Character of Thermal Comfort in Metro Station
Character of Thermal Comfort in Metro Station
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: With the increase in Beijing’s metro mileage and passenger numbers, it is becoming especially
Thermal environment necessary to investigate the indoor environment and passenger comfort of metro stations. In this
Air quality study, the transfer spaces in the top seven transfer stations with the largest passenger flow within
Passenger comfort the Beijing metro system were selected for conducting indoor environment (thermal environment
Transfer space and air quality) measurements and a subjective comfort survey of over 600 passengers. The re
Metro station
sults showed that the thermal environment and air quality experienced by passengers changed
dynamically with the passenger transfer process. Indoor temperature and relative humidity (RH)
were affected by not only aboveground weather changes but also station depth, and the indoor
temperature in winter was more comfortable than that in summer. The trend in subjective feel
ings of passengers’ thermal comfort was similar to that of the relative warmth index (RWI)
evaluation of seven transfer stations during the measurement periods, and passengers’ thermal
comfort during the summer morning rush hours was not ideal but was slightly hot overall.
Although the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM: including PM2.5
and PM10) met the indoor air quality maintenance standards, the percentage of passengers un
comfortable with the air quality exceeded 80% during both seasons, and the centralized tendency
in winter was very uncomfortable. Passengers are very concerned about air quality, and their
subjective feelings are relatively susceptible to psychological factors. Regarding the overall
comfort trend, passengers’ subjective feelings of comfort during the morning rush hours in
summer and winter were both “slightly uncomfortable”. This paper provides a valuable reference
for further research on environmental, health, and energy saving issues in metro stations and
presents reliable primary research data for the design and operation management of ventilation
and air conditioning systems in metro stations.
1. Introduction
The metro system is the main form of underground public transportation system and urban rail transit system, which not only has a
* Corresponding author. School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, PR China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Wu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105093
Received 13 April 2022; Received in revised form 5 August 2022; Accepted 5 August 2022
Available online 11 August 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Lin et al. Journal of Building Engineering 59 (2022) 105093
large capacity, fast speed, low emissions, and high safety but can also bring multiple benefits to the city, such as energy efficiency and
environmental protection [1–5]. However, unlike general indoor spaces, metro stations are semiopen and enclosed spaces [6,7], and
the indoor air in metro stations is difficult to exchange directly with the outside environment [8], especially in metro transfer spaces,
where the flow of people is the most concentrated. The relatively closed environment and high crowd density adversely affect the
indoor thermal environment and air quality [9–12]. Importantly, the alleviation of indoor thermal environment and air quality
deterioration requires air conditioning systems and mechanical ventilation systems for regulation and the intake of fresh air from
outside to dilute indoor pollutants [4,13–15]. Nevertheless, some studies have indicated that the environmental control system in
metro stations consumes a large amount of energy, accounting for approximately 35%–50% of the total energy consumption of
buildings [16,17]. Therefore, a good indoor thermal environment and good air quality not only help provide a comfortable and healthy
environment for passengers but also reduce the high energy consumption caused by indoor air conditioning (HVAC) systems and
facilitate the exploration of appropriate energy operation solutions to minimize the energy consumption of the metro system [18–23].
Understanding the indoor environmental characteristics of metro stations and passenger comfort in such a complex and distinct
environment is one of the growing concerns of the scientific community [24–28]. The concept of the indoor environment is generally
grouped into four main environmental factors: the thermal environment, air quality, acoustics, and lighting [29–32]. In this paper,
indoor environment research primarily focuses on the thermal environment and air quality.
The thermal environment of metro stations affects passenger comfort [33], and many countries have explored this topic. A study on
Tehran metro stations showed that the temperatures in the entrances, station concourses, and platforms were relatively high, whereas
those inside the carriages were relatively lower than other points in the stations. In addition, due to the relative humidity (RH) of the
Tehran Metro being lower than 30%, passengers’ nose, eyes, and throat became dry and uncomfortable [34]. Field investigations of the
thermal environment of the Shanghai metro station found that approximately 92.1% of subjects deemed the thermal environment
acceptable, and the mean temperature and RH in the metro stations were 23.7 ± 1.8 ◦ C (operative temperature) and 54 ± 7%,
respectively [35]. A study of the metro indoor environment and passenger comfort over three seasons in Seoul, South Korea, showed
large differences in the air temperature of metro stations in different seasons, with the air temperature in winter being very low.
Additionally, the RH was somewhat higher in summer at approximately 63.1–63.8% and somewhat lower in winter at 28.4–28.6% [7].
A field study was performed to investigate the thermal comfort conditions in the Athens Metro; the results showed that differences in
the thermal comfort conditions on the platforms are associated with the depth and the design characteristics of the stations [28].
Nevertheless, most studies on the thermal environment of metro stations have focused primarily on the platform and have only
captured data within a specific or a brief interval.
In addition, numerous studies have performed thermal comfort evaluation, temperature distribution, and optimization measure
ments for metro stations to determine a comfortable thermal environment. Various indicators have been used to evaluate thermal
properties [28,36–39]. However, the movement of passengers in a metro station occurs in a transient thermal environment [40]. Based
on theoretical analysis and experimental studies, the RWI has been recommended as a suitable metric for evaluating transitional
thermal comfort levels on metro platforms [8,41]. The RWI considers primarily the temperature, RH, wind speed, individual clothing,
and metabolic rate, and it can better describe passengers’ thermal comfort in the transitional spaces of metro stations, especially on
platforms [34,42,43].
Regarding air quality, some studies have even indicated that the concentrations of CO2 and PM along with the ambient temperature
affect passenger comfort during rush hours [44,45]. Metro stations are more affected by external pollutants than ordinary buildings
because they are confined spaces with many pollution sources and high ridership. However, the current design of metro ventilation and
HVAC systems is focused more on heat and humidity management, ignoring indoor air quality, while the air purification equipment in
the metro system is mostly primary or intermediate efficiency filters, leading to a deterioration of air quality [18]. Based on numerous
field air quality measures and studies on metro systems in large cities in South Korea [46], Spain [47–49], Canada [50], Mexico [51],
Brazil [6], China [52,53], the USA [54], and other countries [55], the concentration of pollutants in metro stations was usually found
to be higher than that in the outdoor environment. Long-term exposure to particles containing a variety of chemical components could
cause more health problems for the public [56–60], especially when the PM inhaled in the metro may affect the health of passengers
and staff [61–64]. Some studies have reported that for every 10 μg/m3 increase in the average PM2.5 concentration, the mortality rate
will increase by 1.5% [65]. Many studies have shown that the factors influencing the concentration and distribution of PM in metro
stations are the season, ground climate, operating hours, passenger flow, HVAC system, piston wind, depth, station design, and outdoor
traffic [10,66–70]. The measurement places in metro stations have been platforms, carriages, station offices, rest areas, ticket offices,
and other station areas [71,72].
In general, the thermal environment and air quality are closely related, and both have important effects on the comfort and health
of metro station passengers [73]. Studies have verified that higher air temperatures and relative humidity tend to result in worsening
perceived air quality, while increased air movement significantly improves air quality satisfaction [74]. Additionally, there are many
similarities between metro thermal comfort research and air quality research. First, with the popularity of the metro and the increase in
the number of passengers and the duration of their travel time, passengers’ subjective feelings in metro stations have become
increasingly important, and their short-term feelings and long-term health are affected. Second, there are similarities in the research
methods required for capturing both variables. Due to the numerous characteristics of the metro station, measurements from the actual
platforms are necessary for understanding both variables, and the influencing factors found through the measurements have over
lapping factors [74]. Third, wind flow impacts both passenger thermal comfort and air quality, which can be simulated numerically
using the same software. Furthermore, in terms of indoor environment research methods, a combination of field objective indoor
environment measurements and subjective questionnaire surveys is necessary. Two types of analysis methods are used: field surveys
combined with mathematical and statistical methods and field surveys combined with computer simulation methods [18].
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Currently, as the first city in China to have an underground railway, Beijing has 25 lines in total, with a total length is 708.90 km.
Over ten million people take the metro in Beijing each day, spending a long time underground. With the increase in Beijing’s metro
mileage and passenger numbers, it is especially necessary to investigate the indoor environment and passenger comfort of metro
stations [75,76]. However, few studies have focused on describing and analyzing the indoor environment and passenger comfort at
Beijing metro stations. Importantly, existing research has primarily measured parameters within a specific or a brief interval, with a
lack of seasonal contrast, so the data have been discontinuous, leading to noncomprehensive conclusions [62]. Furthermore, a metro
ride is a dynamic process, and passengers’ comfort level also changes with respect to their spatial location in a metro station, especially
in a large and complex underground metro transfer station. In contrast to the extensive literature on steady-state conditions, there is
relatively little knowledge of thermal comfort under these transient conditions [38]. Moreover, previous studies have primarily ar
ranged measuring points independently in areas such as platforms and carriages, without systematically arranging points for the whole
transfer flow line of the metro transfer space and without dynamically considering thermal comfort during metro transfers.
In this context, the present study employed the transfer space of the Beijing metro transfer station as the research object and
analyzed its indoor thermal environment and air quality characteristics during the summer and winter rush hours. In addition, pas
sengers’ subjective comfort was surveyed and validated based on an RWI thermal comfort analysis. This study provides a valuable
reference for future research on environmental control and comfort studies in metro stations as well as for exploring appropriate
energy saving measurements in underground spaces.
2. Research methods
2.1. Subject details
The top seven metro transfer stations in the Beijing metro with annual average transfer volumes during the period 2014–2016 were
selected for this study and named T1, T2, D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5, where T and D indicate that the transfer station has 3 and 2 crossed
lines, respectively (Fig. 1). Table 1 describes the basic information on the seven selected metro transfer stations. In addition, there are
two main types of platforms in the selected stations: island type (I type) and lateral type (L type). The depth range of the measurement
points in this study is from − 7.8 m to − 28.95 m, which is slightly larger than in other studies [7,77]. The depth range of the mea
surement points is from − 10.2 m (D2-4) to − 28.95 m (T1-1) for the platforms and from − 7.8 m (T2-3) to − 25.35 m (T1-3) for the
concourses. During the measurement period, the HVAC systems were operated starting from 6 a.m. and ran for approximately 18 h in
summer. The mechanical ventilation systems were suspended from December to February, during which the ventilation depended on
the piston wind and the natural wind from the entrance and exit.
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Table 1
Basic information on monitored transfer stations.
Station Number of Depth of Type of Line Platform District Number of Measurement Measuring
a
Lines platform platform opening screen door b measuring period time per point
year points
Protection Center, called Beijing Air Quality (Version 3), was used to record the outdoor weather conditions and air quality data in real
time.
Regarding thermal environment measurement instruments, the temperature and relative humidity were measured with a multi
functional handheld memorable black bulb tester (WBGT-2010SD, LUTRON Electronic Enterprise Co., Ltd., Taiwan), which is a high-
precision black bulb temperature and humidity-measuring instrument. This instrument’s temperature scale ranges from 0 to 50 ◦ C
(measurement accuracy±0.8 ◦ C), and its humidity scale range is 5–95% RH (measurement accuracy±3% RH). Wind speed mea
surements were conducted with a wireless mini hot-wire anemometer (TESTO 405i, testo SE & Co. KGaA, Germany). This instrument is
highly suitable for measuring indoor wind speed, with a resolution of 0.01 m/s, and it can also simultaneously measure air temper
ature. Its measurement readings are wirelessly transmitted to the Testo Smart Probes app installed on a smartphone or tablet via
Bluetooth. In addition, regarding air quality measurements, the CO2 concentration was measured with a nondispersive infrared ray
carbon dioxide detector (TES1370, TES Electrical Electronic Corp., Taipei, Taiwan), which is a professional detector for the accurate
detection of CO2 concentrations in various environments. It is equipped with NDIR (non-dispersive infrared) dual wavelength infrared
sensors and a multichannel data analyzer. It integrates a temperature sensor, humidity sensor and STEL (short-term exposure limit)
security alarm. It can provide excellent indoor CO2 concentration measurements with accuracy and stability to evaluate the basic
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indoor air quality in parts per million (ppm). PM measurements were conducted with a high-precision hand-held PM2.5/PM10 air
quality detector (CW-HAT200S, Chinaway Environmental Technologies Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). This instrument is equipped with
a high-precision pump suction laser sensor and external temperature/humidity sensors. It measures parameters in real time for 1 min,
can store 500 sets of data per second and supports USB high-speed download. The measurement error is ±10%, the measurement range
is 0–1000 μg/m3, and the resolution rate is 0.001 mg. According to Calibration Report No. 185807002, which was issued by the
Shenzhen Academy of Metrology & Quality Inspection (National Hi-tech Metrology Station), the instrument’s mass concentration
conversion factor K = 2.0 μg/m3. The above mentioned instruments are shown in Fig. 3, and they were all calibrated prior to use,
undergoing self-correction and zero calibration.
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Table 2
Passenger comfort assessment scale for the thermal environment and air quality.
4. How did you feel about the comfort of the thermal environment during your transfer? (Thermal □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
comforta) □Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
5. How did you feel about the comfort of the air quality during your transfer? (Air quality comfort b) □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
□Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
6. How did you feel about the overall comfort of the indoor environment during your transfer? (Overall □Comfortable □ Slightly uncomfortable
comfort c) □Uncomfortable
□ Very uncomfortable □Extremely uncomfortable
a
Thermal comfort includes mainly the passenger’s feelings about the comfort of the temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed in metro stations.
b
Air quality comfort includes mainly the passenger’s feelings about the comfort of PM and CO2 in metro stations.
c
Overall comfort refers mainly to passengers’ combined comfort feelings in relation to both the thermal environment and air quality.
Fig. 4. Temperature comparison of the two seasons regarding the measuring points and the outdoor daily average during morning rush hours.
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Fig. 5. RH comparison of the two seasons regarding the measuring points and the outdoor daily average during morning rush hours.
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Fig. 6. The two-season average value comparison of wind speed and CO2 concentration during morning rush hours: (a) summer; (b) winter.
Fig. 7. PM2.5/PM10 concentration during the summer morning rush hours: (a) platform point location; (b) transfer concourse point location.
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Fig. 8. PM2.5/PM10 concentration during the winter morning rush hours: (a) platform point location; (b) transfer concourse point location.
some cities, public heating in the colder season relies mainly on coal, which releases a large amount of particulate matter into the
atmosphere during the combustion process, and the diffusion of particulate matter is limited by a low temperature and low wind speed.
These conditions lead to a higher outdoor PM concentration in the colder period, in turn affecting PM concentrations in metro stations.
Notably, however, Fig. 7(a) (b) and Fig. 8 (a) (b) show that although the outdoor average PM concentration during winter morning
rush hours was higher than that in summer, the indoor average PM concentration in winter was lower than that in summer, especially
on the concourse. This trend occurs because the Beijing metro transfer station usually shuts down its HVAC systems during winter,
strengthening its control of pollutant concentrations. While ensuring the minimum fresh air volume in the station, a filter screen is
installed at the ventilation shafts, and the air conditioner, which is connected to the ground, and the air purifier at the side of the
stairs/elevator are turned on, thus reducing the overall concentration of PM. Nevertheless, under the design criteria for PM in the
underground space of the Beijing metro, the PM concentration should be below 0.25 μg/m3 [80]. PM2.5 and PM10 basically adhered to
the maintenance criteria in both summer and winter, but there were also a few measuring points on the platform where the standards
were exceeded (1 measuring point in summer and 4 measuring points in winter). This result shows that even though the Beijing metro
has taken measures to reduce the PM concentration, in some locations, it still exceeds the standard, especially in winter.
Additionally, the PM concentration is related to the train passing frequency, platform type, platform screen door, platform piston
wind, and indoor PM pollution sources [66,68,70]. Indoor PM pollution sources come from mainly inside the metro interior (i.e., steel
wheels, steel rails, metallic brake pads, catenary, motor brushes, ventilation system, perennial equipment, painting material, etc.)
[10]. For instance, in the metro station, friction between wheels and the track generates PM “rail dust”. Fig. 9 displays the quadrant
distribution map of the number of trains passing through a platform during the morning rush hours. All platforms were fitted with a
Fig. 9. Quadrant distribution map of the number of trains passing through the platform over a 10-min period during the morning rush hours.
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platform screen door during the same season and ventilation. Comparative analysis showed that T2-4 (− 12.9 m) and D3-1 (− 15.3 m)
were both located in the lateral platform at a close depth (Fig. 2). However, the number of trains that passed through T2-4 in a 10-min
period in winter was the highest (8 times), and D3-1 was the lowest (2 times). Combined with Figs. 8 (a) and Fig. 9, the PM value of
T2-4 was lower than that of D3-1 because the more times the train passes through a platform, the more frequently the piston wind
accelerates the airflow; the piston wind could enhance the exchange of air inside and outside the station, thus further diluting the
platform PM concentration [10]. However, the air quality of the lateral platform station is superior to that of the island platform
station, which was verified in the 2014 Barcelona Metro Air Quality Assessment study [78], and the same characteristics were also
found in the Beijing metro. For instance, D2-1 (− 16.8 m, located on the island platform) and D3-2 (− 15.3 m, located on the lateral
platform) were located at close depths but belonged to different platform types. When the same numbers of trains pass through during
the same season, the PM value of D2-1 is higher than that of D3-2.
Field measurements of the thermal environment and air quality of the Beijing metro transfer space showed that the temperature,
RH, wind speed, CO2, and PM all dynamically change with the transfer of passengers. The indoor temperature and RH in winter met the
HVAC system control criteria more than in summer, which shows that the indoor thermal environment in winter was more comfortable
than that in summer. Interestingly, since the average concentrations of PM and CO2 on the platform in the two seasons are greater than
those on the station concourse, when passengers transfer from one platform to another, they experience a process of “high-low-high”.
However, overall, both the PM and CO2 concentrations mostly met the design criteria, and only a few measuring points exceeded the
standard. In addition, compared to previous studies that mainly arranged measuring points independently in areas such as platforms
and carriages, the locations of the measuring points in this study were arranged according to the whole transfer flow lines of pas
sengers. All measurements were performed on weekdays (Monday to Friday) during the summer and winter morning rush hours.
Measured data is continuous and seasonal. This study reveals the characteristics and patterns of the thermal environment and air
quality in the underground transfer space of Beijing metro stations in terms of theoretical aspects. It also provides a real seasonal
measured data study and reference for indoor environment and passenger comfort in Beijing metro stations, which is the basis for
guiding the engineering design and operation optimization of HVAC systems and provides reliable basic research data.
However, for the paid underground space in the Beijing metro transfer system itself, the most important function is to provide
passengers with a comfortable and healthy indoor environment. Therefore, it is urgent to investigate passengers’ comfort.
where:
MT = metabolic rate at lapsed time T in nonsteady situations, Btu/h.ft2 (1 Btu/h.ft2 = 3.15459 w/m2)
IcwT = insulation of clothing at lapsed time T based on wet cloth assumption in unsteady situations, clo
Ia = insulation effect of the air boundary layer, clo
t = dry-bulb air temperature, oF (9/5 ◦ C + 32 = oF)
t – 95 = difference between dry-bulb temperature and average skin temperature just before a person feels uncomfortably warm, oF
R = mean incident radiant heat from sources other than walls at room temperature, Btu/h. ft2
PV = Vapor pressure at dry bulb temperatures, in Hg
MT = MI – T/6 (MI – MF)
IcwT = IcwI – T/6 (IcwI – IcwF)
where:
T = lapsed time, min (0 min < T < 6 min)
MI = initial metabolic rate, Btu/h.ft2
MF = final metabolic rate, Btu/h.ft2
IcwI = initial insulation of clothing, clo
IcwF = final insulation of clothing, clo
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The corresponding relationship between RWI value and ASHRAE comfort level is presented in Table 3.
The evaluation results for thermal comfort at different spatial locations along the passenger transfer flow line during morning rush
hours are shown in Fig. 10. We found that passengers’ thermal comfort level is not ideal in 87% of the measured space and is slightly
hot overall, with an RWI range of 0.20–0.43 during the summer morning rush hours. Although 20% of the measured space has lower
values than ASHRAE’s cooling comfort class [85], the thermal comfort level of most measured space is good during the winter morning
rush hours, with an RWI range from − 0.18 to 0.28 [53]. However, whether the analysis results were consistent with passengers’ real
comfort must be studied in conjunction with a subjective survey of passengers.
Table 3
RWI comfort classification.
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Fig. 10. RWI values for the two seasons at each measuring point [53].
Table 4
Field survey of gender, age and transfer frequency.
Basic survey items Summer morning rush hours Winter morning rush hours
Transfer number Maximum transfer frequency Transfer number Maximum transfer frequency
N % Times/day % N % Times/day %
Fig. 11. Voting results from the passenger comfort questionnaire during the morning rush hours in summer and winter.
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Table 5
Statistical analysis of the summer questionnaire results.
Subjective item measuring Centralized tendency Dispersion tendency (Semi- Special index (%) Effective decision
comfort (Median) interquartile range) number (n)
Table 6
Statistical analysis of the winter questionnaire results.
Subjective item measuring Centralized tendency Dispersion tendency (Semi- Special index (%) Effective decision
comfort (Median) interquartile range) number (n)
humidity, and wind speed, for heating and cooling load calculations as well as radiant temperature for the design of radiant heating
and cooling systems [86]. Such work may include the optimal adjustment of HVAC operation schemes when the thermal environment
is found to be unsatisfactory in metro stations or when air quality is heavily polluted; a targeted study of control schemes for the
thermal environment and air quality in metro stations in different seasons; a study of high-efficiency filters in metro stations; and a
study of equipment related to healthy city transportation systems. Moreover, for established metro stations, the results can be used to
guide the optimization of the existing HVAC operation scheme in stations and improve the renovation of the indoor environment. For
new metro stations, the results can assist and guide the design of the indoor environment and HVAC system.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a study on Beijing metro transfer stations that captures indoor environment measurements and passenger
comfort surveys in transfer spaces during the morning rush hours for two seasons. Given the findings, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
(1) The average indoor temperature and RH of the Beijing metro station are affected by not only the ground temperature and
ground RH but also station depth. The indoor temperature in winter basically met the standard, but only certain indoor tem
peratures in summer met the standard. Moreover, the indoor RH in summer was not ideal. These measured data indicate that the
Beijing metro should be strengthened to control the thermal environment in summer and maintain it in winter.
(2) The indoor average concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 were generally 2 times and 1.5 times higher than the outdoor daily
average concentrations during the same period. In addition, the indoor average PM concentration in winter was lower than that
in summer, especially on the concourses. However, the PM concentration was basically below the standard, showing acceptable
results. Furthermore, the PM concentration is also affected by factors including the season, design of the concourse/platform
and tunnel, depth of the measuring point location, number of passing trains, wind speed, etc.
(3) The indoor average concentration of CO2 was higher in summer than in winter and was negatively correlated with wind speed.
The average concentration for the two seasons did not exceed 15‰, which met the design requirements.
(4) The results of the subjective survey showed that the thermal environment comfort in winter was higher than that in summer in
the Beijing metro station transfer space during the morning rush hours. This finding is similar to the result of the RWI evalu
ation. In contrast, passengers’ subjective perception of air quality is more likely to be affected by psychological factors.
Regarding overall comfort, the subjective feelings of passengers during the two seasons were both slightly uncomfortable.
This study could facilitate the creation of a healthy and comfortable indoor environment for metro passengers. At the same time, a
reasonable and effective HVAC system scheme can also help reduce the high energy consumption caused by the operation of indoor air
conditioning systems and provides a valuable reference for exploring energy-saving measures for underground spaces. Moreover,
regarding the actual measurement data and findings of this paper, it is necessary to evaluate the key technical indicators of HVAC
systems combined with artificial intelligence and deep neural network methods. The predicted patterns and trends in the thermal
environment and air quality in the underground transfer space of stations during the morning rush hours of the Beijing metro can assist
and guide engineering design and operation parameter optimization of environmental control and HVAC systems in metro stations.
In conclusion, the continuous development of metros will direct more attention to the study of thermal comfort and air quality in
the transfer space of metro stations, and the elimination of various factors detrimental to passenger health and maximum energy
savings will fuel researchers’ continued efforts.
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Author contributions
Chunxiang Lin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.
Liming Wu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.
Haishan Xia: Funding acquisition, Project administration. Meng Zhen: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources. Chen Shen:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing, Resources. Jinjin Zhu: Investigation, Resources, Visualization. Xinyi Li:
Investigation, Resources, Visualization.
Data availability
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number 52078027).
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