LESSON 1 – LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

 Views about learning

 Types of knowledge

LESSON 2

METACOGNITION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Talk about the nature of learning and how it happens.
2. Identify the most essential learning metaphors.
3. Describe the many forms of learning.
4. Talk about the complicated process of cognition.
5. Describe the stages involved in developing metacognitive skills.
6. Describe the key metacognitive abilities and techniques.
7. Recognize the distinction between cognitive and metacognitive techniques.

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Topic 1: LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE
ACQUISITION

LEARNING is seen as an experience process that results in a somewhat permanent

alteration in behavior that cannot be explained by transient circumstances, maturation, or an
innate proclivity to respond (Lefrancois, 2000). Reorganizing cognitive frameworks, as well as a
change in behavior as a result of experience, were also identified as aspects of learning.

What is this thing called education? That inquiry elicits a hundred and one responses.
So, let's assume you're interested in learning:
 This is a way to know things;
 All is an improvement in knowledge;
 Both applies to the knowledge retrieval method;
 Everything is a way of thinking;
 Both means the storage mechanism of ideas;
 It is known as a memorization process;
 Is one way to store information which can be copied, retrieved and used when necessary;
 Is the way by which we make sense of this world;
 Is a way to perceive and view realities; and
 That's a transition that we conceptualize the world by.

In the Final Report of the high-level seminar on the UNSECO Report on Education at the
Flinders University Institute of International Education: The Secret Inside, Jaques Lucien Jean
Delors claimed that "learning is the pulse of society." He further claimed that education is not
just about training people to take their place in knowledge — the 21 st century age economy. It's
about broadening the minds of people, enlivening their creativity, stimulating their curiosity,
helping them learn how to think.

Education and training are viewed as the keys to economic development, as the power
that propels a country's economy forward.
(http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/publications/REPORTS/fuiie99a/INDEX.HTM Retrieved
on March 16,2009). He also felt that education is the only way for a country to flourish since no
state can develop or operate properly without education or educated people. He went on to argue
that education extends beyond cognitive learning and that performance is evaluated not by a test
but by innovative teaching that incorporates values and attitudes.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Delor Retrieved on March16, 2009).

Furthermore, learning has been described as a somewhat permanent change in one's

behavior as a result of one's interactions with his surroundings. Learning, according to Ormrod
(2004), is something that occurs as a result of one's experiences. Learning has taken its place, as
evidenced by changes in behavior. Most theorists, on the other hand, agree on the following
definition of learning since it helps to define the kind of events that learning theories should
explain.

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 Learning is a long-term change in one's behavior that occurs as a result of one's
interactions with the environment.

Almost all definitions of learning refer to three ideas that are equally important: change,
behavior, and experience.

CHANGE. Learning entails a shift in one's understanding or conduct. Learning,

according to psychologists, entails change inside the individual organism. If a rat is stuck in a
labyrinth, for example, it will make a variety of tries to find a way out. It repeats this process
numerous times until it succeeds in getting out. We can tell that nothing has changed in the maze
since it is still the same. Except for the rat, everything else in the rat's situation has stayed
constant.

Different theorists have different perspectives on what may be gained from prior
experiences. Learning, according to behavioral theorists, include changes in conduct, whereas
learning, according to cognitive theorists, entails changes in knowledge. Learning is not
something we can directly witness, according to most theorists of both senses. We believe that
learning has happened as a result of seeing an individual's overt performance. As a result, it is
obvious that while the display of some observable behavior is a required indicator of learning, it
is not the same as learning. A shift that lasts for a few hours is not indicative of learning (Mayer,
2002).

BEHAVIOR. We may argue that learning is the gain of knowledge in the preceding case
of the rat in the labyrinth. Do we realize, to some extent, that knowledge has been acquired? The
fact that the rat tries so many different things to get out shows that it has learned something.

Learning has a somewhat long-term effect on one's personality. Aside from learning,
other variables might cause changes in how people respond. Because of the nature of relative
permanence, we can rule out changes brought on by things like urges, weariness, sickness, and
injury, which fade quickly. Medications can cause changes in response, but these alterations will
fade when the drugs wear off.

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. Learning is the outcome of prior experience. As a result,

learning entails gaining experience. Many of the changes we see, especially in youngsters, are
the consequence of skeletal, muscular, and neurological system growth or maturation.

Because these changes cannot be considered the outcome of experiences, they are
omitted from the concept of learning. Similarly, instinctive or reflexive responses such as leaping
when spotting a snake are instinctive or reflexive. Other unusual circumstances include
medication side effects, injuries, tiredness, or illness. When Alex gets a fever, for example, his
illness does not teach him how to hallucinate. Typhoid sickness, likewise, does not educate him
to hear unusual voices. Furthermore, substances like Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (also known as
LSD) can cause odd behavioral changes. For example, someone on LSD may leap out of a
window under the mistaken belief that they can fly.

The term "learning" can be construed in a variety of ways. It is a term that defines the
acquisition of information. Learning begins the moment we are born. Learning becomes almost
automatic. It does not, however, imply that learning is passive or inactive. In actuality, learning
is a dynamic process; it is an active and ongoing process of rearranging facts and knowledge that
lasts a lifetime.

We must learn from the moment we are born. Learning, in this view, is a need that must
be met. It is a natural drive to learn, to comprehend, to seek explanations or proof, and to make
sense of the universe. It takes occur anywhere and at any time. To some extent, our knowledge
expands as we grow and develop. Our understanding of ourselves and the world continues to
expand. Learning does not necessarily have to be formal or take place in a typical classroom

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setting. Because we are continuously forging connections, inventing new meanings, or building
innovative concepts out of previous experiences, learning occurs everywhere across the lifespan.

When compared to humans, many animals have it easy (Ormrod, 2004). For example,
ants may readily locate sweets buried in a corner of the room. Because fish are born with fins,
they can readily swim in water. Without being instructed, the butterfly instinctively understands
how to construct cocoons and begin the transformation process. Similarly, without any training,
birds know how to build their nests and defend their young, as well as how to care for and feed
their young. Many things are simple for these animals. People, on the other hand, must attend
formal schools, read books to learn how to care for children, and study maps if they become lost
in strange territory.

The foundations of civilization are humans, not the creatures listed. They are the ones
who shape society and culture. They are the people who succeed in this world. Similarly, people,
not animals, have devised a variety of means of transportation. They have created sophisticated
communication devices that make life easier and more pleasant for them. Humans, on the other
hand, have learnt how to enhance their parenting techniques by reading and attending formal
schools, something other animals’ lack. Humans have also come to terms with progress and
growth. They've figured out how to make their living conditions better. Humans are also the ones
that keep civilization going.

People get more freedom, flexibility, and adaptability as a result of the learning process.
People are living entities having a body and a soul. They have the freedom to choose which acts
will result in favorable results.

WAYS OF LEARNING

The term LEARNING contains all of the numerous methods to learn. The following are
the details:

LISTEN. Learners should pay attention to people who can help them expand their
knowledge. They must also pay attention to their inner voice and experience how it
resonates within them.

EVOLVE. Learning must transform students from one state to another. It means that
students must work their way up the knowledge ladder. They aren't only interested in
gathering information. Instead, they build their own personal knowledge ladder and
begin their journey from ignorance to wisdom.

ADAPT. In order to incorporate new pieces of knowledge, the learners alter their
cognitive architecture. They keep track of, control, and adjust their own thinking, as
well as forge new paths for change.

RECIPROCATE. The students are able to realize their own value and contribute to
the general welfare. It implies they can take what they've learnt and use it to the
advantage of everyone.

NETWORK. The students are not constrained by the walls of the classroom. Rather,
they go out and discover new vistas and new experiences while sharing what they've
learned with others.

INTEGRATE. Learners can arrange their information around pre-existing schemata

that they can utilize to improve comprehension.

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 NAVIGATE. Learners are eager to try new things and are on the right track to success.
While on their path to learning, they discover significance as well as fun.

GROW. The students are not content to accept things as they are. Instead, they argue
over how and why things are done. They learn from their errors and utilize them as
building blocks for future learning.

How Does Learning Occur?

Learning must be seen in terms of teaching as learners create their own learning techniques.
To put it another way, instruction must be conceived in such a way that it will aid learners in
their learning. It's crucial to go over the basics of how learning works. The following concepts
(Starko et al, 2003) are worth revisiting:

 Learners simply understand what they are prepared to learn. When education is tailored
to an individual's developmental stage and preparedness, they learn more effectively. As a
result, it is critical for teachers to have a fundamental grasp of student growth and learning.
In the classroom, students exhibit a wide range of learning styles and preferences. They
have different levels of physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development. Some
children may struggle to compose basic phrases, while others may have trouble spelling new
words.
There are certain people who require more care than others. Some people may take too
long to perfect a talent, while others may become bored with the activity. This is where the
teacher's critical role of delivering proper levels of challenge comes into play. In order to
acquire a sense of effectiveness, young children, in particular, require regular opportunities
for achievement (Starko, et. al, 2003). As a result, it is a teacher's job to give tough
assignments in order to establish the level of teaching at which pupils feel both challenged
and successful.

 Learners create their ow n comprehension. Individuals develop understanding when they

engage with the world and the people around them. For example, when Andrei sees an
orange for the first time, he decides to combine it with his previous experiences. He may
mistakenly assume that an orange is a ball because of its form and likely color. However,
with the aid of an adult, he may be able to modify his mind. His mother should make it clear
to him that an orange is not the same as a ball. His mother takes an orange and peels it in an
attempt to explain further. She then instructs Andrei to take it in his hands, sniff it, and eat it.
Andrei was skeptical at tifirst. But, gradually, he comes to the realization that his past
experience does not suit this new reality. As a result, he begins to develop a new notion. It
simply demonstrates that pupils' conceptual knowledge has evolved over time (Starko, et al,
2003).

Ways to Promote Learning

There is no one-size-fits-all solution or recipe for promoting learning in the classroom.

Teachers are diverse; they employ a variety of techniques to foster meaningful learning. Mayer
(2002) proposes the following methods for teaching for meaningful learning:

 Providing constructive feedback. Learners can benefit from useful and fast feedback as they
practice their cognitive skills.
 Concreteness, action, and familiarity are provided. Lessons should be concrete, activity-
based, familiar, and simple-to-complex in nature.
 Explanation of instances. Teachers must demonstrate how to do academic activities in a step-
by-step manner.
 During the learning process, you may use this to guide your cognitive thinking. Teachers are
responsible for monitoring or supervising students while they are learning.
 Developing effective learning techniques. Teachers should teach students how to learn new
content.

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 Developing problem-solving techniques. Teachers should offer students with the essential
instructions and methods for solving difficulties.
 Developing a cognitive apprenticeship program. Teachers should encourage students to
engage actively in group projects.
 Increasing pupils' desire to study through priming their motivation. Teachers should
capitalize on their pupils' eagerness to learn.

Learner-centered Psychological Principles

There are 14 psychological concepts related to learners and the learning process listed
below. These psychological principles depict the learner as actively seeking knowledge by 1)
reinterpreting information and experience from themselves, 2) being self-motivated by the desire
for knowledge (rather than grades or other rewards), 3) collaborating with others to socially
construct meaning, and 4) being aware of and capable of applying their own learning strategies
(Slavin, 2006). These place a pr mium on psychological elements that are internal and under the
learners' control. These concepts are thought to be comprehensive and incorporated into the
learners and learning process. Cognitive and metacognitive variables, motivational and affective
factors, developmental and social factors, and individual differences factors are all included.
There are six principles under the cognitive and metacognitive aspects. There are three concepts
under motivational and affective variables. And the developmental and social variables only
have two principles, but the individual differences elements have three (Sternberg, 2002).

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS. Learning difficult subject
PRINCIPLE 1
matter is most effective when it is a deliberate process of creating
meaning from data and experience.
Today's schools place a strong emphasis on meaning creation. It is not enough for
instructors to just deliver the lessons; they must also employ an intentional process to build
meaning from facts, experiences, and their own views and values. Students must be engaged,
goal-directed, self-regulatory, and take personal responsibility for their learning in order to be
successful learners. They must participate actively in a variety of learning processes, such as
motor learning habit development, learning that includes the creation of ideas, information, or
cognitive abilities and learning methods.

GOALS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS. Over time, with assistance

PRINCIPLE 2
and instructional direction, a successful learner may construct
meaningful, coherent representations of information.
The strategic learning process presumes a goal-oriented approach. Students develop
learning techniques and seek individually relevant objectives for sustained learning
achievement throughout their lives from this vantage point. Students must first set short-term
goals, and learning may be shallow at first. Nonetheless, by filling gaps, correcting
inconsistencies, and deepening their grasp of subject matter over time, their understanding
can become complex and effective, allowing them to attain long-term goals. Teachers should
assist students in developing relevant learning objectives that align with both personal and
educational goals and interests.

CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE.
PRINCIPLE 3
A successful learner may make meaningful connections between new
material and previous knowledge.
As learners continue to make significant connections that allow them to add, alter, or
rearrange existing information or abilities, their knowledge grows. Meaningful relationships
are based on the talents, interests, and abilities of the students. If learners are unable to
transmit concepts in relevant settings, the new material will remain isolated unless such
linkages are integrated into their existing knowledge. Information must be processed before it
can be sent. When previously learned knowledge may be applied to new contexts, transfer of

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learning works best.

STRATEGIC THINKING. To attain complicated learning goals, a

PRINCIPLE 4
successful learner can develop and employ a repertory of thinking and
reasoning techniques.
In their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving, and idea learning,
successful learners employ a range of strategic thinking techniques. By using corrective
feedback and instructional scaffolding, strategic thinking helps individuals to expand their
learning repertoire and reflect on which techniques work best for them.

THINKING ABOUT THINKING. Creative and critical thinking are

PRINCIPLE 5
aided by higher-order thinking methods for choosing and monitoring
mental activities.
Reflect on how you think and learn if you want to be a successful learner. They have
the ability to choose appropriate learning objectives and track their own progress. Thinking
about cognitive, often known as metacognition, is a higher-order thinking talent. Students
who perform metacognitive activities can come up with new ideas, especially when it comes
to establishing objectives, evaluating their appropriateness, and determining their value.

PRINCIPLE 6 CONTEXT OF LEARNING. Environmental variables, such as culture,

technology, and instructional techniques, have an impact on learning.
Learning does not take place in a vacuum or in isolation. In other words, learning is
influenced by cultural and developmental variables such as motivation, learning orientation,
and cognitive processes. Learning is also influenced by the usage of technology and
instructional techniques.

Motivational and Affective Factors

MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON
PRINCIPLE 7
LEARNING. The motivation of the learners has an impact on what and
how much is learnt. Individual emotions, beliefs, interests, objectives, and
cognitive patterns all impact motivation to learn.
The learners' quality of thinking and information processing can be developed or
obstructed by their self-contained thoughts, beliefs, objectives, and expectations for success
or failure. Learners' self-efficacy and self-esteem have a significant impact on their ability to
learn. Furthermore, motivational and emotional elements have an impact on learning quality.
Their motivation to study might be influenced by positive emotions and feelings. Negative
ideas, sentiments, and emotions, on the other hand, might lower the quality of motivation,
resulting in poor performance and learning.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN. Learners' inherent curiosity,

PRINCIPLE 8
inventiveness, and higher-order thinking all contribute to their desire to
learn. Intrinsic motivation is sparked by tasks that are both unique and
demanding, are related to personal interests, and allow for personal
control and choice.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and inventiveness are all examples of
learners' innate drive to learn. Intuitive motivation is best enhanced by tasks that are seen to
be meaningful, relevant, and suitable in complexity and difficulty. Similarly, tasks that
individuals feel they can do and ones that are similar to real-life circumstances create intrinsic
drive.

EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT. Extensive learner effort

PRINCIPLE 9
and supervised practice are required for the acquisition of complicated
information and abilities. The desire to expend this effort without
compulsion is rare without learners' motivation to learn.
The attainment of information and skills necessitates a significant amount of time,

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effort, and energy.

Developmental and Social Factors

DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING. Individuals'
PRINCIPLE 10
learning possibilities and limits change as they mature. When
differentiating growth within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account, learning is most
successful.
When the information is appropriate for their level of development, students learn
best. Because developmental characteristics such as intellectual, social, emotional, and
physical domains differ, accomplishment in these areas may also vary. If learners focus
solely on one domain, they may be prevented from displaying learning manifestations or
from learning in domains where they are more capable. Prior schooling, home, culture, and
community variables all influence their cognitive, social, and emotional development. Early
and ongoing parental participation in their children's education, the quality of linguistic
exchanges they offer, and two-way communication patterns between parents and their
children can all have an impact on these developmental areas. The ability to recognize and
comprehend developmental variations among children can aid in the creation of optimum
learning environments.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING. Social interactions,

PRINCIPLE 11
interpersonal relationships, and communication with others all have an
impact on learning.
If students are given opportunities to connect and work with others, they will learn
more effectively. Flexible thinking and social skills are encouraged in classroom
environments that impact social relationships and respect diversity. Students' sense of
belonging may be enhanced by the quality of human connections that give stability, trust, and
a loving attitude. Self-respect and self-acceptance can also help to create a pleasant learning
environment.

Individual Difference Factors

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING. Learners have
PRINCIPLE 12
varied learning techniques, approaches, and capacities based on past
experience and genetics.
Learners are born with their unique talents, capacities, and learning and social
acculturation potentials. They apply their learning preferences based on how they want to
study and how quickly they want to learn.

LEARNING AND DIVERSITY. When variations in learners'

PRINCIPLE 13
language, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into consideration,
learning becomes more efficient.
All learners share the same core principles of learning, motivation, and successful
instruction. Other variables, such as language, ethnicity, race, religion, and socioeconomic
position, can nevertheless influence learning.

STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT. Setting suitably high and

PRINCIPLE 14
difficult standards, as well as assessing learners and their learning
progress - including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessments - are
all important aspects of the learning process.

At all phases of the learning process, assessment offers useful information to both
learners and teachers. When students feel motivated to strive for suitable goals, they are more
likely to learn well. As a result, it's critical to assess their cognitive strengths and limitations, as
well as their existing knowledge and abilities, in order to choose instructional materials with the
right level of complexity. It is necessary to assess the students' knowledge of the curriculum
material on a regular basis.

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 Learners should have the necessary learning dispositions. These are markers that are
linked to positive learning attitudes. Fisher (2002) cites the following examples of such
dispositions:

 INDEPENDENCE. It implies that students must be in charge of their own education. In

other words, students must cultivate their learning autonomy.
 CREATIVITY. It implies that students should be able to generate new ideas, particularly
in an aesthetic manner.
 SELF-MOTIVATION. Learners must be in charge of their own incentives. In other
words, motivation cannot be forced onto people; it must come from inside and be self-
contained.
 RESILIENCE. Learners should be able to bounce back rapidly from setbacks and
failures. If individuals lose concentration as a result of negative events, they must refocus
their attention as their self-motivation grows.

Determine if each of the following descriptions is a learning example. Indicate if it is not, what it
is.

1. Ariel’s ability to concentrate on academic activities increased dramatically when she started
taking glutaphos under the supervision of her doctor.

2. Carlo likes to tease his sister whenever she wears a mini-skirt. His sister no longer wears her
mini-skirt after a week.

3. Maria blinks in response to a bright flash of light.

4. Nikki pays careful attention to the teacher's analysis and parsing discussion. She recognized
within a week or two that language is best taught from part to whole.

5. According to Jake Arnold's Biology textbook, Europe's famed Rhine River, which runs
across numerous nations from Austria to West Germany and the Netherlands, is dubbed
"Europe's Largest Open Sewerage System." Later, he informs his mother that water
contamination is a global problem. He hasn't thrown anything away since that moment.

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Briefly respond to the following questions.

1. Is smoking a kind of education? Demonstrate your answer.

2. As a future teacher, do you believe it is necessary to study and comprehend the learning
process? Why do you think that is?

3. Is learning a type of thought? Cite instances to back up your response.

4. Is it possible to teach critical thinking in the classroom? In what respects do you mean? Give
an explanation for your response.

5. Were you taught how to learn while you were a student? Explain.

1. What do you think an outward sign of learning is?

2. How would you feel if you were in a scenario where there was no evidence of learning?
What is your reaction?

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Topic 2: LEARNING METAPHORS

Everything in the world works on a bipolar basis. To fully comprehend the essence of
happiness, for example, we must first experience sadness. Similarly, we can only comprehend
what it's like to be sad if we've known what it's like to be joyful. Everything is available in
bipolar mode. It is possible for an item, event, or circumstance to be either what it is or what it is
not. “There are as many nights as days, and the one is exactly as long as the other in the course
of the year,” observed Carl Jung, a prominent personality theorist. Even a happy life requires a
measure of darkness, and the word "happy" would be meaningless if it were not balanced by
sadness."

Learning is no different. It also works in a bipolar fashion. Learning may be understood

in terms of what it is and is not. The essence of anything can be seen through the lens of
something else. It indicates that anything may be explained in terms of something else. To
comprehend something, we must examine it in relation to how it works or in terms of its typical
characteristics.

The Meaning of Metaphor

What exactly is a metaphor, anyway? Is it possible to use metaphors to help students

learn?

There have been several attempts to completely comprehend learning and how it occurs
in the classroom. Many studies have been conducted to determine what constitutes human
learning, how it is acquired, and what is required to make it possible. We anticipate metaphors to
be most effective in understanding human learning from this vantage point.

METAPHOR is a mental tool that allows us to view one thing in the context of another
(Egan, 2005). We may notice many frameworks of metaphoric situations even in our regular
lives. We may build a metaphor when we have a newborn child in the household. A newborn
infant is a source of hope; the child is a miracle; the child is a source of joy, we may remark. To
put it another way, many of our ordinary events produce metaphoric phrases. We can
comprehend the significance of cognitive proclivities in making us imaginative and creative
because of our ability to generate metaphoric language. Our ideas and cognitive tendencies are
liberated when we utilize metaphors.

Metaphors are symbolic ways of giving new experiences or occurrences significance.

Metaphor is a term that refers to the transfer of meaning from one thing to another based on
perceived similarity. We tend to transfer the meanings of comparable items to other objects if
they are seen to be similar. Metaphors are learning assumptions; they are cognitive
systematizations of our experiences that aid our learning thoughts. In addition, a metaphor is a
way of putting our personal experiences into words. Our experiences are so vivid in their essence
that they may be exploited to give insight into ourselves and the world around us. Learning, for

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example, is considered to be linked to motivation. In this situation, we can use metaphors to
describe our motivation. Metaphors like this can be found in Table 1.

Table 1

METAPHORIC ASSUMPTIONS IN RELATION TO MOTIVATION LEVEL

NICKNAMES MOTIVATIONS
We are the ones who make things happen. We accomplish what we set out
to do, and then we become who we want to be. It is not possible to do
The Achiever
something on its own. We must study religiously and purposefully. If we
say we want to achieve something, we should mean it.
What we do gets a sense of direction from ourselves. Knowing what to do
The Leader
and how to accomplish it might help us maintain control over our actions.
We have achieved academic success. We try again if we lose because we
The Winner
think that victors don't quit and quitters don't win.
We attempt to get up after every fall, and the next time we try even harder.
The Avenger If we still fail the entire procedure, we will attempt again and again until we
succeed. We never surrender.
We make things available to us so that we might learn. At all times,
The Provider
learning materials should be available.
In challenging learning circumstances, we take an active role. We don't
The Warrior have to quit learning if we don't master the abilities required in particular
courses; we can still make things happen.
When things go wrong, we establish a new route. To put it another way, if
The Trailblazer one method fails, we try another. To solve our academic challenges, we
turn to unconventional methods.
We generate a powerful and positive influence on our brains and feelings,
The Impresser
allowing us to achieve whatever we desire.
We encourage our creative thinking in order to complete more difficult jobs
The Inspirer in the future. We generate more creative activities with greater effort
flexibility and enthusiasm.

Metaphoric Assumptions

Our innate motivation may also be harnessed via the use of metaphoric language. When
we think of academic achievement, for example, we may link our thoughts with generating
nicknames that will effectively describe why we should accomplish what we should do. To boost
our motivation, we may utilize the following words: achiever, leader, winner, avenger, provider,
pioneer, coach, warrior, impresser, and inspirer. These metaphorical nicknames might assist us in
completing academic assignments.

Synectics is a sort of metaphor that can help you build higher-order thinking skills.
Synectics may be used to teach poetry and to compose basic poems. For instance, we may ask
our pupils to write down the terms mentioned in column A and column B.

Column A Column B
love age
happiness knife
hate spoon
learning pen
fear egg
change rainbow

We can inspire our kids to come up with the following ideas based on their creative
imagination:

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 “Love is a dagger that slashes my heart apart.”
“Learning is a pen with which we write many of our experiences.”
“Change is a rainbow with a variety of colors.”

By teaching students how to use synectics, they will be able to grasp the core of changing their
thoughts and feelings from one state to another. Synectics, on the other hand, allows young
minds to seek for tangible routes for establishing connections, constructing meanings, and
allowing creative imagination to flourish.

Personal experiences, images, and jargon are all part of the learning process. Metaphors are
essential to the discussion and comprehension of learning; they assist us in comprehending it.
The following are some metaphorical learning assumptions:

Learning as a need.

We are capable of learning from the minute we are born. We can accomplish social
expectations inherent during a particular time of development by using our inborn reflexes, such
as the moro and startle, rooting, sucking, babinski, palmar and plantar grabbing, or walking
reflexes. Everything in the universe is in a perpetual state of flux. As a result, when we are born,
we are as little as a particle of dust or the period at the end of this sentence. However, as we go
from the embryonic or fetal stage to childhood and old age, we must conform to our
surroundings. In order to make life worthwhile, we must develop and adapt to people and
situations. Such a change is impossible to achieve without a significant quantity of education.

Nothing stays the same, and no one remains still. Learning may be compared to an inner
energy pushing its way out, waiting to be satisfied. Human beings must be able to learn in order
to survive. It is a fundamental growth and development catalyst. We must always consider
learning to be a companion tool for such a journey, as the adage goes, "life is a journey, not a
destination." It is a key method for representing facts and knowledge through symbolic
representations. The most crucial necessity for survival is learning. As a result, learning is a
requirement that must be met.

Learning as a process of memory.

Learning is regarded as a procedure. We need qualify the term process at this point. The
term "process" refers to a sequence of events; it is a collection of natural occurrences. In an ever-
changing world, a process is considered to be dynamic and moving. Because learning is a
dynamic process of obtaining knowledge and information, it is a process of "being" and
"becoming." If it is dynamic, it should be active. Unlike automated teller machines (ATMs),
which are occasionally off-line, our memory system is always dynamic and actively acquiring
and transmitting various pieces of information. This implies that we are continuously looking for
new ideas, new meanings, and new experiences.

Our working memory is at its peak when we observe a stimulus in the world. For
example, we classify mobile phone numbers as even or odd to help us recall them. We don't stop
there, though. To help us recall the numbers, we utilize visuals. When we are preoccupied, the
numbers tend to go out of our working memory quickly. Can we recover the information from
our long-term memory system if this happens? The answer is straightforward and unmistakable.
We can't get them back since they didn't make it to our long-term memory system. It is necessary
to store the knowledge in our long-term memory system in order for it to be permanent. We'll
need continual rehearsals, recycling, and coding to do it.

To complete the dialing, we must repeat the number as many times as necessary. The
number is then repeated until it is permanently imprinted in our long-term memory. Finally, we
must tie or link the number to something we already know, such as our TIN, birthday, or
something or someone extremely significant to us. We can facilitate long-term content retention

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in this way. Two essential procedures that may be utilized to help learning as a memory process
are rehearsals and coding.

Learning as a product of memory.

Learning may also be seen as a result of one's cognitive abilities. This viewpoint argues
that while we continue to thrive, we go through a learning process. We can easily observe how
we become receivers of that process as our memory works for our own benefit. There must be
some tangible learning products to establish whether learning has occurred. For example, if
Angela knows how to tie her shoelaces by herself, she must demonstrate how to do it. Angela
has demonstrated certain proofs of learning if she can accomplish it without her mother's
support. Her ability to tie her shoelaces is a result of her own education. If she can write her
name legibly on a sheet of paper and recite the English alphabet in its whole in order, she is
demonstrating a tangible outcome of learning. Angela could still execute utilizing her cognitive
talents if given a difficult job, such as reading a five-paragraph poem using movements and
paralinguistic methods. She is demonstrating some evidence of learning in this scenario because
she is able to employ symbolic representations of her learning. This demonstrates that learning is
a result of her own thoughts.

Learning as a reflection of effective teaching.

Both teaching and learning are critical processes. They can't be separated from one
another. It means that teaching cannot be divorced from learning. As such, learning is immaterial
without the aid of an experience, a text, or a teacher. Although it is true that learning may occur
without the assistance of a teacher, we must acknowledge the critical role of instructors in
supporting student learning. Teaching that is successful leads to learning that is effective.
Similarly, bad instruction leads to poor learning.

Learning as a change in behavior.

Learning is synonymous with a shift in behavior. Learning manifests itself as a change in

behavior. Learning should be demonstrated in a visible manner. Kevin, for example, has
discovered that the word zing denotes a lively and exciting quality. He uses the word frequently,
and it eventually becomes part of his lexicon.

Learning as guided performance.

When learners are well guided through each learning task, they feel at ease. For example,
they believe that practicing with their coach or team members makes them better and more
confident when playing basketball. When students practice singing alongside the other choir
members, they get a distinct experience. When their voice takes on a more melodic tone, they
feel less alone. Because they are supervised by a teacher, students feel more confident when they
are in a group. Learning tasks are made more enjoyable and simple when they are completed
with the rest of the class or with an instructor.

To put it another way, learning successfully necessitates the presence of a guide who is always
prepared to assist in any manner. The current educational paradigm shift has given rise to the
notion that the teacher is no longer a "sage on the stage," but rather a "guide on the side."

Learning as an active making meaning process.

When the brain is attempting to make sense of anything, it learns. The brain's plasticity,
which indicates that the physical structure of the brain allows for some changes as a result of
experience, is one of its most amazing features. It is thought that if the brain is engaged by
interaction with individuals in the surroundings, the brain will change.

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 Table 2

THE METAPHORS OF LEARNING ARE AS FOLLOWS

Learning as… Key Words
Need Reflexes are a necessity for survival as well as a growth tool.
Information processing and retrieval methods, active and dynamic
Process of memory processes of being and becoming, active and dynamic information
processing and retrieval
Product of Cognition, physical evidence of learning, symbolic representations, and
memory concrete learning products
Reflection of Multiple intelligences, learning styles and preferences, knowledge-based,
effective teaching repertoire of teaching techniques, recognition of individual differences
Change in Behavior modification, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning
behavior are all terms used to describe how people change their behavior.
Guided Coaching, teamwork, cooperation, synergy, mentorship, and instructional
performance scaffolds are all examples of social connections.
Active process of
Schema or previous knowledge, learning transfer
making meaning

There are five learning metaphors in P. Robert-Jan Simons' paper Metaphors of Learning
at Work and the Role of ICT, (International Seminar on Learning and Technology at Work,
Institute of Education, London in March 2004
www.lonklab.ac.uk/ksope/1tw/seminar.htmRetrieved on September 19, 2008):

 IMITATION. Not all students learn in the same way or under the same circumstances.
They virtually learn even when they are under pressure from the environment in a changing
setting. They seek out circumstances that present a higher difficulty so that they may watch
and copy models. Furthermore, they would rather study in "the actual world" than "the
globe."

 PARTICIPATION. Learning was once thought to be a solitary or isolated activity.

Learning, on the other hand, becomes more participatory as a result of the paradigm change
in education. The learners are more involved and engaged in the learning process. Because
social contact is an important part of learning, the social side of learning is increasingly
being highlighted. Students learn more in the classroom because involvement enhances
interaction. Their classmates provide feedback when they answer questions. Members of the
class are interested in one another and have faith in one another. The learning process is
guided by the teacher.

 ACQUISITION. Every educator wishes to understand how to put their theories into
practice. They place a strong emphasis on the transfer of knowledge. Students construct
meaning in order to get the greatest results. It is impossible to emphasize the value of
frequent evaluation in the learning process.

 EXPERIMENTATION. Experimenting with learning brings it closer to reality. In the real

world, what is taught in the classroom is verified. As a result, someone has to coach and
monitor pupils while they are working. The instructional scaffold is a key component of
experimenting. Students can achieve their greatest potential with the help of a mature
individual, generally a teacher.

 DISCOVERY. Learning through discovery is connected to experimenting since the learners

find new objects and insights, acquire realizations, and construct their own meaning. In
other words, discovery leads to learning for it opens the doorway to enquiry.

Table 3
The Five Metaphors by P. Robert-Jan Simons
(www.lonklab.ac.uk/ksope/1tw/seminar.htmRetrieved on September 19, 2008)

Module 1 Page 16
 Learning by… Key Words
Role models, best practices, real-life pressure, and implicit learning are
Imitation
all things to consider.
Collaboration, dialogue, trust, enculturation, and communities of practice
Participation
are all examples of ways to interact with people.
Acquisition Transmission of objective facts, expert knowledge, and theories
Practice, skills, attitudes, simulations, explicit learning, and role-playing
Experimentation
in a safe setting
Meaning, in-depth comprehension, inspiration, self-control, and
Discovery
knowledge production

Maria A. Martinez, Narcis Sauleda, and Guenter L. Huber have offered more noteworthy
analogies. They claim in their essay Metaphors as Blueprints of Thinking about Teaching and
Learning that metaphors are more than merely figures of speech, but that they represent an
important mental process. They suggested that there are three types of learning metaphors:
behavioristic, constructivist, and situative or socio-historical perspectives.
(www.elsevier.com/locate/tate October 30, 2000 Retrieved on September 19, 2008).

Exact descriptions of each perspective for a learning metaphor are reproduced here,
obtained from the same source. (www.elsevier.com/locate/tate October 30, 2000, Retrieved on
September 19, 2008).

Table 4
From a Behavioristic Perspective on Metaphors
1. A. Learning is similar to a tourist who visits several places and takes numerous photographs
of everything he sees, which he subsequently organizes into various albums.
B. Learning is like a video camera that records everything that happens in the world.
2. A. Learning is like writing in a fresh notebook with an indestructible pencil.
B. The instructor is like a poet who is writing his or her work on a white sheet of paper
(student), and he or she corrects, rectifies, and changes what he or she writes based on his or
her experiences until the ultimate result is reached: the full piece.
C. Learning is similar to a sponge that soaks up water.
3. A. Learning is similar to horse training.
B. Learning is similar to tuning a musical instrument.
C. Learning is the process of ensuring that an electric circuit is “operational.” We make
certain that the light bulb is ultimately turned on (learning). We must create the proper
connections in order for everything to work properly.
4. Learning is similar to eating in that it fulfills a need.
5. Learning is similar to a game of pool. This game has a lot of variables: different colored balls
in different constellations, and we have to know how to aim and push the ball in the right
place to send it in the right direction.

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 Table 5
From a Constructivist Perspective on Metaphors
1. The student is like a silkworm that has no idea what kind of world it is about to enter, and
that it will be transformed into something beautiful in a long process, step by step, where the
beauty is like the fruit of something it has built from what it has eaten.
2. Learning is a detective who searches for and investigates things, whereas education is the
creation of intellects on the lookout for information.
3. Learning is similar to laying the foundation for a home. At the same time, the student is the
mason and the house. He or she is the property's owner. The site foreman is the teacher.
4. The relationship between learning and teaching: a learner is someone who can't see well and,
thanks to an optician, discovers light and different realities depending on the glasses he or
she wears.
5. It's similar to learning to walk. It seems as if we will never succeed when we are young and
have no knowledge (we are not able to stand on our own feet). Later, our parents assist us in
taking our first steps—they are the teachers who guide us through our learning process.
Various types of support from parents, relatives, and others are required in the learning to
walk process until we are ready to “walk” independently.

Table 6
The Metaphors from a Situative or Socio-historic Point of View
1. It is a collaborative effort, similar to what ants do when they work together to achieve a goal
that benefits all of them.
2. Learning is similar to a tourist guide who takes a group of people on a tour.
3. Teaching and learning are similar to going on a trip when the group decides on the best path
to take to a little-known location and what they want to see there. The professors and
students must have agreed on an ideal plan for the entire group, and they will share
everything new they discover along the route.

Mayer (cited by Shambaugh & Magliaro, 2006) proposed three metaphors that
correspond to each of the three theories: behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist. Learning as
response acquisition, learning as knowledge acquisition, and learning as knowledge construction
are some of the metaphors used. Table 7 provides an exact replication of such metaphors,
together with their instructional design implications (ID).

Table 7
The Metaphors from Three Learning Theories
Learning Theory Metaphors of Learning Implications for ID
 Individual progress
Behavioral Learning as response  Content sequencing
Theory acquisition  Analysis of learning task
 Assessment keyed to behavior
 Structure activity
Learning as  Support expert development
Cognitive Theory knowledge  Learning strategies
acquisition  Organizers
 Assessment keyed to performance on activity
 Share control with students
 Emergent understanding
Learning as
Constructivist  Authentic activity
knowledge
Theory  Peers and adults assist learner
construction
 Assessment includes self-reflection and
learner’s responsibility

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1. What is a metaphor, according to your understanding? How can a leaning metaphor assist
you explain the learning process and how it happens in the classroom?

2. How can we put metaphors like this into practice?

3. What is the definition of a social relationship? What role does it play in the development of
the metaphor of learning as a directed performance, according to you?

Create learning metaphors based on the scenarios below, and then explain why you came
up with them.

1. Pretend you're about to exit off a train. Because it was your first visit to see your aunt, you
were unfamiliar with the area. Your aunt had previously sent you a text message with
information on the area's landmarks, but as you exited the train, you noticed a high school
classmate. You approached her, spoke with her, and asked her to direct you to the location
you needed. Your buddy was extremely kind in directing you to your aunt's house.

2. Mr. Del Valle teaches one of the topics in the teacher education program, The Teaching
Profession. Today's students, he believes, are inferior to those of five years ago. He feels that
schools are not adequately preparing students for college life. He discovers that his lectures
aren't as effective as they may be since pupils aren't interested in learning new topics. He
meditates the next day and asks himself what is wrong with his students. He chose to modify
his teaching method that day. He speaks in his pupils' dialect. After that, he comes to the
conclusion that his students aren't all that bad.

3. Czarina is a Principles of Teaching 2 student. Because the teacher discusses lesson planning
and the framework of a lesson design, she considers the subject to be extremely dull. Miss

Module 1 Page 19
 Angeles observes Czarina unintentionally doing the required duty. The teacher ponders these
questions after class. What causes Czarina to behave in this manner in class? Miss Angeles is
eager to resume the lesson preparation conversation the next day. When it comes to Czarina's
daily life, she employs positive planning techniques. Miss Angeles is taken aback the next
day. Czarina glances at the teacher in awe, smiles at her, and nods her head periodically.

4. Teacher Karen Myrizha has been a clinical instructor at the College of Nursing for the past
five years. She wants to change the curriculum for nursing students in her field. She wants to
integrate what she's learned from nursing research to her teaching practice. She has honed her
capacity to engage students in topic learning in a meaningful way.

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 Let's try using a cloze test now. A cloze test is a type of fill-in-the-blanks exercise. It is
commonly used to assess reading comprehension, in which respondents are given a narrative text
on a topic with keywords removed in a predetermined order (for example, every fourth word).
Fill in the blanks with the missing words in the following paragraph.

Thinking, which is _____ complex skill or _____ of skills, is _____ as content

to _____ taught. First, all _____must learn to _____. Second, the extent _____
which they do _____ all their other _____.

When we explain _____ we usually use _____.We can say ______involves at

least _____ metaphors. One, thinking _____ intellectual process; two, _____ as
mental activity; _____ thinking as cognitive _____.

Module 1 Page 21
 Topic 3: TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

To sustain structural equilibration, knowledge should be blended between old and new
facts. Learners grow more sophisticated in addressing issues as they acquire a succession of
cognitive processes. As a result, individuals acquire idea formation, which is helped by
information gain, as they go from specific conceptual limits to more structured lines of thinking.

The senses receive and process a variety of sorts of information. Hearing, vision, touch,
taste, and smell are among the five learning modalities we employ. Hearing and eyesight are
knowledge receivers rather than knowledge expressers. We must be able to recognize the
different forms of information in order to comprehend it. It is critical to have knowledge. It is
what we employ in all we do on a daily basis. Making new connections and generating meaning
are two of the things we do with it. It's what we teach our kids, and it's the same information we
want them to have to make learning easier.

As a corollary, teachers should figure out what (knowledge structure) and how to
represent and manipulate information (process). The following are examples of different forms
of knowledge:

Episodic Knowledge

This term refers to our biographical memory, which includes not only what happened but
also where and when it occurred. In other words, these are the elements that make up our life as
individuals. We are who we are because of our individual and personal history. For example, our
names, birthdays, zodiac signs, and family members constitute episodic data. It indicates that
episodic knowledge includes things like childhood recollections, first days of school, and loved
ones' mobile phone numbers.

Semantic Knowledge

In contrast to episodic knowledge, this type of knowledge deals with memories and facts
that aren't connected to our own histories. Generalizations, ideas, facts, and their connections are
all examples of semantic knowledge. What we eat for breakfast this morning is episodic
knowledge, but semantic knowledge is the knowledge that we should eat like a king in the
morning and like a poor in the evening. Our semantic knowledge includes structured
information about facts, concepts, and generalizations, as well as their relationships. A good
example of episodic knowledge is remembering our first day of school.

However, we demonstrate semantic knowledge when we contemplate the fact that there
is always a first time in everything we do. Much of what we need to remember in order to act
appropriately in a scenario, become comfortable with a new environment, or arrange ourselves in
connection to time and location is related to our episodic knowledge. Furthermore, most of what
should be taught in schools is semantic information.

Module 1 Page 22
 Types of Semantic Knowledge
Types of Semantic Knowledge

Declarative and procedural semantic knowledge are both possible.

 DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE It is concerned with the assertion of truth as well as what

we know about the world. Knowing what is accounted for by this sort of knowledge.
Declarative knowledge is classified into several levels:

DESCRIPTIONS. We arrange information at the most fundamental level as simple

descriptions of people, things, animals, events, or concepts. The fact that "Sophocles is
one of the three great tragic dramatists of ancient Athens" is organized around
descriptions, for example.
TIME ELEMENTS. Time elements can be used to arrange important events that occur
at a certain time. It indicates that occurrences in one's life may be interpreted in terms of
time. For example, material on Philippine independence may be categorized according to
historical periods.
PROCESS. Many of our actions have beneficial outcomes when they are effectively
organized. The knowledge about how we masticate, for example, is arranged around a
certain procedure.
CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS. The material in the narrative "A Rose for Emily" that
explains the collapse of aristocracy is structured around causal relationships.
EPISODES. These are particular events in a tale that include location, characters, plot,
climax, style, point of view, and denouement, among other things. Episodes, to put it
another way, are particular occurrences involving specific individuals in specific
situations that have something to do with specific meaning, as well as its causes and
repercussions. For example, the fact that "Oedipus, King of Thebes, murdered his own
father and married his mother" explains the events that are significant in the lives of the
individuals.
GENERALIZATIONS. Generalizations are assertions of findings obtained from a
variety of sources that may be used in a variety of contexts. For example, a generalization
is the statement "Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, like those of other sonnets, are numbered
and fit loosely together to construct a tale." Generalizations must not be confused with
facts, which are words that identify people, places, objects, concepts, or events. On the
other hand, generalizations are assertions about groups or categories of people, places,
objects, concepts, or events.
PRINCIPLES. These are generalization statements that indicate laws or connections that
exist between or among occurrences. A principle is, for example, "Shakespearean sonnets
follow the abab cdcd efef gg rhyme pattern."
CONCEPTS. These are general guidelines. These are usually single words that designate
a group or category of people, things, objects, or events. The phrases "concepts" and
"vocabulary terms" should not be confused. To distinguish implies to employ a method or
plan to teach them that is highly specialized.

 PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE Is the understanding of how things should be done.

Procedural knowledge is concerned with understanding how, whereas declarative knowledge
is concerned with knowing what. In other words, declarative knowledge explains the process
of "becoming" whereas procedural knowledge accounts for the act of "being." Many of the
actions and activities that we must do need declarative as well as procedural knowledge.
Declarative knowledge is insufficient to enable comprehension since procedural knowledge
is also required.

 CONDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE. If declarative knowledge explains what you know and

procedural knowledge explains how you know it, conditional knowledge explains when you

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 know it. We need to know when and under what circumstances particular information should
be used.

The Legitimate Power of Knowledge.

Knowledge is so potent that it has the ability to build or break even the strongest of
bonds. Knowledge has enormous power; in fact, it has the ability to both construct and
destabilize empires. However, not all forms of knowledge are valid, as there are those that are
poorly organized. True and genuine knowledge may be put to good use and contribute to our
most honorable human aspirations. Understanding its operations corresponds to dealing with its
lawful power. Knowledge must go through fundamental processes such as logical, empirical, and
pragmatic stages in order to be regarded valid.

 RATIONAL. If the premises are accurate, knowledge is reasonable. That is, assuming our
premises are accurate, it is logical.
 EMPIRICAL. If knowledge can be confirmed, it is empirical. To be empirical, anything
must be quantifiable and trustworthy. It's worth noting, though, that not all measures are
empirical. Our knowledge is useless unless it is properly interpreted.
 PRAGMATIC. When we say pragmatic, we're talking about practical outcomes. Our
knowledge should be practical in order for it to be useful. To put it another way, specialized
information may be applied or utilized in real-world circumstances. If not, it lacks usefulness
and practicality, and hence does not have legal authority. Its validity is determined by its
usefulness, practicality, and practical applications.

Organization of Semantic Knowledge

Generalizations, categories, ideas, facts, and their connections are all part of semantic
knowledge. In the classroom, learning tasks should be organized according to how they may be
supported. Any learning material is categorized on a scale that ranges from specialized to broad
(Savage & Armstrong, 2004). It indicates that every learning material is made up of a large
number of important facts, concepts, categories, and generalizations.

Things that are known to be true are referred to as facts. Facts are specific pieces of
information about a particular event, person, object, or situation. Facts are never sufficient on
their own. They are constantly interpreted and assigned meaning (Beaudoin & Taylor, 2004).
Typically, students interpret and assign meanings based on their own personal experiences, with
little regard for the lives of others. Here are some particular examples of facts:

 In pursuit of a route to Asia, Christopher Columbus, an Italian-Spanish navigator, traveled

west across the Atlantic Ocean.
 Ludwig van Beethoven, the greatest musician of all time, is a German composer.
 The Roman imperial system was founded by Julius Caesar, a Roman warrior and statesman.
 Anne Boleyn was Henry VIII's second wife and England's queen. Anne Boleyn was
imprisoned in the Tower of London on allegations of adultery on May 12, 1536.
 Albert Einstein did not speak until he was three years old, and at the age of twelve, he taught
himself Euclidean geometry.
 The shortest distance between two places is a straight line.
 The Iliad was written by Homer, a blind Greek poet.
 The Emperor's New Clothes is written by Hans Christian Andersen.
 The Mahabharata is the world's longest epic.
 Samuel Langhorne Clemens is also known as Mark Twain.

These bits of data are extremely precise and have a limited potential for explanation. For
example, knowing about Christopher Columbus as a navigator isn't going to help kids solve their

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math issues. Similarly, their understanding of the Mahabharata, the world's largest epic literature,
is insufficient to teach them how to solve algebraic equations. Furthermore, it is unable to assist
them in weighing the benefits and drawbacks of implementing the new school curriculum.

These bits of knowledge will always be worthless and useless if students do not have
access to information about the acts and events that occurred during Columbus' time and how
they impacted their lives as students and citizens. Similarly, knowing the Mahabharata as the
world's longest epic is meaningless unless students understand how it has influenced writing that
deals with meaningful human situations.

Students will be unable to understand the relevance of facts if they are unable to see how
they relate to their own life. If pupils do not relate them to their past paradigm, they may stay
shallow and insignificant. Facts, on the other hand, are essential components of a higher degree
of understanding. The following should be distinguished from facts:

The information acquired throughout the research process is referred to as data. Numbers
such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on are examples of data. These aren't facts because they're
meaningless; they only become facts when they're understood. To put it another way, the number
09109399441 means nothing to us. They can now be readily comprehended and processed in our
brain if we chunk them by using parenthesis and dashes, such as (0910) 939 – 9441. The digits
are now regarded as a mobile phone number. A cell phone number is no longer just a string of
numbers, but rather a vital piece of information. In retrospect, it is necessary to emphasize that
data must be interpreted, that they are dependent on meaning creation, and that they are subject
to control and relativity.

The term "information" refers to a certain type of knowledge. The internet's

"superhighway" of information, the Internet is a fantastic resource for knowledge on nearly any
topic or subject. However, knowledge is not necessarily the same as information. If we don't
think critically about information, it won't become knowledge. Teaching, reading literature, and
media, as well as the use of our senses, are all ways in which information is passed on to us.
When meaning is added to data, it becomes information. To put it another way, our pupils
acquire input via their senses (vision and hearing) and then convert it into information.

Suggestions, perceptions, and opinions are all examples of ideas. For example, if we have
a meeting to discuss vandalism issues, we solicit everyone's input. We utilize brainstorming
exercises to come up with new ideas and proposals. Ideas are a component of our own
imagination or thinking. Hitchhikes are ideas that are prompted by recommendations.

Experience is the source of wisdom. It's a sensible choice based on extensive expertise
and experience.

CONCEPTS are labels that are applied to groups of information or objects that have
similar properties (Savage & Armstrong, 2004). Concepts are the fundamental building blocks of
thought (Lahey, 2003). Concepts are broad categories of objects, events, and qualities that have
similar characteristics. Facts play a vital part in learning and comprehending concepts. Learning
as a notion, for example, aids in the development of knowledge regarding motivation,
reinforcement, and feedback.

When we hear the term "evaluation," we think of how it might help us manage a lot of
data about grades, rubrics, scores, assessment techniques, trends, mean, mode, median, and so
on. Concepts are critical because they allow our minds to accurately categorize and arrange
enormous amounts of information.

Because a single notion may be linked to another, accuracy is critical for organizing and
classifying information. The acquisition of further bits of information is rendered useless if the
arrangement and classifications are incorrect. Our capacity to relate the notion of hope to other

Module 1 Page 25
concepts such as love and faith, for example, will aid us in comprehending the true meaning of
hope. If we don't comprehend it, our perception of hope will be impacted.

Concepts are broad concepts that help us organize and make sense of our experiences.
We utilize concepts to provide order and intelligibility to our lives in this way. We may increase
our capacity to develop, apply, define, and relate by using concepts. We may define our
relationships with others, for example, using ideas. Our conceptual understanding enables us to
utilize what we know in our relationships to make them stronger than they were before.

On the basis of recognized links, expressive ties are also formed. Furthermore,
understanding diverse concepts allows us to create pleasant linkages or broaden our circle of
contacts. Our understanding of ideas allows us to make all of these and countless other
connections.

The development of concepts helps us achieve in numerous parts of life—academic,

personal, or professional—whether we are students or instructors. In reality, conceptual
knowledge and abilities are required in all fields. We employ conceptual abilities whether we are
utilizing a mathematical formula or following procedures in a scientific investigation. We utilize
our conceptual knowledge and abilities when we apply a legal principle, build a mechanism,
update a paradigm, or develop a master promotional model at the same time we are thinking.

Concepts are broad concepts that help us recognize, differentiate, and connect the many
parts of our experiences, allowing us to arrange them into patterns that help us make sense of the
world (Chaffee, 2003). To summarize, ideas should be correctly created and structured since they
provide us with information about how we interpret events or predict what will happen next.
Concept creation is critical because it allows us to generalize and comprehend our experiences.
There are three distinct structures of ideas, according to Chaffee (2003): attributes, signals, and
referents.

Properties are features that all examples of a notion have in common. Signs are words or
phrases in spoken or written form that identify particular concepts. Referents, on the other hand,
are actual instances of the concepts or objects that the symbols represent (Griffin, 2009). We can
witness the interaction of three key parts in a semantic triangle: signs or symbols, referents, and
ideas. For example, the terms "chair," "stool," and "bench" all have some similar traits or
attributes.

They are pieces of furniture that have a back and four legs on which a person may sit.
Typically, a “chair” has a back or arms. A "stool," on the other hand, has no back or arms. A
"bench" is a long piece of furniture without a back that can seat two or more people. For
example, we may state that "chair" is a symbol that is used to name or identify an item.
Referents, on the other hand, are only instances of such notions. As referents, we can use terms
like "electric chair," "monoblock chair," "rocking chair," and "wheelchair."

PROPERTIES
(All instances of concepts have some characteristics in common)

Signs Referents
(a set of words or a symbol that identifies concepts) (Example of concepts)
Figure 1. Different structures are essential in the formation of concepts.

Simple and complicated notions can be distinguished. Simple thoughts are

straightforward and uncomplicated. Let's take the notion of pink, for example. If a hanky is pink,
it fits into that category. Also, independent of the other features, a pink dress, pink T-shirt, pink
crayon, or pink ribbon all belong to the idea pink. However, certain concepts might be difficult

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to grasp. Conjunctive and disjunctive ideas are the two forms of complex concepts. Conjunctive
ideas are characterized by the existence of two or more similar features at the same time. Take,
for example, the idea of mother. It is conjunctive because it possesses two properties at the same
time (female and someone acting as a parent). To be considered a mother, you must have both of
these characteristics. Quite the opposite, the existence of one or both of two common features is
referred to as a disjunctive notion. The notion influenza, for example, might be produced by one
of two characteristics or clinical symptoms (high temperature and colds). Because influenza is
characterized by the existence of one or both of two common qualities, it is a disjunctive notion.

Concrete and defined concepts are two types of concepts. Concrete ideas are those that
allow us to classify objects based on their physical properties. We create classification systems
based on color, shape, size, and texture. We've learnt, for example, that a square has four equal
sides. Defined ideas, on the other hand, are those that are defined in a way that goes beyond their
physical properties.

Objects' physical features and properties are not ignored. The description of connections
between or among things, on the other hand, is crucial. Teacher and student, for example, are
specified objects. We can't categorize people as instructors or pupils based just on their physical
traits. What they do and how they interact with others are crucial.

There are different sorts of categories, according to Sternberg (2006). Natural categories,
artifact categories, and nominal categories are the three types.

Natural categories are groups of things that happen in nature. Natural categories include
the universe, stars, and other members of the solar system, for example. Natural categories
include butterflies, birds, flowers, trees, and rivers, among others.

Artifact categories are those that have been created by humans. Books, schools, courses,
devices, machinery, and equipment are all examples.

Nominal categories are made up on the fly. They are labels that have been ascribed to a
certain circumstance or item. It is believed that the meanings associated to nominal categories
vary if natural and artifact categories have stable meanings. The notion neighbor, for example,
has a nominal category. It implies that its meaning is in flux. A neighbor can be a friend or an
adversary who lives close by or next door. A fellow being can also be a neighbor.

The usage of categories allows us to comprehend instances that we have never

encountered before. When we first see an orange, for example, it is impossible to classify it as an
apple. Being able to name it an orange gives you a lot of information about what makes an
orange unique from other fruits. And this is one of the categories' functions. Not only do
categories provide fundamental information about some items, but they also provide insight into
the qualities of things that fall into other categories (Goldstein, 2005). When we recognize
something as belonging to a category, we should be well-versed in it.

Our ability to classify things into appropriate groups aids us in comprehending certain
perplexing actions. We may classify a lady with a kid whose head is buried in her breast as a
mother if we observe her with her head buried in her breast. When the infant screams as though
she is hungry, the mother offers her breast to the baby so she may drink milk. These actions
definitely suggest that the lady is the baby's mother, not the baby's neighbor or older sister.
Knowing how things are and how they can be classified creates a distinct contrast for us.

We use categories to help us comprehend the world around us. It may be difficult to
picture a world where everyone uses the same category or when there are no categories at all. We
can't tell who is arid and who isn't when we're all in the same group. Similarly, if things lack
categories, we will be unable to distinguish between what is and what is not. Consider what it
would imply if we had no prior knowledge of each item we encountered. If this is the case, the

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world without categories may be in a state of immense confusion and uncertainty; the entire
planet may be in upheaval.

If-then statements and predictive statements are examples of GENERALIZATIONS

(Savage & Armstrong, 2006). These diagrams demonstrate how concepts are related to one
another. In terms of learning, a generalization might be: The patterns of learning alter when the
amount of motivation grows as a result of reward. This generalization, as we can see, illustrates
the connection between reinforcement, motivation, and change. This generalization implies that
when incentive levels rise, learning patterns alter as well. When students grasp the if-then
statement, they can predict what will happen when reinforcement levels rise.

Generalizations have the ability to explain and anticipate events in time and space
(Savage & Armstrong, 2006) We may construct a class with numerous activities to raise
students' motivation using the same generalization "As reinforcement increases the degree of
motivation, the patterns of learning alter." We can give a variety of participation activities with
increasing levels of complexity to modify their learning processes.

1. For each of the following, provide at least three instances:

a. facts
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________
b. concept, and
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________

c. generalizations
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________
2. How do you know if you've absorbed the episodic and semantic information?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________
3. What are categories?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________
4. How do we account for the following:
a. natural categories
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________
b. artifact categories, and

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 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________
c. nominal categories
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________

1. What do you believe are the most effective learning techniques for you to use while studying
for exams?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

2. Do you have a well-thought-out strategy for making the most of your time, effort, and
potential?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

3. How did you develop your conceptual and research abilities? Give specific instances.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________

A. 1. Speak with at least two instructors, either from elementary or secondary school.

2. Inquire about how they instruct pupils on how to learn.

3. Make a list of the methods utilized to teach topics.

B. 1. Conduct at least two interviews with students.

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 2. Inquire about how they learn new information or overcome problems.

3. Analyze the strategies used by pupils to learn distinct ideas.

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 METACOGNITION

METACOGNITION is a talent as well as a process. It is one of the most

intriguing issues in the study of human cognition since it is based on reflective thinking, which
takes it beyond our typical concept of thinking. Since its inception in 1979, educators and
policymakers have recognized its potential to improve students' learning by assisting them in
making sense of what they have learned and how they might apply it. Students might apply their
prior experiences to deal with real-world issues and challenges since it is based on reflective
thinking. Because they can make meaning of their prior mistakes and successes, they are more
efficient when dealing with new challenges.

DEFINITION OF METACOGNITION

One of the most commonly used terms in the world of education is metacognition. The
notion of metacognition must always be mentioned while discussing different teaching concepts
and strategies of aiding learning. John Flavell, an American developmental psychologist, created
the phrase in 1979. The word is made up of two key terms: "meta," which means "beyond," and
"cognition," which means "thinking." The word's etymology might be translated as "knowledge
about your own knowledge" or "thinking about your own thinking." Despite being launched in
1979, it was not until the 1980s that the idea acquired traction and acceptance in the field of
education.

Chick (2018) and Cambridge International Education (2018) emphasized that

metacognition is a process that involves planning, monitoring, and assessing one's understanding
and performance, rather than just "thinking your own thinking." Essentially, it necessitates a
critical awareness of one's own thinking and learning, as well as the fact that one is the thinker
and learner.

Metacognition, according to Owen and Vista (2017), is a beneficial method for students
to improve their learning in the classroom. This would include the immediate results of learning
as well as a better understanding of how they learn. As a result, it emphasizes the relevance of
both the learning process and the learning output. They also mentioned that because it is both
knowledge and a cognitive process, teachers may teach it. Students gain from learning
metacognition since the skill is beneficial in problem solving, critical thinking, practical decision
making, and reflective thinking, which is a component of metacognition, according to them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF METACOGNITION

Metacognition has two key components, according to Flavell (1985): knowledge of

cognition and regulation of cognition.

Three forms of metacognitive knowledge were recognized in terms of the first element:

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Metacognitive Knowledge

There are three forms of metacognitive knowledge, according to Vega and Prieto (2012):
self-knowledge, cognitive task knowledge, and strategic knowledge. According to Cambridge
Assessment International Education (2017), these are:

1. The learner's understanding of their own cognitive skills, also known as declarative
knowledge (e.g. After studying the different capital cities of the world, I realized that
I have difficulties of remembering places)
2. The learner's understanding of certain tasks or task knowledge (e.g. After reviewing
five journal articles, I realized that Library Science is such a technical specialization)
3. The learner's understanding of various techniques or procedural knowledge (e.g.
After grouping students into their specific interests, then I realized that I can think of
a more effective approach to teach them.)

Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive Regulation is an intriguing element of metacognition. Because one of the

abilities that this process develops in an individual is reflective thinking, one may control how he
acquires knowledge. This element should be managed since not all knowledge is applicable to
one's area, and some information is only applicable to specific talents.

It also fosters a sense of personal responsibility for the individual's creativity, requiring
him to take charge of his own learning and, eventually, its application in the real world. In a
nutshell, it offers a person the ability to direct his or her own learning.

Nelson and Narens (1990) proposed a simpler model of Metacognitive Regulation that
shared many of Woolfolk's components (2007). It covered the planning, monitoring, and
evaluating processes.

Figure 2. Nelson and Narens’s Model (1990)

Figure 3.Woolfolk’s Model (2007)

It's worth noting that the monitoring procedure is the same in both types. This is due to
the fact that the monitoring phase also serves as the implementation phase for how pupils are
moving toward their learning objectives.

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 Learning occurs at the Cognitive and Metacognitive levels in Nelson and Narens' model.
The Cognitive Level is also known as the Object Level, because it is here that true thinking takes
place. When a student is working on an Algebra issue, this is an example. As he reads or decodes
the problem, he gradually grasps the nature of the issue, quickly identifies a suitable solution,
and finally achieves his learning objectives. The Metacognitive Level is where you do your
"thinking about thinking." After the learner has dealt with the learning information, it is regarded
a higher level of thinking.

The instructor can offer or educate pupils techniques to help them improve their
metacognitive skills at this level. In the preceding example of a student dealing with an Algebra
issue, the metacognitive level occurs when the student begins to think on how effectively he
dealt with the difficulty, the way in which he understood the information, and the techniques he
employed to solve the problem. In other words, he's interested in how effective the problem-
solving process is. In this scenario, he will need to ponder deeply before recognizing that he is on
his way to achieving his learning goal.

The two processes of Monitoring and Control are critical to Nelson and Narens' Model of
Metacognitive Regulation.

1. Monitoring occurs when the learner assesses his comprehension of the content presented.
It is through this process that he realizes he is in charge of his own learning as he
evaluates the efficacy of his approach.
2. 2. When the learner realizes the efficacy of the strategy or style of dealing with the
content presented, he deliberately alters his behavior. He can return to the problem, read
it slowly to gain a deeper comprehension, and consider different techniques that could be
more beneficial than the last one.

Cambridge International Education (2018) identified three key aspects of Metacognitive

Regulation in Woolfolk's Model. These are the planning, monitoring, and evaluating procedures.
The learner's reflection is at the heart of the three processes since it is here that the "thinking
about thinking" takes place.

1. The planning phase is when the learner interacts directly with the learning content. The
learner develops a method for dealing with the problem or the learning material at this
phase. To help lead the learner, he might ask himself thoughtful questions like, “What is
the purpose of this task?”
“What is the task all about?”
“How will I deal with it?
“What strategies will I use?”

2. Monitoring is the stage in which the learner puts his ideas for dealing with the problem or
the provided information into action. It is also at this period that he assesses his progress
to see if he is on track to achieve his learning objectives. If not, he might want to
reconsider his plan and search for better alternatives. The learner can use the following
introspective questions to help him:
“Is my strategy effective?”
“Are there other ways to deal with this task?”
“Am I headed towards my learning goals?”

3. Evaluating is the stage in which the student assesses the effectiveness of the problem-
solving technique and evaluates if the learning objectives were met. The following
reflective questions may be used to assist a learner to examine his own metacognition:
“How was my performance? Is it good?”
“What could be the problem?”
“If given a similar task in the future, what better strategy will I use?”

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 Throughout the three phases, it is critical that the instructor continuously reminds the
pupils to engage in reflective thinking. Reflection is considered to be necessary for
metacognition to function properly. Self-questioning can help with this. The core of
Metacognitive Regulation is the student's inquiries in each step and the deliberate attempt to steer
all activities toward the intended learning goals.

Levels of Metacognitive Learners

Given the diversity of our pupils in class, evaluating their level of metacognition is a
difficult task for the instructor. For one thing, most of what instructors teach is a one-size-fits-all
approach. Though instructors are expected to consider individual variations in instructional
preparation at all times, it is impossible to deny that certain students' needs are overlooked at
times.

Figure 4. Levels of Metacognitive Learners (Perkins,1992)

Perkins (1992) proposed the following to assist instructors in evaluating a student's

degree of metacognitive skills:

1. Tacit Pupils who are learners are students who are oblivious to their own metacognitive
knowledge. They are unable to identify a specific learning approach. They just accept that
they either know something or they don't. A student who works immediately on a
Geometry issue is an example of this. He deals with the task right away without planning
a strategy or just admitting that he doesn't know the solution.
2. Aware Learners are students who are familiar with several processes involved in
information processing, such as generating ideas, looking for evidence, and relating cause
and effect, but whose metacognitive skills have not yet matured to the point where they
have not intentionally planned for the thinking process. For these students, thought may
flow naturally rather than being deliberately prepared. A kid who can produce a 5-minute
essay about free trade is an example of this. He wrote right away since he was familiar
with the subject, but he had no preconceived notions about how he would approach the
assignment.
3. Strategic pupils who deliberately strategize to deal with a particular problem are known as
learners. They can solve issues by following a set of steps. They can also classify events,
investigate evidence, and make judgments. An example of this is when a student was
faced with the challenge of budgeting his weekly stipend. He devises a strategy by
preparing his own meals and minimizing his social interactions. Because the strategy
proved effective, he was able to make ends meet within a week. On the other hand, there
was no intentional attempt to consider the circumstances and why he needed to implement
austerity measures.
4. Reflective Learners are students who actively participate not just in creating a strategy for
coping with a problem, but also in deliberately reflecting on what is going on. While
working on a job, he considers many choices, evaluates their efficacy after
implementation, and considers the consequences, if a similar circumstance arises in real
life. The ability to deliberately reflect while thinking is one of the most significant
differences between strategic and reflective learners.
Misconceptions about Metacognition

After John Flavell developed Metacognition in 1979, it is impossible to deny that

misunderstandings have arisen as a result of its application. This might be due to differing

Module 1 Page 34
perspectives on what Metacognition is and how it is implemented, particularly in terms of
leading students through metacognitive thinking and teaching them to become reflective
thinkers. Here are a few common misunderstandings regarding Metacognition:

1. It is a simple process of ‘thinking about thinking’.

The concept of metacognition as thinking about thinking is an oversimplification
of a complicated process. For starters, there's more to 'thinking about thinking' than that.
Metacognition is a multi-stage process in which the majority of the time is spent
observing and making required modifications to one's approach to a task. Monitoring is
an active process in which students assess if the method is suitable and effective. To
make the essential adjustments, you must make a conscious effort to modify the way you
think.

2. Cognitive strategies are also Metacognitive strategies.

Technically, the two are not the same. To guarantee that the cognition or thinking
process advances throughout the learning process, cognitive techniques are employed.
Metacognitive techniques, on the other hand, are employed to keep track of the cognitive
process. This is why one of the most important components of good metacognition is
metacognitive control.

3. The learner has the full control of the metacognitive process.

It cannot be refuted that the student has complete control over his learning at all
stages of metacognition. On the other hand, it's worth noting that the instructor is still the
ship's captain. He is still in charge of establishing learning objectives, and the learner's
entire metacognitive process is still focused on achieving those objectives. As he shows
particular metacognitive methods, his involvement in kindling the brains of pupils to
conduct metacognition is highly important.

4. Only mature learners are capable of metacognition.

Many people believe that because metacognition takes a lot of thought, it can only
be used by adults. On the other hand, several studies at the turn of the century would
point out that young learners as young as 5 years old are showing evidences of awareness
of forgetting, using error-correction techniques, and some non-verbal evidences of
metacognition, and that just because they don't verbalize the metacognitive processes
they are doing doesn't mean they aren't capable of doing them.

5. The ability for metacognition is written in the genes.

The idea of neuroplasticity, as well as the various studies that have been
conducted on it, would suggest that anybody is capable of metacognition. It is a fallacy to
believe that only the brightest pupils are capable of completing the procedure.
Metacognition, like other abilities, may be improved. It just takes a committed and
empathetic instructor to create an environment that encourages mindful reflective
thought. Teachers who want to make metacognition a part of their daily routine should
encourage mindfulness in making informed judgments, awareness of their faults and how
to rectify them, and reflective thinking. Because most of our pupils are either tacit or
conscious learners, the instructor must model the aforementioned process in order to
provide the required guidance for a more disciplined cognitive process.

6. Metacognition is only a school thing.

Metacognition has a wide range of applications in real-life situations. When
confronted with a complex problem, one must plan his strategy and assess its efficacy.
One method may not work, necessitating a great deal of thought. Businessmen will tell us
that obtaining a trade secret requires a great deal of trial and error. When producing their
masterpiece, composers reflect a lot. Scientists would test their theories for hours or even
days. To properly cope with an issue, a great degree of self-awareness and self-
assessment is required, especially if the situation is complex. To summarize,

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 metacognition should be fostered not only in education but in all aspects of human
existence.

STRATEGIES AND EXAMPLES ON HOW TO USE METACOGNITION IN THE

CLASSROOM

Fostering Metacognition in the Classroom

Because one of the primary functions of the teacher in the classroom is to assist students
in thinking and guiding them toward a more disciplined thought process, teachers' questioning
skills are essential in creating a classroom environment that promotes Metacognition, even in the
early stages of formal education.

Jacobson (2018) asserted that the quality of the questions we ask our students has a
significant impact on their willingness to engage in Metacognition. According to him, the
questions we should ask are:

1. Open-ended questions with plenty of room for students to consider. The more open-ended
questions we ask, the more their mind is able to explore the world of possibilities.
Divergent questions, also known as open-ended questions, provide the student ample
freedom in their cognitive process and a sense of confidence because the solution is not
restricted to one, as is the case with close-ended questions. If the instructor really must ask
closed-ended questions, it is critical to ask follow-up questions such as 11Why or why
not? “Could you tell me more about it?” or “Could you tell me more about it?”
2. Non-blaming questions that focus on the act rather than the learner's personality will assist
learners in effectively managing their behavior and cognitive process. These questions
promote objectivity since the focus is on the conduct rather than the person. “Why do you
believe the approach is ineffective?” is an example of a question. What would you do
differently if you were given the opportunity again?' Focus on the strategy rather than the
person implementing it.
3. Problem-solving questions that enable students to consider the future application of
acquiring the metacognition talent, which entails thinking outside the box and considering
various ways to accomplish things in the future. When students are asked, "Given a
comparable problem in the future, how will you address it considering variations in the
context?" or "If the answer you offer does not work well right now, what may be the other
solution?" metacognition is promoted. These questions focus on how to become more
strategic in approach and provide the student with a sense of achievement as well as the
realization that there is no one-size-fits-all answer to a problem.
4. Process-oriented questions allow the learner to have a better understanding of the
cognitive process. “How do you know when your assignment is finished?” the teacher
could ask when pupils are working on a visual arts activity. What are some of the telltale
signs? or "How do you know that the requirements were taken into account, given the
scope of your accomplishment?" What criteria have you highlighted, and which ones do
you think require further work?” These kinds of questions enable students to assess their
own achievement and inspire them to work more since they understand they still have a
lot of work to do before the process is complete.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to teaching metacognitive abilities to our pupils. In

reality, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to honing such abilities. One thing is certain: the
best strategies take into account the character of the learners, the learning environment, the
availability of instructional resources, and the teacher's capacity to effectively apply the strategy
without jeopardizing the quality of the teaching and learning process.

The following techniques, according to Cambridge International Education (2018), can

help our children improve Metacognition:

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 Table 7. Strategies enhancing Metacogntion
 These are phrases or statements that aid in the memorization of
essential terms by pupils. Allowing pupils to create their own
mnemonics would be preferable. To urge students to think about
1. Mnemonics what they're learning. The instructor may ask:
“How come you use so many mnemonics?”
“How do you assess its efficacy?”
“How would you enhance it if you had another chance?”
 These are active learning tools that students may be required to
create in order to keep track of their cognitive processes. When
students are asked the following questions, they improve their
planning, monitoring, and self-evaluation skills:
2. Thinking
“What did you take away from our lecture-discussion? What do you
Journals
think after seeing the short film?”
“Did you hear what our resource speaker had to say?”
“What do you anticipate will happen next, based on your
observations of gas behavior?”
 • The purpose of this technique is to improve students'
comprehension abilities by asking them to play the role of teacher
after reading an article or a literary work. They perform
interrogation, clarification, summarization, and prediction. The
3. Reciprocal
instructor may ask:
Teaching
“What can you say about your peers' teaching?”
“Are they efficient?” “How?”
“How would you handle a comparable assignment in the future if
you were given the opportunity?”
 This is a technique that allows pupils to express aloud what they are
thinking while doing a task. It might entail reading a news item,
resolving a problem, or evaluating a social or environmental issue.
This technique may irritate some pupils, but it aids them in better
understanding their own thought process. The following are some of
the questions that students may ask:
4. Metacognitive
“How much prior knowledge do I have on the subject?”
Talk
“Have I come across something like this before?”
“If that's the case, how did I go about approaching it?”
“Can I attempt different problem-solving strategies?”
“Have I done a good job?”
“Are there any elements of the problem that I need to learn more
about?”
 This is a method that allows students to have a better understanding
of their performance on extended tests and exams. It employs a
worksheet with reflection questions that students can utilize before
to and/or following the lengthy test and assessment. The following
5. Exam
are some of the questions:
Wrappers
“How well prepared am I for this lengthy examination?”
“How is it going with my performance?”
“Did I utilize an effective preparation strategy?”
“How can I improve my exam preparations in the future?”
6. KWL Chart  This is a typical method for activating past information, assisting
students in setting learning goals, and assisting them in self-
evaluation. “What do I know?” is represented by the letter “K.”
This is generally provided before the lecture to aid students in
recalling whether or not they have previously encountered a
comparable topic. “What I wish to know?” is represented by the
letter “W.” This question allows students to clarify their
expectations prior to the start of the class. The letter "L" stands for
"What did you learn?" This is done by the pupils once the lesson

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 has been completed.
 The instructor could next ask them the following questions to help
them understand their cognitive process better:
“How did I come up with these ideas?”
“Which is more effective and which is less effective?”
“How will I react the next time?”
 Using this technique, students may give meaning to a list of key
concepts by linking them to one another. Three things must be
present: the term, the arrow indicating to the succeeding term and
the connecting words. As students make sense of the many
terminology presented to them, the idea mapping process
necessitates a lot of thinking on their behalf. The following
7. Concept Maps questions may be asked by the teacher:
“What was I thinking when I connected this to that (the arrow
linking the terms)?”
“Do the two words have anything in common?” “How do you
mean?”
“Do you think the linking words are appropriate?”
“How would my idea map appear if I had the chance to modify it?”

Summary

 Metacognition was initially created in 1979 by American Developmental Psychologist

John Flavell, who combined the words "meta" for beyond and "cognition" for thinking to
create a phrase that became known as "thinking about your thinking."
 He also mentioned that metacognition has two main components: knowledge of cognition
and cognition control. Declarative knowledge, task knowledge, and procedural
knowledge are all examples of metacognitive knowledge. Because metacognition is both
a talent and a process, it necessitates systematic thinking, which necessitates
metacognitive control. In 1990, Nelson and Narens proposed a model that included the
aspects of Control and Monitoring, while Woolfolk stated in 2007 that the parts of
Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluating are necessary.
 Students in our classrooms can be Tacit Learners, Aware Learners, Strategic Learners,
and Reflective Learners, according to Perkins in 1992. If we want them to be extremely
good at metacognition, we need to help them become reflective learners.
 When it comes to helping kids build and improve their metacognition, there are a variety
of techniques to employ. Open-ended questions, non-blaming questions, solution-focused
questions, and process-oriented questions were recommended by Jacobson (2018), while
Mnemonics, Thinking Journals, Reciprocal Teaching, Metacognitive Talks, Exam
Wrappers, and the KWL Chart were recommended by Cambridge International
Education (2018).

A. From the list of options, circle the letter that corresponds to your answer.

1. Which of the following definitions of metacognition is the most accurate?

a. It is the act of thinking about the previous thinking process in order to gain new
insights into the complexity of human cognition.
b. It is the categorical determination of whether the act of thinking is suitable or not,
taking into account the implications of the choice.
c. It is the process of reflecting on one's actions and making required corrections in
order to enhance performance.
d. It is the ability to generate fresh insights by generating new ideas based on prior
experiences.

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 2. Which factor aids in the development of a sense of ownership over one's own learning
and its ultimate application in the actual world?
a. Metacognitive Knowledge c. Both a and b
b. Metacognitive Regulation d. None of the options

3. Which aspect, drawn from one's own self, a complicated problem, or a method, offers a
notion of one's own cognitive abilities?
a. Metacognitive Knowledge
b. Metacognitive Regulation
c. Neither a nor b
d. The answer could not be deduced from the question

4. What sort of metacognitive knowledge is required after experiencing the following

thought: “After learning twenty various types of phobias, I discovered that I had trouble
spelling them.”
a. declarative knowledge c. strategic knowledge
b. task knowledge d. procedural knowledge

5. You tell yourself, “I think dealing with tiny kids truly requires a lot of patience and hard
work,” after working with your five little nieces. What kind of metacognitive information
is involved?
a. declarative knowledge c. strategic knowledge
b. task knowledge d. procedural knowledge

6. When presented with a complicated problem, what type of learner can choose an
acceptable strategy and give a systematic step-by-step answer but not the process of
reflection?
a. tacit b. aware c. strategic d. reflective

7. What kind of learner is oblivious to his own metacognitive knowledge?

a. tacit b. aware c. strategic d. reflective

8. How do you categorize students who understand the framework for processing
information, such as developing ideas and seeking for evidence, but lack maturity in their
metacognitive skills?
a. tacit b. aware c. strategic d. reflective

9. Which method should be used when pupils are asked to memorize essential facts and
questions such as:
“Why did I memorize using such a method?”
“Did it work?” you might wonder.
“How will I make the process better?”
a. Mnemonics c. Thinking Journals
b. Reciprocal Thinking d. Exam Wrappers

10. Which method is best for reactivating past information, encouraging students to project
what they want to learn, and then assessing their own progress?
a. Metacognitive Talk c. KWL Chart
b. Exam Wrappers d. Concept Maps

B. Describe the following in detail.

1. What is Metacognitive Regulation? How Does It Work? What role do Nelson and
Narens' 1990 model and Woolfolk's 2007 model play in the process?

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 2. What function does metacognition play in the overall education of our students? How
does it help students strengthen their cognitive processes and their capacity to engage in
more in-depth reflective thinking?

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 REFERENCES

Aquino, A.M. (2009). Facilitating Human Learning. Manila, Philippines: Rex Publishing.

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Cambridge Assessment International Education (2017). Metacognition. Retrieved May 5,

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Chaffee, J. (2003). Thinking Critically. 7th ed. USA: Houghton, Mifflin Company.

Chick, N. (2018). Metacognition. Retrieved May 5, 2018 from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-

sub-pages/metacognition/

Egan, K. (2005). An Imaginative Approach to Teaching. California: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

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Savage, T.V. & Armstrong, A.D. (2004). Effective Teaching in Elementary Social Studies. 5th
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