow type cyclone consists of a vertical
cylinder having a conical bottom and is fitted with a tangential
inlet located near the top, and an outlet at the bottom of the
cone for discharging separated particles.

13
 Radial Velocity of
the gas

Tangential Velocity
of the particle

r2 = D/2
Particle Removal r1 = r2 – b = D/4
Efficiency W = D/2
θ1 = 12π

14
Particle that can be
removed with 50 %
efficiency

Where dpc is the particle cut size

Ne = Effective number of turns that a gas makes in transversing the
cyclone
b = Inlet width
vi = gas inlet velocity

15
Q. A conventional cyclone with a diameter of 1 m handles 3 m3/s to standard air carrying
particles with a density of 2000 kg/m3. Using Ne = 6, determine the collection efficiency and
the cut off particle diameter than can be removed. Take b = 0.25 m and a = 0.5 m and μg =
1.81 × 10-5 kg/m-s.

Solution:

16
 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
• The ESP is one of the most widely used devices for controlling particulate emissions at
industrial installations ranging from power plants, cement and paper mills to oil refineries.
• Electrostatic precipitation is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas
stream are charged electrically, and under the influence of the electric field, re separated
from the gas.

17
Figure: Cross-sectional diagram of an ESP
• The ESP system consists of a positively charged
(grounded) collecting surface and a high-voltage
discharge electrode wire suspended from an insulator
at the top and held in vertical position by a weight at
the bottom.
• At a very high DC voltage, of the order 50 kV, a
corona discharge occurs close to the negative
electrode, setting up an electric field b/w the emitter
and the grounded surface. The particle-laden gas
Figure: Layout diagram of an ESP system
enters near the bottom and flows upward. The gas
close to the negative electrode, is thus, ionized upon
passing through the corona. As the negative ions and
electrons migrate toward the grounded surface, they
in turn charge the passing particles. The electric field
then draws the charged particles to the collector
surface where they deposited

18
 Downward Settling Velocity of
the particles

Efficiency of an ESP
Where qp is the charge on the particles in columbs
Ec is the magnitude of electrostatic field
C is the Cunningham correction factor
μg is the gas viscosity
dp is particle diameter in mm

Where Ac is the cross sectional area of an ESP plate

Q is the gas flow rate in m3/s

19
Q. An ESP for the use with standard air containing dust particles of 1 μm diameter is in the form
of a cylinder 0.3 m diameter and 2 m long. The volumetric flow rate of air is 0.075 m3/s. If the
electric field strength is 1,00,000 V/m and the particle charge is 0.3 × 10-15 coulomb, compute
the efficiency of the ESP. Take μg = 1.8 × 10-5 kg/m-s. Take C = 1.168
Solution:

5766 ∗ 0.3∗10−5 ∗105 ∗1.168

== = 0.202 m/s
1∗10−6

Ac = πDL = π*(0.3)*2 = 1.88 m2 Q = 0.075 m3/s

0.202 ∗(1.88)
= (1 – Exp (- ) = 0.9937
(0.075)

20
• There are four types of fabric filters depending upon the cleaning methods are commonly used: (i)
Mechanical Shaker bag houses, (ii) Reverse air bag houses, and (iii) Pulse Jet bag house
• In mechanical shaker bag houses tubular filter bags are fastened on to a self-plate at the bottom of the
fabric filter and suspended from horizontal beams of the top. Polluted gas enters the bottom of the bag
houses and passed via the filter and the dust is collected inside the surface of the bag cleaning a
mechanical shaker bag houses is accomplished by the shaking the top horizontal bar from which the
bags are suspended.
• In the reverse air bag houses the bags are fastened onto a cell plate at the bottom of the bag houses
and suspended from and adjustable hanger frame at the top. Polluted gas flows normally enters the
fabric filter and possess via the bag from the inside and the dust collects on the inside of the bags.
Bags are cleaned by injecting clean air into the dust collector in a reverse direction which pressurize
the compartment. The pressure makes the bag collapse partially causing the dust cake to crack and fall
into the hopper below.
• P/J or reverse jet bag houses are used compressed streams of high pressure air to remove
particulate matter during cleaning brief (0.1sec) pulses of the air are push through the bag
dislodging solids which collect in the hopper below the recommended air to cloth ratio
for pulse jet bag houses in between 3.25:1 and 4.0:1. Cleaning mechanism allows P/J bag
houses to be cleaned while the system is online.
• In compressed air cleaning a short compress air burst of 0.05-0.3sec is passed into a filter bag
where by the filter material suddenly rises. Thus the layers of the dust found on the outside of
the bag breaks and falls down into the collection try. In high pressure cleaning (4-8bar). The
compressed air flows through a venture and if setup is effective it takes a huge amount of
secondary air with it this secondary air is essential for effective cleaning a venture is not used
at low air pressure (1-2bar). 21
 Fabric Filters
• A fabric filter, sometimes referred to as a baghouse, utilizes fabric filtration to remove particles from
the contaminated gas stream by depositing the particles on fabric material.
• Fabric filter typically consists of a tubular bag or an envelope, mounted in such a manner that the
collected particles fall into a hopper when dislodged from the fabric. Generally, particle laden gas
enters the bag at the bottom and passes through the filter while particles are deposited inside the bag.
• Bag filters are used for emission reduction for many industrial applications fabric filters can be design
to collect particles in micrometer range with 99.9% control efficiency.

22
Figure: Layout design of a fabric filter
• The bag material used for the fabrication of bag filters in fabric filter systems
are as follows:
1. Polyacrylonitril (dralon-T)
2. Aromatic-polyamide (nomex)
3. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEE)
4. Glass fiber
5. Ryton (fabric material based on polyphenyl and dichlorobenzene)
All these materials have specific advantages and disadvantages related to
temperature, mechanical strength, cost aspect, and chemical resistance.

23
 Wet Scrubbers
• Wet Scrubbers are effective air pollution control devices for removing particles and/or gases from industrial
exhaust streams. A Wet Scrubber operates by introducing the dirty gas stream with a scrubbing liquid –
typically water.
• Wet scrubbers have a number of advantages over dry collectors, such as simultaneous removal of particles
and gaseous pollutants from the gas stream but suffers from the problems like corrosion and liquid waste
disposal.

24
• The major types of wet scrubbers used are as follows:
a) Spray Towers
b) Centrifugal Scrubbers
c) Packed bed and plate column scrubbers
d) Venturi Scrubbers

25
 Spray Towers
The simplest type of wet scrubber is a spray tower into which water is introduced by means of spray nozzles. The
polluted gas flows upward and the particle collection results because of inertial impaction and interception on
the droplets.
The maximum collection efficiency by inertial impaction was found to be independent of particle size, when
droplets fall under gravity through still air, and this maximum occurs for droplets of the diameter of about 800
μm. Thus, a nozzle producing a coarse spray with droplet size just below 1 mm is satisfactory.

26
 Centrifugal Scrubbers
• The centrifugal scrubbers are the advanced form of spray towers using which the collection
efficiency of the particles those recovered in spray towers are increased.
• The centrifugal scrubbers are constructed by inserting bank of nozzles inside a conventional
dry cyclone. The spray acts on the particles in the outer vortex, and the droplets loaded with
particles are thrown outward against the wet inner wall of the cyclone. The polluted gas is
introduced tangentially into the lower portion of the vertical cylinder. During the swirling
upward motion of the particles, the droplets collide with the particles and capture them.

27
 Venturi Scrubbers
• Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to remove solid
particles.

• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with particulate

matter passes through a short tube with flared ends
and a constricted middle.

• This constriction causes the gas stream to speed up

when the pressure is increased.
• The difference in velocity and pressure resulting
from the constriction causes the particles and water
to mix and combine.
• The reduced velocity at the expanded section of the
throat allows the droplets of water containing the
particles to drop out of the gas stream.
• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small
particles, with removal efficiencies of up to 99 28
percent.
 Use of Particulate Collectors in Industry
Industry or Process Particulate Matter Collection Devices
Steel Iron Oxide, dust, smoke Cyclones, Fabric Filters, ESP,
Wet Scrubbers

Metallurgical Smoke, metal fumes, oil and ESP, Fabric Filters, and Wet
grease Scrubbers

Cement and gypsum Process Dust ESP, Cyclone, Fabric Filters

Processing

Kraft Paper Mills Chemicals and Dust ESP, Venturi Scrubbers

Acid Manufacturer Acid mist and dust ESP, Venturi Scrubbers
Petroleum Refineries Catalyst dust, ash from sludge High Efficiency cyclones,
ESP, Scrubbing towers

Power Generation Coal dust, fly ash ESP

29
 Control of gaseous pollutants
• The gaseous emissions can be control using three techniques:
i) Absorption by Liquids
ii) Adsorption by Solids
iii) Catalytic combustion

30
 Absorption by liquid
• Absorption is one of the most frequently used techniques for controlling the concentrations of
gaseous pollutants before they are discharged into the atmosphere.
• This technique involves the transfer of pollutants from the gas phase to the liquid phase across the
interface in response to a concentration gradient, with concentration decreasing in the direction of
mass transfer.
• The mass transfer rate between the two phases is controlled by the rates of diffusion through the
phases on each side of the interface.
• For example, the transfer of component A from the gas phase to liquid phase is shown in Figure.

31
• The effectiveness of the absorption process for air pollution control is mostly depends
upon the selection of a suitable scrubbing medium.
• The properties of the solvents should be as follows: high gas solubility, high selectivity
between solute species, low vapour pressure, non-corrosiveness, easy generation, low-
cost, low viscosity at absorption temperature, nontoxicity, non-flammability, and
chemical stability.
Table: Suitable solvents for various gaseous pollutants (Source: Rao, 2013 (Air pollution and control))

32
• Gas absorption is commonly conducted in equipment which are designed to provide intimate
contact between the two phases.
• The commonly used absorbers in air pollution and control are packed towers, Plate and spray
towers, and Venturi scrubbers.

Fig: Packed tower absorber Fig: Tray tower absorber Fig: Venturi Scrubber
33
• Packed tower: These are very efficient absorption devices involving a continuous contact of
two phases. Variety of packing materials are used such as ceramic packing or crushed rock.
The packing materials provide interfacial surface area, where the liquid distributed over the
packing and flows down through it in the form of thin films. The liquid and gas flow counter
current to each other, usually gas flows upward and liquid flows downward.
• Tray towers: In tray towers, stepwise contact between the liquid and gas occurs. Liquid
introduced at the top cascades from one stage to other and eventually withdrawn from the
bottom of the tower. The gas flows in the countercurrent direction to the dropping liquid. At
each tray, gas passes through small holes drilled in the tray immersed in liquid, forming liquid
bubbles. Absorption takes place during the bubble formation and their ascent through the
liquid.
• Venturi Scrubbers: In venturi scrubbers, the gas and liquid flow in the same direction. The
absorbing liquid is introduced at the throat of the venturi and the dispersion of the liquid is
accomplished by the high velocity of the gas stream. The resulting large interfacial area
makes the venturi scrubber an extremely efficient absorber.

34
 Adsorption by Solids
• Adsorption is a surface phenomenon by which gas or liquid molecules are captured by and
adhere to the surface of a solids adsorbent.
• The attractive forces holding the molecules at the surface may be physical or chemical in
nature.
• When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part of it is taken up by the solid. The
molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of the solid, or remain on the
outside attached to the surface. The former phenomenon is termed absorption (or dissolution)
and the latter adsorption.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because
they have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
• Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of trace organic contaminants
from liquid and vapor streams.
Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative.
- Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed actively removes
pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future use.
- Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated carbon. In a non-regenerative adsorber, the
spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes saturated with the pollutant

35
Adsorption of a gas on the solid occurs in several stages. First stage is the diffusion of the pollutants
from the bulk gas phase to the external surface of the solid. The second stage is the diffusion of the gas
molecules into the pores of the solid. The third step is the actual adsorption on the active sites in the
pores.

Figure: Adsorption of gaseous pollutants using the fixed-bed activated carbon columns
36
 Condensation
• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced
to a liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure.
• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be used ahead of absorbers,
absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be treated by more expensive
control equipment. Condensers used for pollution control are contact condensers and surface
condensers.
• In a contact condenser, the gas comes into contact with cold liquid.
• In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which cooled liquid or gas is
circulated, such as the outside of the tube.
• Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50 percent to more than 95 percent,
depending on design and applications

37
Figure: Contact Condensers
Figure: Surface Condensers

38
 Incineration
• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions
of organic compounds from process industries.
• This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance through the
combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon
dioxide and water vapor.
• The normal temperature ranges are: Temperature: 375 – 825 °C, residence
time: 0.2-0.5 seconds, and gas velocity: 4.5 – 7.5 m/s.
• Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be divided in three
categories:
- Direct combustion or flaring,
- Thermal incineration and
- Catalytic incineration
39
 Direct combustion
• Highly combustible streams with high heating values can be eliminated by direct flaring.
• There are certain hydrocarbons with low hydrogen-to-carbon ratio produce smoke.
• In order to tackle the smoke emission, one design solution is the installation of stem
injection through the jets surrounding the flare tips. The steam jets induce turbulence in the
periphery of the flame and add heat to the combustion process.

40
 Thermal Incinerator
• In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over or around a burner flame into
a residence chamber where oxidation of the waste gases is completed. Thermal incinerators
can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than 99 percent when operated
correctly.

Figure: General layout of the thermal

Figure: General layout of the thermal
incinerator with preheat setup and energy
incinerator
recovery

41
 Catalytic Incinerators
• Catalytic incineration is an attractive technique when thermal incineration of very diluted
pollutants are not economically feasible.
• Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators. The main difference is that
after passing through the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed. A catalyst promotes
oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs. Destruction efficiencies
greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic incinerator.
• The catalysts used for the effective pollution control are precious metals, primarlily
platinum and palladium or their alloys.

42
Air quality
standards
 1. TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Pollutants are the substances which cause pollution; air pollution is caused by air pollutants.

THE PRIMARY POLLUTANTS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 SULPHUR OXIDE

About 95% of sulfur oxide is sulfur dioxide SO₂. It is a colourless gas with a pungent odour.
They are mostly emitted by industries and the burning of fossil fuels. Effects of Sulfur oxide
are:
 It interferes with the function of the mucous membrane.
 It creates breathing problems and causes a deficit of oxygen in the body.
 They combine with the rainwater and create acid rain which affects the building's
appearance.
Sulphur dioxide is an irritant gas, and when inhaled, affects our mucous membranes. It
increases the breathing rate and causes oxygen deficits in the body, leading to bronchial
spasms. Patients of asthma are very badly affected by this pollutant. Sulphur dioxide is also
responsible for causing acidity in fogs, smokes and in rains and hence is the major source of
corrosion of buildings and metal objects.

Major sources of Sulphur dioxide

 Burning of fuels

 Thermal power plants

 Oil refineries and chemical plants

 Open burning of garbage

 CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide possesses about 200 times affinity for blood haemoglobin than
oxygen. Eventually, then inhaled, CO replaces O2 from the haemoglobin and form what is
known as carboxy-haemoglobin. This carboxy-haemoglobin is of no use for respiratory
purposes, and hence when about half of the haemoglobin of the blood is used up in forming
carboxy-haemoglobin, death becomes a certainty. Persons dying of carbon monoxide
inhalations exhibit characteristics bright pink colour of the flesh due to the presence of pink
coloured carboxy-haemoglobin in their bloods.
Carbon monoxide also affects the central nervous system, and is even responsible for heart
attacks, and high mortality rates.

Carbon monoxide chiefly originates from automobile exhausts, and is caused by incomplete
combustion of organic matter.

 NITROGEN OXIDES

Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature
combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be
seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a
chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the
most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting
odor.

They are generally suspended in the atmosphere by fly ash, tobacco smoke, smog, etc. Effects
on human health include:
 It creates eye and nasal irritation.

 It also causes respiratory problems.

 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER

Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric

particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In
contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally,
originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea
spray.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols.
Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,
altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and
can be particularly harmful to those already suffering from conditions like asthma.
They are the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets which are found in the air. PM2.5
and PM10 are types of particulate matter based on their size.
 PM10 are inhalable coarse particles

 PM 2.5 are fine particles.

  Ill effects: respiratory problems, lung cancer

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary
disease. Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.

 CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCS)
These are harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently banned from use.
These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc.
On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other
gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's
surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.

 AMMONIA

It emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is
normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to
foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for
the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and
hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form
secondary particles.
 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC)

VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4)
or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which
contributes to enhance global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant
greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane
in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs
benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with
prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with
industrial use

THE SECONDARY POLLUTANTS INCLUDE:

 PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical
smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and.
Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions
that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary
pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

 OZONE
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer.

Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that
occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought
about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant and a
constituent of smog.

 PAN

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

 According to chemical Composition:

 Organic: - Contains H-C (hydrocarbons)

 Inorganic: - Do not contain hydrocarbons

 According to State of Matter Classification according to the states of matter:

 Gaseous Pollutants

These pollutants are in gaseous state, like, CO, CO2, NOx, SOx, HC, Photochemical
oxidants, fluorine, chlorine, H2S, CH4, etc , and have different residence time in atmosphere

 Particulate Matter

They are in suspended form in the atmosphere and their residence time depends upon the size
of particulate matter. These are in the form of dust, smoke, fumes, mist, flash, soot, along
with natural particulates, like, pollen grains, volcanic dust, fungal spores, protozoa.

2. SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is a growing problem around the world, with individuals and nations like
pumping enormous volumes of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere every day. These
pollutants are not only dangerous to the health and wellbeing of plants, animals, and people,
but they are also a major contributor to recent climate shifts observed across the globe.

1. CARBON MONOXIDE

Sources: Most commonly, Carbon Monoxide is produced by combustion engines running

without modern catalytic converters. Other common sources of Carbon Monoxide are old gas
and fuel appliances, incinerators, and even cigarettes.

Effects: Carbon Monoxide can have a profound effect on the environment as it is extremely
poisonous and can contribute to very dangerous ground-level air and ozone conditions.

2. LEAD

Sources: While efforts have been made to remove lead from fuel, it continues to be present
in some aircraft fuel. Similarly, the outpouring of lead from metal processing plants and the
release of lead from waste processes such as incineration and battery acid production means
that there is still enough lead in the air to recognize it as dangerous pollution.

Effects: Lead can not only poison humans, but it also has a profound effect on natural
ecosystems. Contaminating air, soil, and water, lead can cause damage to flora and fauna
alike.

3. Ozone (O3)

Sources: Ground-level Ozone is formed by chemical reactions between multiple different

oxides found in the air, which – when exposed to sunlight – can form new compounds and
leave Ozone as a by-product. The majority of the emissions which make up Ozone come
from the usual suspects, such as car exhausts, factory processing, electric utilities and power
plants, and even some chemical solvents.

Effects: Ozone is a dangerous substance for most living organisms, and as such, an increase
in ground-level Ozone has a notable effect on human health as well as the overall health of
multiple ecosystems on land and in the seas.

4. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Sources: Nitrogen Dioxide, like many other pollutants, is most often released into the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels in car engines, airplane engines, factories, and
power plants.
Effects: In addition to being a choking and obstructive gas in the air, Nitrogen Dioxide also
has the propensity to react with other agents to form nitric acid and organic nitrates,
contributing to the formation of acid rain. Needless to say, Nitrogen Oxide has a huge effect
on humans, increasing the likelihood of respiratory problems, cancers, and other lung
problems. Acid rains produced by Nitrogen Dioxide are extremely harmful to plants and
animals across the world and can lead to further problems in water systems.

5. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Sources: To this day, locomotives, ships, planes, and other equipment still produce huge
volumes of Sulfur Dioxide. Industrial processes, particularly ore extraction and purification,
are also producers of the gas.
Effects: Sulfur Dioxide, like Nitrogen Dioxide, is a compound that often mixes with other
pollutants in the air to form harmful acids, but it is also harmful on its own. Common effects
of Sulfur Dioxide poisoning are respiratory problems, eye problems, and even heart and
circulatory problems. Importantly, Sulfuric Acid, created by the mixing of sulfur with water,
is a potent acid that is not only destructive to human property but also to trees, soils, and
water systems.

6. Particulate Matter (PM)

Sources: Particle matter is produced by nearly every single process involving chemicals and
fuels, as well as more innocuous processes such as farming and road construction. Any
process which produces a physical by-product will generally result in particulate matter.

Effects: Particle Matter ranges from annoying to extremely dangerous, often hampering
visibility on roads and causing respiratory problems. Particulate Matter is associated with a
range of heart, lung, and eye conditions in humans and is also linked to an increased
likelihood of developing cancers later in life.

7. Carbon Dioxide

Sources: Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere naturally when organisms respire or
decompose (decay), carbonate rocks are weathered, forest fires occur, and volcanoes erupt.
Carbon dioxide is also added to the atmosphere through human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels and forests and the production of cement.

Effects: Carbon dioxide and its role in the greenhouse effect contribute to air pollution,
which causes climate change. Scientists of NOAA believe carbon dioxide pollution is the
primary culprit. When the CO2 Emissions released from fossil fuelburning energy plants
combine with moisture in the air, the result is precipitation with high acid content. Carbon
dioxide emissions impact human health by displacing oxygen in the atmosphere. Breathing
becomes more difficult as carbon dioxide levels rise.

8. Methane

Comes from the gas emitted by livestock and swamps.

Sources: Since the Industrial Revolution, human sources of methane emissions have

been growing. The current increase in methane levels has been caused by fossil fuel

production and intensive livestock farming. Together these two sources are

responsible for 60% of all human methane emissions. Other sources include landfills and
waste (16%), biomass burning (11%), rice agriculture (9%) as well as biofuels (4%).

Effects: Methane, when released into the atmosphere before it is burned, is harmful to the
environment. It is able to trap heat in the atmosphere, therefore, contributes to climate
change. High levels of methane concentrations in the air can reduce the amount of oxygen
breathed from the air. It is very dangerous to the human body and can result in suffocation,
mood changes, slurred speech, vision problems, memory loss, nausea, vomiting, facial
flushing and headache.

9. Chlorofluorocarbons

Once used as propellants in aerosol items and in refrigerants, CFCs have been outlawed due
to the hazardous effect on the ozone layer.

Sources: Chlorofluorocarbons, also known as CFCs, consist of chemical compounds made

up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon. CFCs have no significant natural sources. CFCs have
been used as refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators, Halon in aircraft, in aerosol
spray cans, in manufacturing foams as industrial solvents, and as cleaning agents in the
manufacture of electronics.

Effects: CFCs contribute to the loss of the protective ozone layer, which blocks ultraviolet
rays from the sun. This exposes more people to UV radiation, which can cause skin cancer.
According to the American Cancer Society, one in five Americans will develop skin cancer
in their lifetime.

10. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are emitted into the air from products or processes. For example, Benzene, 1,3-
Butadiene are volatile organic compounds.
Sources: The main source of atmospheric benzene in Europe is petrol vehicles, which
account for about 70% of emissions. Another 10% comes from the distillation, refining and
evaporation of petrol from vehicles. The main source of 1,3-Butadiene is also principally
from road traffic, in the combustion process of petrol and diesel vehicles. Unlike benzene it is
not a constituent of fuel but is produced through the combustion of olefins. An additional
source is from industrial processes such as synthetic rubber manufacture. VOCs can also
come from personal care products such as perfume and hair spray, cleaning agents, dry
cleaning fluid, paints, lacquers, varnishes, hobby supplies and from copying and printing
machines.

Effects: Some VOCs are harmful by themselves, including some that cause cancer. VOCs
play a significant role in the formation of ozone and fine particulates in the atmosphere.
Under sunlight, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides emitted mainly from vehicles, power plants
and industrial activities to form ozone, which in turn helps the formation of fine particulates

3. AIR QUALITY EMISSION STANDARDS

 AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)

• The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used to report the quality of the air on any given
day.

• It basically tells you how clean the air is .It measures particles and chemicals in the air that
affect people’s health.

• The health effects from extreme pollution in places like china can be severe.

• These effects can range from slight irritations, to reduced endurance, to respiratory
problems. Different countries have different AQIs,so it is difficult to compare one location to
another on a worldwide scale. Some countries are more safety-conscious than others. The
United States uses a 500 point scale to report air quality.

Any rating between 0 to 50 is considered good. A score between 51 and 100 indicates a
moderate level of health concern. An AQI number between 101 and 150 is considered un
healthy for sensitive groups like the elderly or people with heart or breathing problems.
Scores between 151 and 200 are described as unhealthy, while 201 to 300 is considered very
unhealthy. And finally, air quality in the 301 to 500 range is deemed hazardous.

 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

• AQI helps in understanding the level at which air is polluted and the associated health
effects that might concern.

• EPA calculates the AQI for five major air pollutants :

1. Ground level ozone

2. Particulate matter

3. Carbon monoxide

4. Sulphur dioxide

5. Nitrogen dioxide

 For each of these pollutants, EPA has established national air quality standards to protect
public health.

 The EPA has developed the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) for introducing consistency in
providing information regarding the air quality throughout the US. The system is based on a
scale of 0-500.

 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), in the United States,

allowable levels of harmful pollutants set by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in accordance with the Clean Air Act (CAA)
4. METHODS OF CONTROLLING POLLUTANTS

The methods of controlling pollutants depends on the type of pollutant.

 METHODS TO CONTROL PARTICULATE MATTER

A. GRAVITY SETTLING CHAMBER
B. CYCLONE SEPARATORS
C. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
D. FABRIC FILTERS
 A. GRAVITY SETTLING CHAMBER

They are generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually > 50 mm) from gas
streams. Since most of the troublesome particles have much smaller size than 50 mm, there
devices are usually used as per cleaners prior to passing the gas stream through high
efficiency collection device.

 Settling chambers, which rely on gravitational settling as a collection mechanism, are the
simplest and oldest mechanical collectors. Settling chambers are generally built in the form of
long, horizontal, rectangular chambers with an inlet at one end and an exit at the side or top
of the opposite end.

 Flow within the chamber must be uniform and without any macroscopic mixing. Hoppers
are used to collect the settled-out material, though drag scrapers and screw conveyers have
also been employed.

 The dust removal system must be sealed to prevent air from leaking into the chamber which
increases turbulence, causes dust re-entrainment, and prevents dust from being properly
discharged from the device.

 There are two primary types of settling chambers: the expansion chamber and the multiple-
tray chamber. In the expansion chamber, the velocity of the gas stream is significantly
reduced as the gas expands in a large chamber. The reduction in velocity allows larger
particles to settle out of the gas stream.

 A multiple-tray settling chamber is an expansion chamber with a number of thin trays

closely spaced within the chamber, which causes the gas to flow horizontally between them.

 While the gas velocity is increased slightly in a multiple-tray chamber, when compared to a
simple expansion chamber, the collection efficiency generally improves because the particles
have a much shorter distance to fall before they are collected. Multiple-tray settling chambers
have lower volume requirements than expansion-type settling chambers for the collection of
small particles.

The efficiency of settling chambers increases with residence time of the waste gas in the
chamber. Because of this, settling chambers are often operated at the lowest possible gas
velocities.
 In reality, the gas velocity must be low enough to prevent dust from becoming reentrained,
but not so low that the chamber becomes unreasonably large. The size of the unit is generally
driven by the desired gas velocity within the unit, which should be less than 3 m/s (10 ft/sec),
and preferably less than 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec).

Advantages of Settling Chambers:

1. Low capital cost

2. Very low energy cost

3. No moving parts, therefore, few maintenance requirements and low operating costs

4. Excellent reliability

5. Low pressure drop through device

6. Device not subject to abrasion due to low gas velocity

7. Provide incidental cooling of gas stream

8. Temperature and pressure limitations are only dependent on the materials of

construction

9. Dry collection and disposal.

Disadvantages of Settling Chambers:

1. Relatively low particulate matter collection efficiencies, particularly for particulate

matter less than 50 µm in size.

2. Unable to handle sticky or tacky materials.

3. Large physical size; and

4. Trays in multiple-tray settling chamber may warp during high-temperature operations.

 B. CYCLONE SEPARATORS

A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical base, dust hopper and an inlet
where the dust-laden gas enters tangentially. Under the influence of the centrifugal force
generated by the spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to the wall of the cyclone as the
gas spirals upward at the inside of the cone. The particles slide down the walls of the cone
and into the hopper. The operating efficiency of a cyclone depends on the magnitude of the
centrifugal force exerted on the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the
spreading efficiency. The magnitude of the centrifugal force generated depends on particle
mass, gas velocity within the cyclone, and cyclone diameter
Mechanism of Action
The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and generates a centrifugal
force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards
inside the cone. The particulates slide down the walls of the cone and are discharged from the
out let.
Centrifugal force is utilized to separate the particulate matter.
 It can remove 10 to 50μm particle size.
 Used mostly in industries.
Advantages:
1. Low initial cost.
2. Require less floor area.
3. Simple construction and maintenance.
4. Can handle large volume of gas at high temperature.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires large head room.
2. Less efficiency for smaller particles (<10μm).
 3. Sensitive to variable dust load and flow rate

C. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

The electrostatic precipitators are extensively used in removal of fly ash from electric utility
boiler emissions.

 The use of this collector is growing rapidly because of the new strict air quality codes.

 An electrostatic precipitator can be designed to run at any desired efficiency for use as a
primary collector or as a supplementary unit to a cyclone collector.

It is often considered worthwhile to retain an existing cyclone as a primary collector in cases

where collection efficiencies must be upgraded especially where there is large amount of
unburnt carbon in fly ash( about 15%) because the presence of large quantities of carbon in
the gas can adversely affect the collection efficiency of a precipitator.

 General Arrangements of an ESP: 

Ionization: Charging of particles.

Migration : Transporting the charge particles to collecting surface

Collection : Precipitation of the charged onto the collecting surfaces.

Particle discharge: Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the hopper.

Particle removal: Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point
 Components of ESP:

i.Control cabinet

Control cabinet is used to interconnect the 3φ ac supply and transformer through cables
Transformer. Transformer is used to step up or step down voltage as per design of
Electrostatic precipitator.

ii.Rectifier

Rectifier is used to convert ac supply into dc supply.

iii. Hooper

Hooper is used to store dust particles and ash content coming out from the Electrostatic
precipitator.

Iv Electrodes

Based on DC current flow terminals electrodes can be divided as below

v. Discharge electrode

Electrodes wire which carries negatively charged high voltage (between 20 to 80KV) act as
discharge or emitting electrodes.

vi.Collector electrode
Electrode plate / wire which carries positively charged high voltage act as Collecting
electrodes. Collector electrodes Discharge electrode

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The dust laden gas is passed between oppositely charged conductors and it becomes ionized
as the voltage applies between the conductors is sufficiently large. As the dust laden ad is
passed through these highly charged electrodes, both negative and positive ions are formed,
the later being as high as 80%.

The ionized gas is further passed through the collecting units which consist of a set of
vertical metal plates. Alternate plates are positively charged and earthed. As the alternate
plates are earthed, high intensity electrostatic field exerts a force on positively charged dust
particles and drives them toward the grounded plates.

The deposited dust particles are removed from the plates by giving the shaking motion to the
plates with the help of cam driven by external means.

The dust removed from the plates with the help of shaking motion is collected in the dust
hoppers. Care should be taken that the dust collector in the hopper should not be entrained in
the clean gas.

Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitator

 This is more effective to remove very small particles like smoke, mist and fly ash.

Its range of dust removal is sufficiently large (0.01 micron to 1.00 micron). The small dust
particles below 10 microns cannot be removed with the help of mechanical separators and
wet scrubbers cannot be used if sufficient water is now available. Under these circumstances,
this type is very effective.

 This is also most effective for high dust loaded gas (as high as 100 grams per cu. meter)

 The draught loss of this system is the least of all forms(1 cm of water)

 It provides ease of operation.

 The dust is collected in dry form and can be removed either dry or wet.

Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitator

 The direct current is not available with the modern plants, therefore considerable electrical
equipment is necessary to convert low voltage (400 V) A.C to high voltage (60000 V) D.C.
This increases the capital cost of the equipment as high as 40 to 60 cents per 1000 kg of rated
installed steam generating capacity.

 The running charges are also considerably high as the amount of power required for
charging is considerably large.

 The space required is larger than the wet system.

 The efficiency of the collector is not maintained if the gas velocity exceeds that for which
the plant is designed. The dust carried with the gases increases with an increase of gas
velocity.

 Because of closeness of the charged plates and high potential used, it is necessary to protect
the entire collector from sparking by providing a fine mesh before the ionizing chamber. This
is necessary because even a smallest piece of paper might cause sparking when it would be
carried across adjacent plates or wires.

D. FABRIC FILTERS

Flue gas is allowed to pass through a woven fabric, which filters out particulate matter.
 Small particles are retained on the fabric.
 Consists of numerous vertical bags 120-400 mm dia and 2-10 m long.
 Remove particles up to 1 μm.
 Its efficiency up to 99%.

Working Principle/Operational Considerations:

Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted fabric as a
filter medium. For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and gas
temperatures are 250 °F (121 °C) or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are sometimes used
as filtering media instead of bags.
 Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the
baghouse compartment.
 The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending on
cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until air can no
longer move through it.
 When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins.  Cleaning can
take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation).  When the
compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.
 Baghouses are very efficient particulate collectors because of the dust cake formed on the
surface of the bags.
 The fabric provides a surface on which dust collects through the following four
mechanisms:
1. Inertial collection Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to the gas-flow
direction instead of changing direction with the gas stream
2. Interception Particles that do not cross the fluid streamline come in contact with fibers
because of the fiber size.
3. Brownian movement Submicrometre particles are diffused, increasing the probability
of contact between the particles and collecting surfaces.
4. Electrostatic forces The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles and the
filter can increase dust capture.

Advantages
 Higher collection efficiency for smaller than 10 μm particle size
 Performance decrease becomes visible, giving pre warning.
 Normal power consumption.

Disadvantages
 High temperature gases need to be cooled.
 High maintenance and fabric replacement cost.
 Large size equipment.
 Fabric is liable to chemical attack
• There are three types of fabric filters depending upon the cleaning methods are
commonly used: (i) Mechanical Shaker bag houses, (ii) Reverse air bag houses, and
(iii) Pulse Jet bag house
• In mechanical shaker bag houses tubular filter bags are fastened on to a self-plate at
the bottom of the fabric filter and suspended from horizontal beams of the top.
Polluted gas enters the bottom of the bag houses and passed via the filter and the dust
is collected inside the surface of the bag cleaning a mechanical shaker bag houses is
accomplished by the shaking the top horizontal bar from which the bags are
suspended.
• In the reverse air bag houses the bags are fastened onto a cell plate at the bottom of
the bag houses and suspended from and adjustable hanger frame at the top. Polluted
gas flows normally enters the fabric filter and passess via the bag from the inside and
the dust collects on the inside of the bags. Bags are cleaned by injecting clean air into
the dust collector in a reverse direction which pressurize the compartment. The
pressure makes the bag collapse partially causing the dust cake to crack and fall into
the hopper below.
• P/J or reverse jet bag houses are used compressed streams of high pressure air to
remove particulate matter during cleaning brief (0.1sec) pulses of the air are push
through the bag dislodging solids which collect in the hopper below the recommended
air to cloth ratio for pulse jet bag houses in between 3.25:1 and 4.0:1. Cleaning
mechanism allows P/J bag houses to be cleaned while the system is online
• The bag material used for the fabrication of bag filters in fabric filter systems are as
follows:
Polyacrylonitril (dralon-T)
 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEE)
Glass fiber
Ryton (fabric material based on polyphenyl and dichlorobenzene)
• All these materials have specific advantages and disadvantages related to temperature,
mechanical strength, cost aspect, and chemical resistance.

E. WET SCRUBBER

• Wet Scrubbers are effective air pollution control devices for removing particles and/or
gases from industrial exhaust streams. A Wet Scrubber operates by introducing the
dirty gas stream with a scrubbing liquid – typically water.
• Wet scrubbers have a number of advantages over dry collectors, such as simultaneous
removal of particles and gaseous pollutants from the gas stream but suffers from the
problems like corrosion and liquid waste disposal.
• The major types of wet scrubbers used are as follows:
a) Spray Towers
b) Centrifugal Scrubbers
c) Venturi Scrubbers

 SPRAY TOWER
The simplest type of wet scrubber is a spray tower into which water is introduced by means
of spray nozzles. The polluted gas flows upward and the particle collection results because
of inertial impaction and interception on the droplets.
The maximum collection efficiency by inertial impaction was found to be independent of
particle size, when droplets fall under gravity through still air, and this maximum occurs for
droplets of the diameter of about 800 μm. Thus, a nozzle producing a coarse spray with
droplet size just below 1 mm is satisfactory.
 SPRAY TOWER

 CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBER

The centrifugal scrubbers are the advanced form of spray towers using which the collection
efficiency of the particles those recovered in spray towers are increased.
The centrifugal scrubbers are constructed by inserting bank of nozzles inside a conventional
dry cyclone. The spray acts on the particles in the outer vortex, and the droplets loaded with
particles are thrown outward against the wet inner wall of the cyclone. The polluted gas is
introduced tangentially into the lower portion of the vertical cylinder. During the swirling
upward motion of the particles, the droplets collide with the particles and capture them

CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBER
 VENTURI SCRUBBER

• Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to remove solid particles.

• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with particulate matter passes through a short tube
with flared ends and a constricted middle.
• This constriction causes the gas stream to speed up when the pressure is increased.
• The difference in velocity and pressure resulting from the constriction causes the
particles and water to mix and combine.
• The reduced velocity at the expanded section of the throat allows the droplets of water
containing the particles to drop out of the gas stream.
• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small particles, with removal efficiencies
of up to 99 percent.

VENTURI SCRUBBER

Advantages:
 Can handle flammable and explosive dusts with little risk
 Can handle mists
 Relatively low maintenance
  Simple in design and easy to install
 Collection efficiency can be varied
 Provides cooling for hot gases; and
 Corrosive gases and dusts can be neutralized
Disadvantages:
 Effluent liquid can create water pollution problems
 Waste product collected wet
 High potential for corrosion problems
 Protection against freezing required
 Off gas may require reheating to avoid visible plume
 Collected PM may be contaminated, and may not be recyclable
 Disposal of waste sludge may be very expensive.

5. TABLE FOR COLLECTION DEVICES WITH PARTICULATE MATTER

INDUSTRY PARTICULATE MATTER COLLECTION

DEVICES
Steel Iron Oxide, dust, smoke Cyclones, Fabric Filters,
ESP, Wet Scrubbers
Metallurgical Smoke, metal fumes, oil and grease ESP, Fabric Filters, and
Wet Scrubbers
Cement and gypsum Process Dust ESP, Cyclone, Fabric
Processing Filters

Kraft Paper Mills Chemicals and Dust ESP, Venturi Scrubbers

Acid Manufacturer Acid mist and dust ESP, Venturi Scrubbers

Petroleum Refineries Catalyst dust, ash from sludge High Efficiency cyclones,
ESP, Scrubbing towers

Power Generation Coal dust, fly ash ESP

 6. CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS

• The gaseous emissions can be control using three techniques:

i) Absorption by Liquids
ii) Adsorption by Solids
iii) Condensation
iv) Combustion/Incineration

A. ABSORPTION

 Absorption is one of the most frequently used techniques for controlling the
concentrations of gaseous pollutants before they are discharged into the atmosphere.
 This technique involves the transfer of pollutants from the gas phase to the liquid
phase across the interface in response to a concentration gradient, with concentration
decreasing in the direction of mass transfer.
 The mass transfer rate between the two phases is controlled by the rates of diffusion
through the phases on each side of the interface.
 The effectiveness of the absorption process for air pollution control is mostly depends
upon the selection of a suitable scrubbing medium.
 The properties of the solvents should be as follows: high gas solubility, high
selectivity between solute species, low vapour pressure, non-corrosiveness, easy generation,
low-cost, low viscosity at absorption temperature, nontoxicity, non-flammability, and
chemical stability.
B. ADSORPTION

• Adsorption is a surface phenomenon by which gas or liquid molecules are captured by

and adhere to the surface of a solids adsorbent.
• The attractive forces holding the molecules at the surface may be physical or chemical
in nature.
• When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part of it is taken up by the
solid. The molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of the solid, or
remain on the outside attached to the surface. The former phenomenon is termed
absorption (or dissolution) and the latter adsorption.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina,
because they have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
• Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of trace
organic contaminants from liquid and vapor streams.
Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative.

- Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed
actively removes pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future use.
- Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated carbon. In a non-
regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes saturated with
the pollutant
• Adsorption of a gas on the solid occurs in several stages. First stage is the diffusion of
the pollutants from the bulk gas phase to the external surface of the solid. The second
stage is the diffusion of the gas molecules into the pores of the solid. The third step is
the actual adsorption on the active sites in the pores.
•
C. CONDENSATION

Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can be
reduced to a liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure.
• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be used ahead of
absorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be treated by
more expensive control equipment. Condensers used for pollution control are contact
condensers and surface condensers.
• In a contact condenser, the gas comes into contact with cold liquid.
• In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which cooled liquid or
gas is circulated, such as the outside of the tube.
• Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50 percent to more than 95
percent, depending on design and applications

CONTACT CONDENSER
 SURFACE CONDENSER

D. COMBUSTION/INCINERATION

• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions of

organic compounds from process industries.

• This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance through the
combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide and
water vapor.

• The normal temperature ranges are: Temperature: 375 – 825 °C, residence time: 0.2-
0.5 seconds, and gas velocity: 4.5 – 7.5 m/s.

• Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be divided in three

categories:
-Direct combustion or flaring,
-Thermal incineration and
- Catalytic incineration

 DIRECT COMBUSTION

• Highly combustible streams with high heating values can be eliminated by direct
flaring.
• In order to tackle the smoke emission, one design solution is the installation of stem
injection through the jets surrounding the flare tips. The steam jets induce turbulence
in the periphery of the flame and add heat to the combustion process.

 THERMAL INCINERATION

• In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over or around a burner
flame into a residence chamber where oxidation of the waste gases is completed.
Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than 99
percent when operated correctly.

 CATALYTIC INCINERATION

• Catalytic incineration is an attractive technique when thermal incineration of very

diluted pollutants are not economically feasible.

• Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators. The main difference
is that after passing through the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed. A
catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.
Destruction efficiencies greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic
incinerator.
 The catalysts used for the effective pollution control are precious metals, primarlily
platinum and palladium or their alloys

7. SELF CLEANSING NATURE OF ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere, like a river, do possess a self-cleansing property, by which it

continuously remove the pollutants from atmosphere..
• The various natural properties that continuously clean the environment are as follows:
a) Dispersion
b) Gravitational settling
c) Absorption, including washout and scavenging
d) Rainout
e) Adsorption

 Dispersion: Dispersion of pollutants by wind reduces the concentration of air pollutants

at one place, although in the strict sense, it doesn’t remove them from the environment.
This whole mechanism is called the diluting process.
 Gravitational settling: It is the most important natural mechanism, under which large
heavy particles from the ambient air settle down on buildings, trees, and other objects.
This generally happens for the particles which are larger than 20 μm in size.
 Absorption: In the natural absorption process, the gaseous as well as particulate matter
from the air get collected in the rain or mist, and may settle out with that moisture. This
phenomenon takes place below the cloud level, when falling raindrops absorb the
pollutants, and is known as washout.It doesnot help in removing particles less than 1μm
in size.
 Rainout: It is the process involving precipitation above the cloud level, where submicron
particles present in the atmosphere, serve as the condensation nuclei, around which drops
of water may form, and fall out as raindrops.
 Adsorption: Adsorption is the phenomenon in which the gaseous, liquid or solid
pollutants present in the ambient air are kept attracted, generally electrostatically, by a
surface, where they are concentrated and retained. The particles may come in contact
with such surfaces either by gravitational settling or by inertial impaction, under which
the pollutants are carried to such surfaces by wind.
 NOISE POLLUTION
DEFINE NOISE POLLUTION
A loud, unpleasant or unwanted sound is called as noise. A given sound can appear music to some and
noise to others. It depends upon loudness, duration and mood of a person.

Noise is physical form of pollution. It is not harmful to air, soil and water but affects the animals
including humans. Noise is unwanted sound, that is unpleasant, loud and disruptive. Humans have a
hearing range called as audible range. Audible range depends upon frequency and loudness of sound. For
a person with normal hearing, frequency ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hz and loudness ranges from 0 to 120
dB. Sound is measured in decibels (dB). A decibel value above 80 is considered to be noise pollution.

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing noise. Apart

from that, various equipment’s like compressors, generators, exhaust fans, grinding mills also participate

in producing noise.

2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play a vital role.

Congested houses, large families sharing small space, parking lots, street noise, honking, commercial zone

leads to noise pollution which disrupts the environment of society.

3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties, pub, disc

or place of worship, people normally defy rules set by the local administration and create nuisance in the

area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which makes the condition of people living

nearby pretty worse.

4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes, trains produce heavy noise. The high

noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to hear properly.

5. Construction Activities: Construction activities like mining, construction of bridges, dams, buildings,

stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These construction activities have to

be continued to meet the demand of ever increasing Population. It also creates noise pollution.
6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our daily life.
Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing machine and dryer,
cooler, air conditioners are also contributors to the amount of noise that is produced and but many times it
affects the quality of life of our neighborhood.

7. Fireworks: Firework is a common thing during various fairs, festivals and cultural ceremonies. Apart
from air pollution, the intensity of their sound creates noise pollution.
8. Agricultural Machines: Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc. have all made
agriculture highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy.
9. Defence Equipment and launching of satellites: A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by
artillery, tanks, launching of rockets, explosions, exercising of military airplanes and shooting practices.
Screams of jet engines and launching of satellite, sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears.
10.Miscellaneous Sources: The automobile repair shops, market places, schools, colleges, bus stands, and
railway stations etc. are other sources of noise pollution.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

A. EFFECT ON HUMANS

Human response to noise varies from man to man according to age and temperament. It may vary even in
the same individual from time to time because of change in health, fatigue and other conditions (Fig). The
effects of noise on human beings are as under:-

1) Auditory effects: It includes deafness or auditory fatigue.

Deafness or impaired hearing: Prolonged exposures to noise lead to gradual deterioration of internal ear
and subsequently hearing loss or deafness. It may occur due to continuous exposure to noise level of more
than 90 dB. It may be temporary or permanent. Explosions or other high intensity sounds can also cause
immediate deafness by rupturing the ear drums or damaging the cochlea. Many time hearing loss is
attributed to occupation.

Auditory fatigue: It is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to sound. Continuous humming
sound such as whistling and buzzing in the ears.

2) Non auditory effects: These are:-

Irritation and annoyance: Noise, sometimes, leads to emotional disturbances and makes people loose
their temper. It can interfere with proper rest and sleep. Annoyance seems to increase with the loudness of
the sound.
Work efficiency: It has been observed that noise reduces the efficiency of work.
Physiological effects: It includes dilation of the pupils, paling of skin, tensing of voluntary muscles,
diminishing of gastric secretions, increase in diastolic blood pressure and the sudden injection of adrenalins
into blood stream which increases neuromuscular tension, nervousness, irritability and anxieties. It can
adversely affect the development of unborn babies.
Other health effects: Noise is also associated with headache, giddiness, sweating, nausea, fatigue,
difficulty in breathing, disturbed sleep pattern, psychological stress.
Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow people to communicate
freely. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.

B. EFFECT ON ANIMALS:
Animals rely heavily on sounds to communicate, to find food, avoid predators etc. Pets react more
aggressively due to exposure to constant noise. They become disoriented more easily and face many
behavioral problems. Overexposure to high intensity of noise affects the hearing ability of many animals.
Man-made noise affects mating calls and echolocation. This leads to reduction in survival and
reproduction rates. At an ecosystem level, noise pollution could lead to migration of animals. Their
migration can affect the crop production. Because many animals such as bats pollinate bananas, peaches,
agave and other cash crops.

C. EFFECT ON NON-LIVING THINGS

The noise booms cause cracks in walls of buildings as well as in hills. Sonic boom can break window
panes and buildings.

STEPS TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution can be effectively controlled by taking the following measures:

(1) Control at receiver’s end: For people working in noisy installations, ear-protection aids like ear-plugs,

ear-muffs, noise helmets, headphones etc. must be provided to reduce occupational exposure.

(2) Suppression of noise at source: It can be achieved by following methods:

(a) Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy ones.

(b) Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines.

(c) Installing noisy machines in sound proof chambers.

(d) Covering noise-producing machine parts with sound-absorbing materials to check noise production.

(e) Reducing the noise produced from a vibrating machine by vibration damping i.e. making a layer of

damping material (rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic) beneath the machine.

(f) Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc.

(3) Acoustic Zoning: There should be silence zones near the residential areas, educational institutions and

above all, near hospitals. Zoning of noisy industrial areas, bus terminals and railway stations, aerodromes

etc. away from the residential areas i.e. increasing the distance between source and receiver.

(4) Sound Insulation at Construction Stages: It reduces the chances of noise nuisance in future.

Someof these measures could be:

a) The space/cracks that get left between the door and the wall should be packed with sound absorbing

material.

(b) Sound insulation can be done by constructing windows with double or triple panes of glass and filling

the gaps with sound absorbing materials.

(c) Acoustical tiles, perforated plywood etc. can be fixed on walls, ceilings, floors etc. to reduce noise

(especially for sound proof recording rooms etc.)

(5) Planting of Trees: Green muffler scheme involves planting green trees and shrubs along roads,

hospitals, educational institutions etc. to reduce noise to a considerable extent. Trees like Ashoka, Neem,

Tamarind are good for this purpose.

(6) White noise:- It is a special type of sound signal which is used to mask background sounds. White noise

helps to mask out sounds which might otherwise prevent one from either falling asleep or waking up whilst

asleep.

(7) Legislative Measures: Strict legislative measures need to be enforced to curb the menace of noise

pollution. Noise standards (Table) should be strictly followed. Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers

especially near silence zones. Banning pressure horns in automobiles. Albeit, noise has been considered as

pollutant under Air act and The noise pollution (regulation and control) rules(2000) have been framed under

Environment protection act. But still people need to be educated about harmful effects of noise.
NOISE STANDARDS

Note:
1. Day time shall mean from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m.
2. Night time shall mean from 10.00 p.m. to 6.00 a.m.
3. Silence zone is defined as an area comprising not less than 100 meters around hospitals, educational
institutions and courts
4. . The silence zones are zones, which are declared as such bythe competent authority.
5. Mixed categories of areas may be declared as one of the four-abovementioned categories by the
competent authority.
*dB (A) Leq denotes the time weighted average of the level of sound in decibels on scale A which is
relatable to human hearing.

A”decibel” is a unit in which noise is measured. “A” in dB (A) Leq, denotes the frequency weighting in
the measurement of noise and corresponds to frequency response characteristicsof the human ear.
Leq: It is an energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND
Noise monitoring is based on the collection and analysis of data relating to the level of ambient
noise in a given environment.
• There are several types of equipment used to measure noise:
• Sound level meters, which are devices that measure and record sound pressure over a
given time interval and provide an objective measure of noise intensity.
• Calibrators: devices that produce a stable sound at a given level and frequency and are
used to adjust sound level meters to the reference sound pressure level and to check that it is
maintained after measurement.
A Class 1 sound level meter is generally seen as more accurate than a Class 2 meter; and,
A Class 1 sound level meter is able to measure sound over a wider frequency range than a Class 2
meter

NOISE LEVELS PRODUCED BY VARIOUS TYPE OF MACHINES