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Character of Thermal Comfort in Metro Station

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24 views16 pages

Character of Thermal Comfort in Metro Station

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© © All Rights Reserved
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Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Characteristics of the thermal environment, air quality, and


passenger comfort in the underground transfer space of metro
stations in Beijing
Chunxiang Lin a, b, Liming Wu a, b, *, Haishan Xia b, c, Meng Zhen d, Chen Shen a, b,
Jinjin Zhu b, c, Xinyi Li b, c
a
School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, PR China
b
Transit Oriented Development Academy, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, PR China
c
School of Architecture and Design, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, PR China
d
School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the increase in Beijing’s metro mileage and passenger numbers, it is becoming especially
Thermal environment necessary to investigate the indoor environment and passenger comfort of metro stations. In this
Air quality study, the transfer spaces in the top seven transfer stations with the largest passenger flow within
Passenger comfort the Beijing metro system were selected for conducting indoor environment (thermal environment
Transfer space and air quality) measurements and a subjective comfort survey of over 600 passengers. The re­
Metro station
sults showed that the thermal environment and air quality experienced by passengers changed
dynamically with the passenger transfer process. Indoor temperature and relative humidity (RH)
were affected by not only aboveground weather changes but also station depth, and the indoor
temperature in winter was more comfortable than that in summer. The trend in subjective feel­
ings of passengers’ thermal comfort was similar to that of the relative warmth index (RWI)
evaluation of seven transfer stations during the measurement periods, and passengers’ thermal
comfort during the summer morning rush hours was not ideal but was slightly hot overall.
Although the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM: including PM2.5
and PM10) met the indoor air quality maintenance standards, the percentage of passengers un­
comfortable with the air quality exceeded 80% during both seasons, and the centralized tendency
in winter was very uncomfortable. Passengers are very concerned about air quality, and their
subjective feelings are relatively susceptible to psychological factors. Regarding the overall
comfort trend, passengers’ subjective feelings of comfort during the morning rush hours in
summer and winter were both “slightly uncomfortable”. This paper provides a valuable reference
for further research on environmental, health, and energy saving issues in metro stations and
presents reliable primary research data for the design and operation management of ventilation
and air conditioning systems in metro stations.

1. Introduction
The metro system is the main form of underground public transportation system and urban rail transit system, which not only has a

* Corresponding author. School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, PR China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105093
Received 13 April 2022; Received in revised form 5 August 2022; Accepted 5 August 2022
Available online 11 August 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

large capacity, fast speed, low emissions, and high safety but can also bring multiple benefits to the city, such as energy efficiency and
environmental protection [1–5]. However, unlike general indoor spaces, metro stations are semiopen and enclosed spaces [6,7], and
the indoor air in metro stations is difficult to exchange directly with the outside environment [8], especially in metro transfer spaces,
where the flow of people is the most concentrated. The relatively closed environment and high crowd density adversely affect the
indoor thermal environment and air quality [9–12]. Importantly, the alleviation of indoor thermal environment and air quality
deterioration requires air conditioning systems and mechanical ventilation systems for regulation and the intake of fresh air from
outside to dilute indoor pollutants [4,13–15]. Nevertheless, some studies have indicated that the environmental control system in
metro stations consumes a large amount of energy, accounting for approximately 35%–50% of the total energy consumption of
buildings [16,17]. Therefore, a good indoor thermal environment and good air quality not only help provide a comfortable and healthy
environment for passengers but also reduce the high energy consumption caused by indoor air conditioning (HVAC) systems and
facilitate the exploration of appropriate energy operation solutions to minimize the energy consumption of the metro system [18–23].
Understanding the indoor environmental characteristics of metro stations and passenger comfort in such a complex and distinct
environment is one of the growing concerns of the scientific community [24–28]. The concept of the indoor environment is generally
grouped into four main environmental factors: the thermal environment, air quality, acoustics, and lighting [29–32]. In this paper,
indoor environment research primarily focuses on the thermal environment and air quality.
The thermal environment of metro stations affects passenger comfort [33], and many countries have explored this topic. A study on
Tehran metro stations showed that the temperatures in the entrances, station concourses, and platforms were relatively high, whereas
those inside the carriages were relatively lower than other points in the stations. In addition, due to the relative humidity (RH) of the
Tehran Metro being lower than 30%, passengers’ nose, eyes, and throat became dry and uncomfortable [34]. Field investigations of the
thermal environment of the Shanghai metro station found that approximately 92.1% of subjects deemed the thermal environment
acceptable, and the mean temperature and RH in the metro stations were 23.7 ± 1.8 ◦ C (operative temperature) and 54 ± 7%,
respectively [35]. A study of the metro indoor environment and passenger comfort over three seasons in Seoul, South Korea, showed
large differences in the air temperature of metro stations in different seasons, with the air temperature in winter being very low.
Additionally, the RH was somewhat higher in summer at approximately 63.1–63.8% and somewhat lower in winter at 28.4–28.6% [7].
A field study was performed to investigate the thermal comfort conditions in the Athens Metro; the results showed that differences in
the thermal comfort conditions on the platforms are associated with the depth and the design characteristics of the stations [28].
Nevertheless, most studies on the thermal environment of metro stations have focused primarily on the platform and have only
captured data within a specific or a brief interval.
In addition, numerous studies have performed thermal comfort evaluation, temperature distribution, and optimization measure­
ments for metro stations to determine a comfortable thermal environment. Various indicators have been used to evaluate thermal
properties [28,36–39]. However, the movement of passengers in a metro station occurs in a transient thermal environment [40]. Based
on theoretical analysis and experimental studies, the RWI has been recommended as a suitable metric for evaluating transitional
thermal comfort levels on metro platforms [8,41]. The RWI considers primarily the temperature, RH, wind speed, individual clothing,
and metabolic rate, and it can better describe passengers’ thermal comfort in the transitional spaces of metro stations, especially on
platforms [34,42,43].
Regarding air quality, some studies have even indicated that the concentrations of CO2 and PM along with the ambient temperature
affect passenger comfort during rush hours [44,45]. Metro stations are more affected by external pollutants than ordinary buildings
because they are confined spaces with many pollution sources and high ridership. However, the current design of metro ventilation and
HVAC systems is focused more on heat and humidity management, ignoring indoor air quality, while the air purification equipment in
the metro system is mostly primary or intermediate efficiency filters, leading to a deterioration of air quality [18]. Based on numerous
field air quality measures and studies on metro systems in large cities in South Korea [46], Spain [47–49], Canada [50], Mexico [51],
Brazil [6], China [52,53], the USA [54], and other countries [55], the concentration of pollutants in metro stations was usually found
to be higher than that in the outdoor environment. Long-term exposure to particles containing a variety of chemical components could
cause more health problems for the public [56–60], especially when the PM inhaled in the metro may affect the health of passengers
and staff [61–64]. Some studies have reported that for every 10 μg/m3 increase in the average PM2.5 concentration, the mortality rate
will increase by 1.5% [65]. Many studies have shown that the factors influencing the concentration and distribution of PM in metro
stations are the season, ground climate, operating hours, passenger flow, HVAC system, piston wind, depth, station design, and outdoor
traffic [10,66–70]. The measurement places in metro stations have been platforms, carriages, station offices, rest areas, ticket offices,
and other station areas [71,72].
In general, the thermal environment and air quality are closely related, and both have important effects on the comfort and health
of metro station passengers [73]. Studies have verified that higher air temperatures and relative humidity tend to result in worsening
perceived air quality, while increased air movement significantly improves air quality satisfaction [74]. Additionally, there are many
similarities between metro thermal comfort research and air quality research. First, with the popularity of the metro and the increase in
the number of passengers and the duration of their travel time, passengers’ subjective feelings in metro stations have become
increasingly important, and their short-term feelings and long-term health are affected. Second, there are similarities in the research
methods required for capturing both variables. Due to the numerous characteristics of the metro station, measurements from the actual
platforms are necessary for understanding both variables, and the influencing factors found through the measurements have over­
lapping factors [74]. Third, wind flow impacts both passenger thermal comfort and air quality, which can be simulated numerically
using the same software. Furthermore, in terms of indoor environment research methods, a combination of field objective indoor
environment measurements and subjective questionnaire surveys is necessary. Two types of analysis methods are used: field surveys
combined with mathematical and statistical methods and field surveys combined with computer simulation methods [18].

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C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

Currently, as the first city in China to have an underground railway, Beijing has 25 lines in total, with a total length is 708.90 km.
Over ten million people take the metro in Beijing each day, spending a long time underground. With the increase in Beijing’s metro
mileage and passenger numbers, it is especially necessary to investigate the indoor environment and passenger comfort of metro
stations [75,76]. However, few studies have focused on describing and analyzing the indoor environment and passenger comfort at
Beijing metro stations. Importantly, existing research has primarily measured parameters within a specific or a brief interval, with a
lack of seasonal contrast, so the data have been discontinuous, leading to noncomprehensive conclusions [62]. Furthermore, a metro
ride is a dynamic process, and passengers’ comfort level also changes with respect to their spatial location in a metro station, especially
in a large and complex underground metro transfer station. In contrast to the extensive literature on steady-state conditions, there is
relatively little knowledge of thermal comfort under these transient conditions [38]. Moreover, previous studies have primarily ar­
ranged measuring points independently in areas such as platforms and carriages, without systematically arranging points for the whole
transfer flow line of the metro transfer space and without dynamically considering thermal comfort during metro transfers.
In this context, the present study employed the transfer space of the Beijing metro transfer station as the research object and
analyzed its indoor thermal environment and air quality characteristics during the summer and winter rush hours. In addition, pas­
sengers’ subjective comfort was surveyed and validated based on an RWI thermal comfort analysis. This study provides a valuable
reference for future research on environmental control and comfort studies in metro stations as well as for exploring appropriate
energy saving measurements in underground spaces.

2. Research methods
2.1. Subject details
The top seven metro transfer stations in the Beijing metro with annual average transfer volumes during the period 2014–2016 were
selected for this study and named T1, T2, D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5, where T and D indicate that the transfer station has 3 and 2 crossed
lines, respectively (Fig. 1). Table 1 describes the basic information on the seven selected metro transfer stations. In addition, there are
two main types of platforms in the selected stations: island type (I type) and lateral type (L type). The depth range of the measurement
points in this study is from − 7.8 m to − 28.95 m, which is slightly larger than in other studies [7,77]. The depth range of the mea­
surement points is from − 10.2 m (D2-4) to − 28.95 m (T1-1) for the platforms and from − 7.8 m (T2-3) to − 25.35 m (T1-3) for the
concourses. During the measurement period, the HVAC systems were operated starting from 6 a.m. and ran for approximately 18 h in
summer. The mechanical ventilation systems were suspended from December to February, during which the ventilation depended on
the piston wind and the natural wind from the entrance and exit.

2.2. Measurement methods


Measurements were performed from August 3 to 11 in the summer of 2017 and from January 11 to 19 in the winter of 2018. Due to
Beijing having the largest number of passengers during the morning rush hours, all measurements were performed on weekdays
(Monday to Friday) during morning rush hours. Measurements were captured at the end and middle of the platform, the transfer
concourse stair side, and the concourse stair side at each station. Measurement positions were arranged according to the passengers’
transfer flow line and near the entrance of the transition space. The height of the measuring point was 1.5 m from the ground. The
number and location of data collection points are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2. The data collection time of each measuring point was at
least 10 min. Data collection for one station was completed within 2 h, and the number of passing trains was recorded synchronously.
In addition, a questionnaire survey was distributed to passengers. The official software application of the Beijing Urban Environmental

Fig. 1. Locations of transfer stations in the Beijing metro system.

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Table 1
Basic information on monitored transfer stations.

Station Number of Depth of Type of Line Platform District Number of Measurement Measuring
a
Lines platform platform opening screen door b measuring period time per point
year points

T1 3 23.25/ I 1984/ S Xicheng 5 07:00–09:00 ≥10 min


28.95 2002/2009
T2 3 12.9 I+L 2007/ F Fengtai 4
2010/2012
D1 2 14.7/20.4 I 1984/1999 S Dongcheng 5
D2 2 10.2/16.8 I+L 2007/2008 F Chaoyang 4
D3 2 15.3/21.75 L 2008/2012 F Chaoyang 4
D4 2 15 I 2009/2012 F Haidian 4
D5 2 16.8/20.25 I+L 2008/2009 F Haidian 4
a
I: Island; L: Lateral; I + L: Island + Lateral.
b
S: Semienclosed; F: Fully closed.

Protection Center, called Beijing Air Quality (Version 3), was used to record the outdoor weather conditions and air quality data in real
time.
Regarding thermal environment measurement instruments, the temperature and relative humidity were measured with a multi­
functional handheld memorable black bulb tester (WBGT-2010SD, LUTRON Electronic Enterprise Co., Ltd., Taiwan), which is a high-
precision black bulb temperature and humidity-measuring instrument. This instrument’s temperature scale ranges from 0 to 50 ◦ C
(measurement accuracy±0.8 ◦ C), and its humidity scale range is 5–95% RH (measurement accuracy±3% RH). Wind speed mea­
surements were conducted with a wireless mini hot-wire anemometer (TESTO 405i, testo SE & Co. KGaA, Germany). This instrument is
highly suitable for measuring indoor wind speed, with a resolution of 0.01 m/s, and it can also simultaneously measure air temper­
ature. Its measurement readings are wirelessly transmitted to the Testo Smart Probes app installed on a smartphone or tablet via
Bluetooth. In addition, regarding air quality measurements, the CO2 concentration was measured with a nondispersive infrared ray
carbon dioxide detector (TES1370, TES Electrical Electronic Corp., Taipei, Taiwan), which is a professional detector for the accurate
detection of CO2 concentrations in various environments. It is equipped with NDIR (non-dispersive infrared) dual wavelength infrared
sensors and a multichannel data analyzer. It integrates a temperature sensor, humidity sensor and STEL (short-term exposure limit)
security alarm. It can provide excellent indoor CO2 concentration measurements with accuracy and stability to evaluate the basic

Fig. 2. Measuring points schematic of monitored transfer stations.

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indoor air quality in parts per million (ppm). PM measurements were conducted with a high-precision hand-held PM2.5/PM10 air
quality detector (CW-HAT200S, Chinaway Environmental Technologies Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). This instrument is equipped with
a high-precision pump suction laser sensor and external temperature/humidity sensors. It measures parameters in real time for 1 min,
can store 500 sets of data per second and supports USB high-speed download. The measurement error is ±10%, the measurement range
is 0–1000 μg/m3, and the resolution rate is 0.001 mg. According to Calibration Report No. 185807002, which was issued by the
Shenzhen Academy of Metrology & Quality Inspection (National Hi-tech Metrology Station), the instrument’s mass concentration
conversion factor K = 2.0 μg/m3. The above mentioned instruments are shown in Fig. 3, and they were all calibrated prior to use,
undergoing self-correction and zero calibration.

2.3. Comfort questionnaire survey


Apart from monitoring the thermal environment (temperature, RH, and wind speed) and air quality (CO2, PM2.5, and PM10) in
metro stations, the objective comfort of the indoor environment was evaluated and analyzed by using RWI and Beijing metro indoor
environment specification standards. Questionnaires on field passengers’ subjective feelings about their comfort in both the thermal
environment and air quality were also conducted, resulting in a comparative analysis and verification of objective and subjective
comfort studies.
The questionnaire survey was evaluated using a Likert assessment scale, which is a widely used scale to measure people’s judgment
on similar issues [78]. The scale has single-level linear enhancement: it starts from “comfort” and spans four levels [79]. The degree of
comfort is reflected in descending order, and the last level is extremely uncomfortable. Then, through the increase in the number of
sample selections, the overall discomfort percentage in the sample is calculated [79]. The items on the comfort questionnaire survey
measure passengers’ feelings of comfort regarding the thermal environment, air quality, and their combined feelings of comfort
regarding both the thermal environment and air quality (overall comfort). Although human comfort is influenced by many physical
factors, such as the lighting environment, acoustic environment, and thermal resistance of clothing, these influential factors are not
within the scope of this study. Therefore, the comfort questionnaire content of this study is more targeted. Since the parameters are
mostly in a technical language with which the respondents might not be familiar, the language of the sentences was modified so that
nonspecialists could easily understand them. The structure of the scale is shown in Table 2.
The comfort survey was conducted by using tablet computers and paper questionnaires to obtain as many real survey results as
possible during transfer morning rush hours. The surveys on passenger comfort and the field measurements of environmental pa­
rameters within seven Beijing metro transfer stations began at the same time and lasted until the end of morning rush hours. The
average survey duration of each transfer station was 1.5 ± 0.5 h during morning rush hours. A total of 336 and 284 valid question­
naires were collected during morning rush hours in the two seasons, respectively. To ensure the validity and pertinence of the
questionnaire, it is necessary to make the respondents understand the purpose and content of the questionnaire as much as possible and
to reduce the influence of other factors. Before each passenger completed the questionnaire, we first confirmed that they were making a
transfer and had multiple transfer experiences. We supervised the questionnaire completion process and ensured that the respondents
independently completed all the questions on the questionnaire so that the respondents were more focused on the impact of the
thermal environment and air quality on their comfort. Therefore, we avoided the herd mentality of passengers, which also reduced the
impact of other influencing factors on their responses.

Fig. 3. Experimental equipment.

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Table 2
Passenger comfort assessment scale for the thermal environment and air quality.

Survey Questions Answer Options

1. What’s your gender? ○ Male ○ Female


2. What’s your age? ○ Under 18 ○ 18–25 ○ 25–35 ○ 35–50 ○ Over 50
3. How many times do you transfer on the metro every day? ○ Over 3 ○ 3 ○ 2 ○ 1 ○ 0

4. How did you feel about the comfort of the thermal environment during your transfer? (Thermal □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
comforta) □Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
5. How did you feel about the comfort of the air quality during your transfer? (Air quality comfort b) □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
□Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
6. How did you feel about the overall comfort of the indoor environment during your transfer? (Overall □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
comfort c) □Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
a
Thermal comfort includes mainly the passenger’s feelings about the comfort of the temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed in metro stations.
b
Air quality comfort includes mainly the passenger’s feelings about the comfort of PM and CO2 in metro stations.
c
Overall comfort refers mainly to passengers’ combined comfort feelings in relation to both the thermal environment and air quality.

3. Results and discussion


3.1. Thermal environmental characteristics
3.1.1. Temperature
The measuring points and outdoor daily average temperature are shown in Fig. 4. The average temperatures of most indoor
measuring points in summer were higher than those outdoors. Even though the temperature change curves for the measuring points of
each transfer station showed dynamic changes with the transfer process, we found that the shallower the depth was, the closer the
temperature was to the ground temperature. For instance, D3-1 and D3-4 (all located on the lateral platform) were the measuring
points at the same station (Fig. 2). Although the depth of D3-1 was shallower than that of D3-4, the data in Fig. 4 show that when the
outdoor temperature (28.4 ◦ C) was higher in summer, the temperature of D3-1 was higher than that of D3-4. However, when the
outdoor temperature (1.1 ◦ C) was low in winter, the temperature of D3-1 was lower than that of D3-4. Additionally, high peak summer
temperatures appeared mostly on the platforms (T1-2, T2-4, D1-1, D2-2, D3-2, D4-1, and D5-2), whereas low peak values appeared on
the transfer concourses (T1-4, D1-4, and D5-3) in winter. The average air temperature of the platforms was higher than that of the
concourses for both seasons. In addition, the difference between the average temperature of the platforms and concourses was rela­
tively small in summer but relatively large in winter. The above observation indicates that passengers’ temperature changes

Fig. 4. Temperature comparison of the two seasons regarding the measuring points and the outdoor daily average during morning rush hours.

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dynamically during the transfer process in the metro station.


Furthermore, the design criteria for HVAC systems in the summer and winter generally establish that temperatures for public
underground space in Beijing metro transfer stations are lower than 30 ◦ C in summer and higher than 12 ◦ C in winter [80]. Fig. 4 shows
that nearly half of the measuring points exceed the standard value in summer. Additionally, only two measuring points from the
concourses were exceeded in winter; the others met the standard. These findings indicate that the indoor temperature in winter may be
more comfortable than that in summer, and the operation scheme of the air conditioning system in summer needs to pay attention to
cooling control.

3.1.2. Relative humidity


Fig. 5 exhibits the average RH of the measuring points and outdoors for the measurement period during the two seasons. The RH
change curves of the measuring points from each transfer station also showed dynamic changes with the transfer process. According to
the design criteria for HVAC systems in summertime, RH is generally established at 40%–70% for underground station public areas, the
RH needs to be greater than or equal to 30% when heating in winter, and there is no clear requirement for RH when ventilation occurs
in winter [80,81]. In fact, during the measurement period, Beijing metro stations used HVAC systems during the summer months and
relied on piston wind and natural wind at the entrances and exits for ventilation during the winter period. Accordingly, Fig. 5 dem­
onstrates that nearly one-third of the measuring points were higher than the design parameters (RH: 40%–70%) during the summer
measurement period. This phenomenon indicates that the RH in summer was more uncomfortable than that in winter, and the Beijing
metro needs to strengthen its dehumidification control in summer.
Moreover, by comparing points D4-3 (− 9.9 m, RH = 63.5%) and D3-3 (− 16.65 m, RH = 76.4%), which were located in the transfer
concourses, we found that regardless of the season, the shallower the depth of the underground space is, the lower the RH is. However,
combined with the comparative analysis of the temperature and RH shown in Figs. 4 and 5, it was observed that the warmer the outside
air is, the drier the inside environment is [34]. For example, the outdoor average temperature of Station D4 (31.1 ◦ C) was higher than
that of Station D3 (28.4 ◦ C) in summer. Nevertheless, the average RH at Station D4 (indoor and outdoor) was lower than that at Station
D3.

3.1.3. Wind speed


Fig. 6 provides descriptive statistics on the wind speed at different measuring points. Owing to the presence of thermal pressure and
piston wind, the wind speed at the platforms was significantly higher than that in the concourses. Moreover, the wind speed change
curves for the measuring points of each transfer station also showed clear dynamic changes with the transfer process.

Fig. 5. RH comparison of the two seasons regarding the measuring points and the outdoor daily average during morning rush hours.

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Fig. 6. The two-season average value comparison of wind speed and CO2 concentration during morning rush hours: (a) summer; (b) winter.

3.2. Air quality characteristics


3.2.1. Characteristics of CO2 in the underground transfer space
Fig. 6 shows that the average CO2 concentration in summer during morning rush hours was higher than that in winter. Overall, CO2
concentrations were higher on the platforms than in the concourses. In addition, the design criteria for CO2 concentrations in the public
underground space of Beijing metro transfer stations should be lower than 1.5‰ [80]. It is evident from Fig. 6 that the CO2 con­
centrations observed met the standard. Furthermore, we found that CO2 concentration was negatively related to wind speed. The
maximum CO2 concentrations in summer and winter all appeared at T2-3; however, the wind speed at this point was relatively low.
The maximum wind speed in summer appears at D4-1 (0.49 ± 0.35 m/s), and the CO2 concentration (553.7 ± 14.4 ppm) at this point
was also relatively small. A similar result was found for T1-4 in winter.

3.2.2. Characteristics of PM2.5 and PM10 in the underground transfer space


The PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations during morning rush hours at the seven selected transfer stations are presented in Figs. 7(a) (b)
and Fig. 8 (a) (b). As shown in these four figures, the average concentration values of PM2.5 showed a similar trend as the PM10 at each
measuring point. The average PM concentration on the platforms was higher than that on the concourses during the two seasons,
similar to the CO2 concentration. Based on numerous field air quality measures and studies on metro systems in metropolises, the PM
concentrations in most metro stations are usually higher than those in the outdoor environment [46–55]. For instance, a study on the
Seoul metro system reported levels of an underground station to be 2.3 and 1.3 times greater than ambient ground concentrations [82].
The underground stations of the Los Angeles Metro were shown to have PM10 and PM2.5 levels that were 2.5 and 2.9 times greater than
ambient ground concentrations, while an underground station in the Stockholm metro system had levels that were 4.8 and 11.2 times
greater than its corresponding ambient ground site [83]. In this study, field measurements and calculations of PM2.5 and PM10 con­
centrations at Beijing metro transfer stations in summer and winter showed that the average concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 at most
measuring points were generally 2 times and 1.5 times higher, respectively, than the outdoor daily average concentrations during the
same period. This finding is also consistent with that of studies in other countries, namely, that indoor PM concentrations are higher
than outdoor PM concentrations [84]. Although the exact indoor to outdoor ratio may differ by country, numerous studies show that
the indoor PM value is indeed higher than the outdoor PM value. The main reasons are that the time of sampling (i.e., rush hour,
normal hours, weekend) and the frequency of trains in operation may influence PM levels. Greater passenger activity may create more
particulate resuspension [83].
In addition, most studies have concluded that PM concentrations in metro stations are influenced by PM concentrations in outdoor
air, outdoor seasonal changes, outdoor climatic conditions, outdoor traffic, and outdoor PM pollution sources [10,66–70]. For
instance, seasonality may further affect PM concentrations in metro stations [10]. Outdoor temperature and wind speed differ between
winter and summer, and a low temperature and wind speed in colder seasons are not conducive to the diffusion of PM. However, in

Fig. 7. PM2.5/PM10 concentration during the summer morning rush hours: (a) platform point location; (b) transfer concourse point location.

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Fig. 8. PM2.5/PM10 concentration during the winter morning rush hours: (a) platform point location; (b) transfer concourse point location.

some cities, public heating in the colder season relies mainly on coal, which releases a large amount of particulate matter into the
atmosphere during the combustion process, and the diffusion of particulate matter is limited by a low temperature and low wind speed.
These conditions lead to a higher outdoor PM concentration in the colder period, in turn affecting PM concentrations in metro stations.
Notably, however, Fig. 7(a) (b) and Fig. 8 (a) (b) show that although the outdoor average PM concentration during winter morning
rush hours was higher than that in summer, the indoor average PM concentration in winter was lower than that in summer, especially
on the concourse. This trend occurs because the Beijing metro transfer station usually shuts down its HVAC systems during winter,
strengthening its control of pollutant concentrations. While ensuring the minimum fresh air volume in the station, a filter screen is
installed at the ventilation shafts, and the air conditioner, which is connected to the ground, and the air purifier at the side of the
stairs/elevator are turned on, thus reducing the overall concentration of PM. Nevertheless, under the design criteria for PM in the
underground space of the Beijing metro, the PM concentration should be below 0.25 μg/m3 [80]. PM2.5 and PM10 basically adhered to
the maintenance criteria in both summer and winter, but there were also a few measuring points on the platform where the standards
were exceeded (1 measuring point in summer and 4 measuring points in winter). This result shows that even though the Beijing metro
has taken measures to reduce the PM concentration, in some locations, it still exceeds the standard, especially in winter.
Additionally, the PM concentration is related to the train passing frequency, platform type, platform screen door, platform piston
wind, and indoor PM pollution sources [66,68,70]. Indoor PM pollution sources come from mainly inside the metro interior (i.e., steel
wheels, steel rails, metallic brake pads, catenary, motor brushes, ventilation system, perennial equipment, painting material, etc.)
[10]. For instance, in the metro station, friction between wheels and the track generates PM “rail dust”. Fig. 9 displays the quadrant
distribution map of the number of trains passing through a platform during the morning rush hours. All platforms were fitted with a

Fig. 9. Quadrant distribution map of the number of trains passing through the platform over a 10-min period during the morning rush hours.

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platform screen door during the same season and ventilation. Comparative analysis showed that T2-4 (− 12.9 m) and D3-1 (− 15.3 m)
were both located in the lateral platform at a close depth (Fig. 2). However, the number of trains that passed through T2-4 in a 10-min
period in winter was the highest (8 times), and D3-1 was the lowest (2 times). Combined with Figs. 8 (a) and Fig. 9, the PM value of
T2-4 was lower than that of D3-1 because the more times the train passes through a platform, the more frequently the piston wind
accelerates the airflow; the piston wind could enhance the exchange of air inside and outside the station, thus further diluting the
platform PM concentration [10]. However, the air quality of the lateral platform station is superior to that of the island platform
station, which was verified in the 2014 Barcelona Metro Air Quality Assessment study [78], and the same characteristics were also
found in the Beijing metro. For instance, D2-1 (− 16.8 m, located on the island platform) and D3-2 (− 15.3 m, located on the lateral
platform) were located at close depths but belonged to different platform types. When the same numbers of trains pass through during
the same season, the PM value of D2-1 is higher than that of D3-2.
Field measurements of the thermal environment and air quality of the Beijing metro transfer space showed that the temperature,
RH, wind speed, CO2, and PM all dynamically change with the transfer of passengers. The indoor temperature and RH in winter met the
HVAC system control criteria more than in summer, which shows that the indoor thermal environment in winter was more comfortable
than that in summer. Interestingly, since the average concentrations of PM and CO2 on the platform in the two seasons are greater than
those on the station concourse, when passengers transfer from one platform to another, they experience a process of “high-low-high”.
However, overall, both the PM and CO2 concentrations mostly met the design criteria, and only a few measuring points exceeded the
standard. In addition, compared to previous studies that mainly arranged measuring points independently in areas such as platforms
and carriages, the locations of the measuring points in this study were arranged according to the whole transfer flow lines of pas­
sengers. All measurements were performed on weekdays (Monday to Friday) during the summer and winter morning rush hours.
Measured data is continuous and seasonal. This study reveals the characteristics and patterns of the thermal environment and air
quality in the underground transfer space of Beijing metro stations in terms of theoretical aspects. It also provides a real seasonal
measured data study and reference for indoor environment and passenger comfort in Beijing metro stations, which is the basis for
guiding the engineering design and operation optimization of HVAC systems and provides reliable basic research data.
However, for the paid underground space in the Beijing metro transfer system itself, the most important function is to provide
passengers with a comfortable and healthy indoor environment. Therefore, it is urgent to investigate passengers’ comfort.

3.3. Passenger comfort characteristics


3.3.1. Analysis of passenger comfort based on RWI
A previous study published by our research team adopted the RWI to evaluate passengers’ thermal comfort during the Beijing Metro
transfer process [53]. Transfer passengers occupy a transient thermal comfort state that often fails to reach thermal stability.
Therefore, based on the theory of warm environmental comfort presented by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioning Engineers [85], the United States Department of Transportation recommends that the RWI describe the degree of
thermal comfort of the indoor environment in metro stations.
The RWI is a dimensionless parameter and is calculated by Equations (1) and (2).
When the vapor pressure Pv of water in air exceeds 0.67 in. (2268.88 Pa) of mercury,
MT (IcwT + Ia ) + 1.13(t − 95) + RIa
RWI = (Pv > 0.67 ​ in ​ Hg) (1)
70(1.73 − P)
When Pv is equal to or less than 0.67 in. (2268.88 Pa) of mercury,
MT (IcwT + Ia ) + 1.13(t − 95) + RIa
RWI = (Pv ≤ 0.67 ​ in ​ Hg) (2)
74.2

where:
MT = metabolic rate at lapsed time T in nonsteady situations, Btu/h.ft2 (1 Btu/h.ft2 = 3.15459 w/m2)
IcwT = insulation of clothing at lapsed time T based on wet cloth assumption in unsteady situations, clo
Ia = insulation effect of the air boundary layer, clo
t = dry-bulb air temperature, oF (9/5 ◦ C + 32 = oF)
t – 95 = difference between dry-bulb temperature and average skin temperature just before a person feels uncomfortably warm, oF
R = mean incident radiant heat from sources other than walls at room temperature, Btu/h. ft2
PV = Vapor pressure at dry bulb temperatures, in Hg
MT = MI – T/6 (MI – MF)
IcwT = IcwI – T/6 (IcwI – IcwF)
where:
T = lapsed time, min (0 min < T < 6 min)
MI = initial metabolic rate, Btu/h.ft2
MF = final metabolic rate, Btu/h.ft2
IcwI = initial insulation of clothing, clo
IcwF = final insulation of clothing, clo

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C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

The corresponding relationship between RWI value and ASHRAE comfort level is presented in Table 3.
The evaluation results for thermal comfort at different spatial locations along the passenger transfer flow line during morning rush
hours are shown in Fig. 10. We found that passengers’ thermal comfort level is not ideal in 87% of the measured space and is slightly
hot overall, with an RWI range of 0.20–0.43 during the summer morning rush hours. Although 20% of the measured space has lower
values than ASHRAE’s cooling comfort class [85], the thermal comfort level of most measured space is good during the winter morning
rush hours, with an RWI range from − 0.18 to 0.28 [53]. However, whether the analysis results were consistent with passengers’ real
comfort must be studied in conjunction with a subjective survey of passengers.

3.3.2. Subjective survey of passenger comfort


As a supplement to objective evaluation, subjective evaluation is an important way to assess a situation, and it helps to reveal
passengers’ real psychological feelings about transfer comfort in this study. People’s opinions on their spatial environment are valuable
in themselves [79]. Accordingly, after completing the objective analysis using the RWI, our research team further combined the
questionnaires to conduct a subjective comfort survey and verification.
During the entire measurement process, 336 valid questionnaires were collected during the summer morning rush hours, and 284
valid questionnaires were collected during the winter rush hours. Table 4 shows the basic passenger survey items on rush hours for the
two seasons. The proportion of male respondents is slightly larger than that of female respondents. The largest group represents the age
range of 25–35. The least represented groups are those younger than 18 and older than 50. The percentage of respondents within the
transfer frequency of 2 times a day during the summer measurement period is higher than that in winter, as shown in Table 4.
Notably, in the thermal environment comfort survey, as shown in Fig. 11, the selection percentage of passengers who felt slightly
uncomfortable in summer (53.53%) was significantly higher than that in winter (41.21%). Correspondingly, passengers reported a
much higher percentage of thermal comfort when transferring during the winter (54.59%) morning rush hours than in summer
(37.57%). This finding is similar to the RWI evaluation, and it also agrees with the previous thermal environment characteristic
analysis evaluation. Furthermore, statistical analysis of the thermal environment comfort survey results in Table 5 and Table 6 show
that median thermal comfort feelings in summer and winter were slightly uncomfortable and comfortable, respectively. All these
findings strongly indicate that comfort of the thermal environment in winter was better than that in summer in the Beijing metro
station transfer space during the morning rush hours.
However, nearly half of the passengers (46.55%) thought that the air quality had a greater impact on their comfort in winter, and
they felt very uncomfortable. Only 26.68% of passengers felt very uncomfortable about the air quality in summer. This result is
inconsistent with the previous conclusion from the PM and CO2 concentration analysis (the average concentrations of indoor PM and
CO2 in summer were all higher than those in winter). The reason for this result is that the outdoor air quality pollution in Beijing in
winter is more severe than in summer, and there are more polluted days in winter, and the concentration of outdoor PM is generally
higher than in summer, causing people to pay more attention to the PM than in summer. These observations indicate that passengers’
subjective perception of air quality is more likely to be affected by psychological factors. In contrast, passengers feel more strongly and
realistically about the comfort of the thermal environment. In addition, according to the statistical data analysis in Tables 5 and 6, the
centralized tendency in passengers’ air quality comfort feeling in winter was very uncomfortable, with a percentage of the uncom­
fortable special index reaching 90%. Although the summer centralized tendency was slightly uncomfortable, the percentage of the
uncomfortable special index reached 82%. This finding shows that passengers are very concerned about the air quality in the un­
derground space of the metro because it has a particularly large impact on their health and the comfort of the metro.
In terms of overall comfort, as shown in Fig. 11, 56% and 53.32% of passengers chose to be slightly uncomfortable in summer and
winter, respectively. Tables 5 and 6 also present the statistical results, showing that the percentages of the uncomfortable special index
in summer (68%) and winter (71%) were relatively close, and the centralized tendency in passengers’ subjective feelings in the Beijing
metro transfer space was slightly uncomfortable. Moreover, more than half of the respondents felt uncomfortable to varying degrees
during the transfer process in both seasons.
This study examines both the thermal environment and air quality in the indoor environment. Analyzing the thermal environment
and air quality in metro stations and their variation patterns alongside a subjective comfort survey of passengers establishes a basis for
further improvement in the indoor environment. Compared to the current extensive studies focusing on the thermal comfort under
steady-state conditions in building spaces, this study selected the transfer space of metro transfer stations as the research object,
investigated the thermal comfort under transient conditions, and dynamically considered the thermal comfort of passengers during
metro transfers. The results provide reliable primary research data for the design and operation management of metro station
ventilation and air conditioning systems, which can be used to predict patterns and trends of the thermal environment and air quality
in the underground transfer space of Beijing metro stations in the future. The results can also be used to guide the design of indoor
environments in metro stations and the engineering design and operation optimization of HVAC systems. Specifically, the results
enable HVAC engineers to design an indoor environment by determining indoor thermal design parameters, including air temperature,

Table 3
RWI comfort classification.

ASHRAE (comfort classification) Relative Warmth Index

Warm (+2) 0.25


Slightly warm (+1) 0.15
Comfortable (0) 0.08
Slightly cool (− 1) 0.00

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C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

Fig. 10. RWI values for the two seasons at each measuring point [53].

Table 4
Field survey of gender, age and transfer frequency.

Basic survey items Summer morning rush hours Winter morning rush hours

Transfer number Maximum transfer frequency Transfer number Maximum transfer frequency

N % Times/day % N % Times/day %

Gender Male 196 58.3 2 46.43 144 50.7 2 31.69


Female 140 41.7 140 49.3
Age <18 10 3.0 8 2.8
18–25 121 36.0 102 35.9
25–35 139 41.4 146 51.4
35–50 52 15.5 26 9.2
>50 14 4.2 2 0.7
Total 336 100.0 284 100.0

Fig. 11. Voting results from the passenger comfort questionnaire during the morning rush hours in summer and winter.

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C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

Table 5
Statistical analysis of the summer questionnaire results.

Subjective item measuring Centralized tendency Dispersion tendency (Semi- Special index (%) Effective decision
comfort (Median) interquartile range) number (n)

Thermal comfort Slight uncomfortable (1) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 336


uncomfortable: 62
Air quality Slight uncomfortable (1) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 336
uncomfortable: 82
Overall comfort Slight uncomfortable (1) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 336
uncomfortable: 68

Table 6
Statistical analysis of the winter questionnaire results.

Subjective item measuring Centralized tendency Dispersion tendency (Semi- Special index (%) Effective decision
comfort (Median) interquartile range) number (n)

Thermal comfort Comfortable (0) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 284


uncomfortable: 45
Air quality Very uncomfortable (3) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 284
uncomfortable: 90
Overall comfort Slight uncomfortable (1) 1/2 Spacing Percentage of 284
uncomfortable: 71

humidity, and wind speed, for heating and cooling load calculations as well as radiant temperature for the design of radiant heating
and cooling systems [86]. Such work may include the optimal adjustment of HVAC operation schemes when the thermal environment
is found to be unsatisfactory in metro stations or when air quality is heavily polluted; a targeted study of control schemes for the
thermal environment and air quality in metro stations in different seasons; a study of high-efficiency filters in metro stations; and a
study of equipment related to healthy city transportation systems. Moreover, for established metro stations, the results can be used to
guide the optimization of the existing HVAC operation scheme in stations and improve the renovation of the indoor environment. For
new metro stations, the results can assist and guide the design of the indoor environment and HVAC system.

4. Conclusions
This paper presents a study on Beijing metro transfer stations that captures indoor environment measurements and passenger
comfort surveys in transfer spaces during the morning rush hours for two seasons. Given the findings, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
(1) The average indoor temperature and RH of the Beijing metro station are affected by not only the ground temperature and
ground RH but also station depth. The indoor temperature in winter basically met the standard, but only certain indoor tem­
peratures in summer met the standard. Moreover, the indoor RH in summer was not ideal. These measured data indicate that the
Beijing metro should be strengthened to control the thermal environment in summer and maintain it in winter.
(2) The indoor average concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 were generally 2 times and 1.5 times higher than the outdoor daily
average concentrations during the same period. In addition, the indoor average PM concentration in winter was lower than that
in summer, especially on the concourses. However, the PM concentration was basically below the standard, showing acceptable
results. Furthermore, the PM concentration is also affected by factors including the season, design of the concourse/platform
and tunnel, depth of the measuring point location, number of passing trains, wind speed, etc.
(3) The indoor average concentration of CO2 was higher in summer than in winter and was negatively correlated with wind speed.
The average concentration for the two seasons did not exceed 15‰, which met the design requirements.
(4) The results of the subjective survey showed that the thermal environment comfort in winter was higher than that in summer in
the Beijing metro station transfer space during the morning rush hours. This finding is similar to the result of the RWI evalu­
ation. In contrast, passengers’ subjective perception of air quality is more likely to be affected by psychological factors.
Regarding overall comfort, the subjective feelings of passengers during the two seasons were both slightly uncomfortable.
This study could facilitate the creation of a healthy and comfortable indoor environment for metro passengers. At the same time, a
reasonable and effective HVAC system scheme can also help reduce the high energy consumption caused by the operation of indoor air
conditioning systems and provides a valuable reference for exploring energy-saving measures for underground spaces. Moreover,
regarding the actual measurement data and findings of this paper, it is necessary to evaluate the key technical indicators of HVAC
systems combined with artificial intelligence and deep neural network methods. The predicted patterns and trends in the thermal
environment and air quality in the underground transfer space of stations during the morning rush hours of the Beijing metro can assist
and guide engineering design and operation parameter optimization of environmental control and HVAC systems in metro stations.
In conclusion, the continuous development of metros will direct more attention to the study of thermal comfort and air quality in
the transfer space of metro stations, and the elimination of various factors detrimental to passenger health and maximum energy
savings will fuel researchers’ continued efforts.

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C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093

Author contributions
Chunxiang Lin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.
Liming Wu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.
Haishan Xia: Funding acquisition, Project administration. Meng Zhen: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources. Chen Shen:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing, Resources. Jinjin Zhu: Investigation, Resources, Visualization. Xinyi Li:
Investigation, Resources, Visualization.

Declaration of competing interest


The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The authors do not have permission to share data.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number 52078027).

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