CHAPTER SIX: Erasing Eurocentrism: "Using the Other as the Supplement of

Knowledge"
Author(s): Shehla Burney
Source: Counterpoints , 2012, Vol. 417, PEDAGOGY of the Other: Edward Said,
Postcolonial Theory, and Strategies for Critique (2012), pp. 143-172
Published by: Peter Lang AG

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/42981703

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to

Counterpoints

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 CHAPTER SIX

Erasing
"Using the

At the heart of
sion lay an und
periences, territ
verified them. ..
except as a lowe
white Christian
ing and invigor
the material cen
fied and observe
so thoroughly an
cultures unstud

Eurocentrism
interprets the
lenses. Eurocen
European cultu
lization as the
riod to that of
the world to t
ism, market e
trism simulta
contributions, science, culture, and civilization of the East. Eurocentrism
also negates the history, story, and importance of half of the globe at the
expense of its own grandiose self-image and self-interest.
As an ethnocentered, logocentric discourse, Eurocentrism sees the
World solely from the dominant point of view of Europe or the West. It is
found in all aspects of life, from philosophy, politics, and economics to geog-
raphy and education. Its influence and impact is felt, especially in questions
relating to the curriculum - the canon of literary works, Western culture
core courses, values, language and culture, teaching practice and, most im-
portantly, the lack of representation of the knowledge of the East in aca-
demic fields. To understand Eurocentrism, one first needs to explore why
and how the notion of the supremacy, power, and hegemony of Europe was
constructed historically and culturally as a universal value via conquest and

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 144

empire; and secondly,

course and ideology h
sciousness of the worl
'Discovery' as a histo
and art, as an ethno
cover' the world - h
Europe as the center
and centrality of Eur
idea that history, geo
the time they were 'd
tors is central to this discourse. These 'discovered' territories across the

seas may have physically and culturally existed independently - with their
own native peoples, their own indigenous languages and civilizations - but
the European conquest is deemed as the defining moment of their existence
Thus, not only areas of human study, such as science, history, sociology, an-
thropology, language, literature, and especially geography, are perceive
from the Eurocentric point of view; the world itself is literally constructe
from the European perspective through the geopolitical structures of Time
and Space.

Mapping of the Other

'Discovery' is dependent on cartography and the construction of maps,

whose projection is a means of textualizing spatial relations of power, of
representing the spatial reality of the Other. The allegorization of space is
shaped by cartographers, with projections of maps of the world that privi-
lege certain lands over others by use of the north/south axis maps - which
highlight the North more than the South - or projecting special maps cate-
gorizing areas by resources, climate, population, production, and so on -
which tends to show off the Western hemisphere in a better light. Such
mappings create ideology and ways of seeing the South or the East as Other.
For instance, the most popular and standard version of the map of the world
has been the Mercator projection of 1569, which represents Europe and the
Western hemisphere as much larger than it actually is on the globe. This
constructs a powerful, psychological imprint of the superiority and impor-
tance of the West on the mind of the viewer. Gerardus Mercator's projection
has influenced the mental map of millions of Westerners throughout the
centuries, (in) forming their attitudes of European centrality. As a geogra-

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism

pher recently note

facts but on Merc
Mercator map becam
tudes as pivotal poin
jections of the Eur
reality and visual i
climate over tropica
populated areas, an
in focus than other
raphy of the world
Europe, which becam
been the unquestion
for centuries, up t
popularize the Gail
more equitable and a

Prime Meridian

The establishment of the Prime Meridian of the world at the Royal Observa-
tory in Greenwich, England during the second International Geographers
Conference, held in Rome in 1875 (the heyday of British colonialism), was
indeed a symbolic gesture, revealing the prevalence of Eurocentricism. A
meridian is a north-south latitudinal line selected as the zero-degree refer-
ence point for astronomical observations. Every place on Earth is measured
relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) in terms of its longitude (distance
east or west from this line) or latitude (distance north or south from the
equator). Thus, all the time zones of the world are based on GMT: "Green-
wich, England defines both time and place for the whole world," as the offi-
cial website of Greenwich 2000 proudly states. The Prime Meridian divides
the Earth into the Eastern and Western hemispheres - just as the Equator
divides the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Moreover, Greenwich
Mean Time, a term referring to mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, represents Western European Time as well as Coordinated Uni-
versal Time (UTC), introduced in 1972 as a standard astronomical concept.
The Greenwich website declares lightheartedly:

So whether you are flying an aircraft, or sailing a ship, or just planning to meet
up using your GPS remember that it is measured from Greenwich, England.

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 146

On a serious note, ho
represents the quinte
of England, to the res
pire, the imperial co
grained in the global
from Europe to the U
in the world, but the
Said has commented o
and Culture and Imper
Europe and Britain du
United States, as it
through its foreign pol

What's in a Name?

The naming or changing of indigenous names to newer, Europeanized ver-

sions is characteristic of the mapping of colonial settlements in conquered
lands. It is a form of re-inscription, of overwriting the past, of erasing former
culture and identity of peoples and places, and of asserting ownership. Indeed,
the power to name is a privilege that the colonial powers enjoyed. In many
instances, the postcolonial nations and places have reclaimed, reaffirmed, and
retrieved their identities by reverting back to their original names; for in-
stance, Ceylon now calls itself Sri Lanka, the city of Bombay, India has changed
its name to Mumbai; and so on. In colonial discourse the role of the native
guide who leads the colonizer in his mission of exploration is often erased or
marginalized. A classic example is that of the Nepalese Sherpa guide, Tenzing
Norgay (1914-1986), who is now generally considered to be the first person
to have reached the summit of Mount Everest on May 29, 1953, with the Hunt
expedition, but the credit and honor of being the 'conqueror' of Everest has
historically been bestowed on Sir Edmund Hilary. Ironically, the one and only
photograph of this historic moment on top of Mount Everest is that of Tenzing
planting the British national flag on an ice axe. Hilary is supposed to have
commented that as Tenzing did not know how to operate a camera he could
not take a picture of Sir Edmund on top of Mount Everest

The Journey South

As a result of the so-called age of discovery or age of exploration, which

lasted from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth century, European

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 147

navigators started charting the o

routes for spices and gold, and n
as slaves for the European monar
peditions. First the Portuguese, a
ish, French, and Dutch, traveled
mountains, countries, and contin
to Australia, setting up trade set
the eighteenth century. The Port
the Atlantic under the leadership
ing' the Madeira Islands in 1419 a
in 1424, both in the middle of th
territory - pastoral and unpollut
Lisa Remigio, who had organized
in the capital, São Miguel, on Azo
Canada. I was included because of
the Atlantic: The Story of Port
"hi(stories)"of immigrant groups
grants from Portugal to North A
how green were their valleys a
opening experience that this litt
Othered, was so advanced and dev
presenting its own culture throu
Portuguese arrived in India long
the more strident and strategic c
colony of Goa lasted until 1961
when it was finally annexed by I
mains a beautiful city and beach
is frequented by Indian and forei

Errors and Omissions

Christopher Columbus's 'discovery' of America, as every North American

student knows, took place in 1492, but fewer students are aware that Co-
lumbus had made a crucial error, thinking he had arrived in India, or the
East Indies, as it was called, when he landed in the Caribbean Islands.
Thus, the islands were later named West Indies, a misnomer that has been
rejected today by the Caribbean peoples because of its colonial, imperial
overtones. Moreover, the indigenous peoples of North America were erro-

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 148

neously named Indian

now much maligned
the native peoples an
India, despite the que
The journey south in
lentlessly by all of t
most sought-after d
temples, the prospec
preservation of food.
ture that leads to co
credited with being
journey around the
1498, arriving at the
fine cotton fabrics, f
da Gama's 'discovery
history and taught i
other, untold (hi)stor
1497 failed because o
to Portugal without
fully took abroad Af
one of whom, ibn Ma
experiences and know
vanced navigators w
friendly relations wit
pressed with the Por
and advanced mater
sented the intrusion
kets; and that the 'Z
agreement with Portu
These are a lot of imp
camouflages. Vasco da
mission, and he retu
rewarded by King Man
da Gama made yet an
broke the Arab trade
in massacres on the coast of Africa and India to take over their trade mo-

nopoly of spices and silks. Yet another voyage was made by Vasco da Gama
in 1502, this time with 15 to 20 well-armed caravels with imperialist inten

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 149

tions and the command from the

and expand trade. During this exp
at da Gama's command - hundreds of native Hindus and Arab Muslim trad-

ers were violently massacred. The Encyclopedia Britannica states that up to

400 men, women, and children were locked on board and burned alive over
a period of four days. Today this would be considered genocide. Five hos-
tages were forcefully taken from India as specimens for King Manuel's in-
spection. In 1524, just before his death, da Gama was named Viceroy of
India by King Juan III of Portugal.
As a student, I had learned about the grand Eurocentric narrative of
Vasco da Gama's discovery of a route to India, but until I researched facts
more recently, I did not know of the atrocities, exploitation, and violence
that actually occurred. Gayatri Spivak (1990) calls this "epistemic violence,"
the symbolic violence caused by the power to control and disseminate
knowledge. Indeed, the narratives of empire of Vasco da Gama's 'discovery'
(note that the trade route had already been discovered and used by the Ar-
abs) are part of our folklore, but the reality of the Other, the native, indige-
nous story behind the conquest, remains untold and unknown. The Other
hi(story) showing the advancement of Arab and Indian culture and trade,
revealing the violent atrocities and failures of the Portuguese mission, is not
part of the popular Eurocentric representation regarding Vasco da Gama's
famous navigational achievement. The atrocities, cruelties, and struggles are
simply an unpopular version of history from the point of view of the Other.
The Other in history has invariably been written out of the global script,
primarily because of Eurocentrism, the biased expertise of Orientalism and
Orientalist scholars, the power of the dominant language and knowledge,
the license and means to print and disseminate information, and the Euro-
centric social construction of academic curriculum, as well as the everyday
universalist discourse of the West.

Other (Contexts

Postcolonial theory investigates and explores the underlying structures that

lie behind these popular Eurocentric narratives, as discussed in chapter one.
In order to balance this Eurocentric narrative, it is important to read other
writers, other critics, other stories, from other parts of the world. For instance,
K. M. Pannikar's highly praised and well-researched scholarly history, Asia
and Western Domination: A Survey of the Vasco Da Gama Epoch of Asian His-

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
150

tory 1498-1945 (1959)

sis of the historic ven
view, providing other
that balance the bias o
is used as the "supplem
order to make knowle
Based on Derrida's c
knowledge, I have t
makes meaning thro
discourse. That is, it o
thetics" (1989), where
East as well as the We
deconstructive mode o
instance, Shakespear
refer to other render
there have been man
play. As discussed ea
deconstructively to th
pedagogical mode, the
advance knowledge, t
either the East or the
The presence of the
absence of the East, t
this strategy complem
by bringing the Other
estate of Mansfield Pa
Antigua through cont
other in-depth meanin
As a deconstructioni
"double play," "double
"dissemination," "defe
essential difference b
make meaning throug
forces Derrida's posit
stream of textuality,'
emerges through the
the Other as a supplem
difference. I have act

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Erasing Eurocen trism 151

the graduate and undergraduate lev

bringing the World to the classroom
have applied this technique to this
ern as well as Western texts (my re
and culture of India, for example).
the Other as a supplement of know
discourse that does not marginalize
and Other texts, to Arab literature an
both Said and Spivak create an inte
gemony of Eurocentric domination
trism and normalizes the presence o

Eurocentrism and Empire

Discovery of 'new' lands gave way

in Africa and Asia by the European
cient Vedic civilization (1500 bc-5
Empire, as it was called, which r
establishment of British Raj in 185
their jewels, spices, riches, and rar
it was during the height of the M
first made its inroads into India, s
the Great, with his darbar, or cou
cians; his Hindu wife, Joda Bai, wh
secular religion, Deen-e-Ilahi, based
ligions of the world (Hinduism, Bud
had attracted fame overseas. The M
of culture, poetry, and aesthetics
to 1653, had established the Mugha
secular (promoting unity between
dia), and extravagantly rich, which
of India. Incidentally, though th
eighth wonder of the world, it is l
or tomb built in memory of Shah J
in Indian history books - Mumta
estate company was advertising fo
you like to live here?" under a pict
knowledge of the East in the West.

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
152

The Taj Mahal at Agra, In

precious gemstones by Mug

Stories of the learn

spread far and wide, b
has argued in both Ori
appeal and influence o
also feels that the trad
social construction of
ment of Europe in the
course derived from
version of Eurocentris
history of conquest an

The Gifting of Bombay

The history of the Br

tale as reported by We
not just the appropria
away of parts of appr
pires. In colloquial pa

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 153

Peter to pay Paul" or, perhaps, the

birthday present. The Portuguese,
had gained ground there, actually
Bombay - now re-named Mumbai
as a gift to England as part of Cat
to Charles II in 1662. In addition, t
signed a trade agreement with the
started a prosperous trade in spic
guese but inching into power as th

The Gateway of India at Bombay Harb

in India, gave away the city of Bomba
Braganza's marriage to Charles II in 16

Divide and Rule

Britain became notorious for its Divide and Rule policy during the partition
of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan after independence, on August
15, 1947, raising the specter of animosity, atrocity, and bloodshed between

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
154

Hindus and Muslims. Ho

by the East India Comp
in India, as they pitted
Sultan against Shivaji -
lies' through offers of
notoriously rich Nizam
more ferociously, strat
nial powers, beating ou
India. They established
from the north to the
mar), with the exceptio
such as Hyderabad, Mys

Jallianwalla Bagh Mas

Many Eurocentric histo

and sustained struggle
achieved by the sacrific
riod of struggle, is oft
became independent...."
which the country su
knowledge the long fig
even the addition of a f
fought for independen
Other.

Moreover, stories of
by the European coloni
underplayed in Eurocen
walla Bagh massacre in
dier General R. E. H. Dy
in Eurocentric history
were celebrating the Ba
walla Bagh (garden], ord
warning, to go on a pla
1,650 rounds were fir
hausted. The entrance
blocked. The British
wounded, but the India

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 155

and 1,500 wounded. Dyer walk

medical help to the wounded, d
wounded died alone without aid. However, a woman, Rattan Devi, defied
the curfew and stayed up all night with the body of her husband to protect it
from animals and vultures. She reported children's cries for water and their
bodies writhing in pain. There was no possibility of escape from the site:
People jumped into a solitary well in the compound to escape the bullets.
Later, 120 bodies were pulled out of the well. The images remind one of
people jumping off the World Trade Center towers on 9/11, a ghastly sight
that is entrenched in our collective memory.

A preserved wall with bullet holes at the Jallianwalla Bagh memorial in Amritsar, India.

This was indeed a cold-blooded massacre of innocent civilians, but it

was condoned by the British. The House of Lords passed a measure com-
mending actions against 'another Indian Mutiny.' The incident was largely
overlooked by Eurocentric narratives of empire. Dyer had been informed
that a political meeting was going to take place in the garden, while others

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
156

celebrated Baisakhi. H
quiry, held later, that
"obliged to teach a les
he could have disper
come back again and l
of myself." Dyer was
was presented with
young Sikh teenager
revenge, and in Londo
the Punjab, Michael O
Singh was hanged in L
lianwalla Bagh massac
posed to have said, "T
their Motherland" (r
internet, May 30, 20
pendence movement,
right' - the slogan of
The Eurocentric pers
oppositionally differe
ten from the point o
his play The Devil's D
portant to use the pe
tor and the victim, an
to get a clearer view
figures, and version
rebellion against the
pendence by Indian h
British history, there
bellion was merely a
major revolt against
India here, but such
colonized countries. A
of empire" in order t
It is also important
stand the indigenous
centric university a
Other perspectives.

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 157

Exhibitions and Eurocentrism

By the eighteenth century, the concept of Europe as a sign of superiority in

opposition to the world's cultures had become firmly consolidated. As Said
has pointed out, Europe, or the West, stood as a binary opposition to the Ori-
ent or the East, the former as advanced, civilized, and superior, the latter as
primitive, uncivilized, and inferior, as seen in Orientalism. This sense of power
and superiority needed to be transmitted to the public in order to create a
rationale for the colonial project Imperial displays, both in the metropolitan
centers and the colonial peripheries, were organized as exhibitions of power,
conquest, and the appropriation of the 'exotic' Other. From the early days of
exploration, people, plants, specimens, and spices became artifacts of empire
and were brought back as loot to be exhibited for the ordinary people in mu-
seums, private collections, and parks. What Bhabha (1994) has called 'am-
bivalence' is visible in these exhibitions, promoted as gestures of goodwill to
spread knowledge and showing both curiosity and disdain, admiration and
repulsion, love and hate, between the colonizers and the colonized. Many pri-
vate and public zoos were established during this period. People of other cul-
tures were brought back to be introduced in courts and private salons or to
be participants in entertainment shows. Not only were indigenous tribal
members, native 'Indian princesses,' medicine men, shamans, and so on ex-
hibited as 'exotics,' but also Westerners who had spent time with the 'sav-
ages,' along with parrots, turkeys, and other species. These were shows of
imperial power and conquest signifying victory and empire.

Into the Heart of Africa Exhibit: Cultural Racism?

A major modern exhibition, "Into the Heart of Africa," consisting of African

artifacts brought back by Canadian soldiers and missionaries from the African
colonies, was held at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) in Toronto, Canada,
from 1989 to 1990. It became one of the most controversial exhibitions at

ROM, inciting continued protests, letters to newspapers, articles, public d

bate, picketing in front of the venue, street marches, police confrontations
and violence. Not just African Canadians but also many other sectors of th
public saw the exhibition as cultural racism, appropriation, a condoning of
colonialism, and a colonialist representation of loot and mayhem, which de
humanized the indigenous peoples of Africa and created ethnocentric narr
tives of empire. Interestingly, just a few years earlier in 1986, Profess
Edward Said had taught his popular course and given lectures at the Unive

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
158

sity of Toronto, in th
movement had become
education was the new
critical theory argume
domination had infiltr
eralizing effects of th
also swerved the gener
time was ripe for a ma
Other, critiqued by Sai
The problems of "Into
ner in which the exhi
nizzo, by its glossy c
organization, and repr
pejorative implications
rad's Heart of Darknes
Achebe and Said. Univ
colonial theory, which
community were voca
divided into five secti
ary Room, Ovimbundu
posedly to represent t
show African culture.
jects collected by the
the official brochure.
totally failed to have
viewers through the j
tuality. Literally more
the press critiquing th
analysis that would d
hibit were used to den
such as "dark continen
ous land," "barbarous,"
of Muslims, animals
marks around these de
Linda Hutcheon (1985)
ody are very difficult
Moreover, the displ
cred objects and idols;

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Erasing Eurocentrism

sented as the "life of

the colonialists and
trophies. Instead, obs
the historical memor
and of the continent
by the Canadian sold
their heritage. The p
Eurocentric, represen
ness, and inferiority.
subdued, passive, sub
ing any representatio
that the racist repr
not conducted with t
to see her great unc
soldiers being hailed
pire." A few critics,
of India, discussed e
protests were merely
The Toronto Board o
hibition after receivi
impact on students.
(Lalla & Myers, 1990
dents, and reported i
intimidated when th
cluding (rightly so) th

St. George and the C

I personally recall see

"Lord Beresford's en
room with its force
depicted stabbing a s
corner of the paintin
ish conquerors and
quished. It reminded
to hang prominently
George's Grammar Sc
banner, killing the d

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 160

more ironic was that

president of South Af
just been released from
in the struggle for fr
tion. Moreover, the Zu
its undoubtedly creat
over the African peop
Another photograph
in a white dress teach
a river. The caption
many visitors. It wa
women to wash clothes. Critics wrote that while the art and crafts of the

people showed their creativity and intelligence, the Africans were surpris-
ingly "infantilized." Yet another big, poster-like photograph showed some
African women sitting by a dusty roadside, weaving baskets under a huge
sign for the soft drink Fanta overhead. The ideology seemed to be to fanta
size and exoticize Africa as the Other, the primitive, the undeveloped, the
uncivilized, which was being modernized and developed by the Europea
missionaries and the British military. On the one hand this exhibit could b
perceived as a universal humanistic venture, and on the other as a class
representation of colonialism and Saiďs Orientalism. For Orientalism exam-
ines the ways in which Europe not only influences and alters, but actually
produces other cultures, erasing the marks of indigenous patterns of livin
through the tropes of its own knowledge, power, and expertise. This Orien
talist scenario was well played out in "Into the Heart of Africa," but it was
rewarding to note the critical response of the audience to the performance
The height of public consciousness and the intellectual awareness of ord
nary people who criticized the Eurocentric exhibit and its colonial, out
dated approach was certainly remarkable as a form of resistance. The inten
tions of the curator of "Into the Heart of Africa" were supposedly univers
and human, as spelled out in the catalogue; however, the outcome was
veneration of Eurocentrism and Orientalism.

Universalisai and Eurocentrism

The concept of universalism, the moralistic sense of depicting the so-called

human condition - the poverty and misery, the floods and the famines, th
African villages without food or water, the smiling but hungry children with

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrísm

big eyes - often cam

seem benign and f
Other in the cause o
been a well-intentio
Eurocentric World t
the exploitation an
generous overtones.
Universalism is the
experiences, and e
apply to all humanit
differences. This h
common humanity
gates the rationale
ment, improvement
a civilizing mission
and uncivilized, or
Dark Ages and brou
cultural patterns of
which believed in universalism and assimilation.

The Eurocentric point of view sees European cultural assumptions as be-

ing the norm - the universal, accepted perspective. For instance, as dis-
cussed earlier, English Literature as a humanistic, universal discipline was
perceived as a noble pursuit in most colonized countries. The Eurocentric
universal human condition that English Literature presented was perceived
as the cultured and refined version of existence, which could be applicable
universally. As Vishwanathan [1989) has argued, English was used in the
British Raj as a sociopolitical tool to establish colonial power, as discussed in
an earlier chapter. The effects of the dominance of English still continue to
inform postcolonial India, where a class-conscious society lays a lot of pre-
mium on being able to speak English fluently, where one's manner of speech
immediately 'places' one in a certain class or privileged position, as in Brit-
ain. Moreover, when comparisons are made between the philosophy or sci-
entific beliefs of native peoples and contemporary modern thought, as David
Suzuki's environmental programs often do, universalism is being applied
pejoratively because the perception is that only if the views happen to be
'modernistic' are the indigenous cultures perceived to be advanced. For in-
stance, the Dance of Shiva, which in Vedic Hindu mythology is believed to

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
162

have created the univ

jof Capra to the eleme
tury ([1975] 2000). Th
in comparison to mod
reinforces is that som
West. This is yet anot
spective, despite the
ment of Other know
quotation marks to d
perspective, which is
Chinua Achebe (1989
writers for lacking un

In the nature of things

by universality. It is on
is universal; he has tru
bend in the road which
tion of Europe or Amer
your home." (1989, p. 7

It is ironic, as Achebe
notion of universalism
Eurocentrism is ali
codes worldwide. In e
trative red tape, stru
trends, European cult
cially in Other countr
West is seen as inhere
in colonialist institut
resenting 'universal
point that when the
was established in 189
lar bringing together
mankind found in the
its first chair, G. E. W

[Aļcademic work in Co
Europe and the United S

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism 163

by virtue of their political positions,

ones most worth studying." (C&I, pp

Eurocentrism is masked in litera

universality in literature; in histo
from the point of view of the vi
pology by the unconscious assu
vanced, developed, and modern
defined as primitive and ancient.
Moreover, the study and disc
highly Eurocentric, as it is based
to develop Other countries acco
ment, progress, achievement, a
an understanding of indigenous p
history, and place and time. Cult
mate reality. The process of glob
malizing' of Westernized lifestyle
is endorsed over and above local p
have traditionally had a universa
The assumed superiority of We
supposed to have invented num
venting the notion of zero), ar
most influenced by African mask
practices (which were borrowed f
primarily European universal val
of cultural borrowings, the hybr
create art, literature, and histor
order to supplement our collectiv
manity. Or, as Said has reiterated
proposition is that Orient/Occi
functioning as the Other in order
Said's work, then, tries to deconstruct the embedded and essential
Eurocentrism that is reflected in the practice of Orientalism, in politics and
literature, in representation, and in culture and imperialism. As Said ex-
plains,

[WJhat partly animated my study of Orientalism was my critique of the way in

which the alleged universalista of fields such as the classics (not to mention his-

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 164

tonography, anthropolog
other literatures and societies had either an inferior or transcended value.

(C&I, p. 44, my emphasis)

The theoretical concept of the World and its worldliness that Said advo-
cates is, indeed, more expansive, inclusive, and intercultural than the nar-
row Eurocentric World that is represented in typical university and
secondary school core curriculum in North America. Looking forward to a
World beyond Orientalism, beyond empire and imperialism, Said sees a
coming together of the East and the West through our intermingled experi-
ences and overlapping territories.

The world has changed since Conrad and Dickens. ..to ignore or otherwise dis-
count the overlapping experience of Westerners and Orientals, the interde-
pendence of cultural terrains in which colonizer and colonized co-existed and
battled each other through projections as well as rival geographies, narratives,
and histories, is to miss what is essential about the world in the past century.
(C&I, pp. xx)

Indeed, it is the whole World's reality, culture, and aesthetics that can en-
rich curriculum, literature, and life, rather than a narrow Eurocentric study
of 'great works' that ignores Other great works.

The Great Debate: Western Culture Core Curriculum

What is taught - how, why, where, by whom, and to whom it is taught - is

one of the foremost questions facing educators today in light of growing
globalization, interculturalism, and the changing face of the world in the
twenty-first century. The famous Stanford University Debate on Western
Culture Core Curriculum became a crucial subject of much controversy
between 1988 and 1989 - those hectic 1980s of rejuvenation, revival, and
change in academic discourse that I alluded to earlier. The controversy
concerned what role, if any, cultural content and values should play in the
general education curriculum, as well as the degree to which this curricu-
lum should reflect the cultural diversity of the United States. Reminiscent
of the culture wars that occurred during the student rebellions of the
1960s, the Western culture debate also involved a power struggle be-
tween oppressed groups, such as African Americans and feminists, and the
predominantly white male establishment that advocated traditional, con-
servative, Western values. The debate challenged the predominant Euro-

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Erasing Eurocentrism 165

centrism, sexism, racism, and h

which excluded the Other - wome
and African cultures and literatu
posed different programs. Studen
proach to courses entitled 'Gre
based on the hierarchy of the gre
dents also revolted against Wes
which ignored and negated East
tures and knowledge.
Several factors fueled this contr
lic discourse, the media, and the
can media but also the internation
pages. One such factor was the pu
late 1980s that discussed the role
in academia in particular, the mo
The Closing of the American Min
(1987).
Another factor was the intense confrontation between students and

the administration at Stanford University. While students protested

marches and sit-ins in the president's office the debate was carried out i
newspapers and was even reported in Europe. The Great Debate, as it
termed, ended up at the senate with emotional, rational, and passion
arguments on all sides. Writers like Saul Bellow jumped into the fr
through articles in New York Times Magazine : "I do not know the Tolst
of the Zulus, the Proust of the Papuans," valorizing elitist ideas of w
constitutes knowledge and cultural literacy. Of course there could ne
be a Tolstoy or Proust of the Zulus, as the notion itself is totally abs
Eurocentric and ethnocentered. Certainly there are other forms of writ
other works from all over the world, that are as important or centr
masterly as Marcel Prousťs In Search of Remembrances Past (also tra
lated as In Search of Lost Time). William Bennett, the then-Secretar
Education under George H. W. Bush's presidency, complained that "co
have to go up because new knowledge costs more than old knowled
Political activists such as African American spokesperson Jesse Jack
also played a leading role in bringing national attention to the West
Culture versus Multiculturalism controversy. In 1988 dramatic chan
occurred in the general education curriculum. Stanford changed its m

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
166

datory Western Cultu

debate was carried in
who pointed out:

I was never taught in W

Dead contained many di
more than three thousa
and Solon studied in Egy
astronomy, geometry, m
that the Hippocratic oa
never told that Algebra
(Reported in Internation
Front page, April 15, 19

One cannot even beg

tions to knowledge. M
dant, but the omissio
haunt progressive un
that culture is prima
universalist facts, gr
is still deeply ingrain
Said himself refers b
alism (1993), mentio
opening up the Weste
that Bernard Lewis, "
States," entered the "
column in the Wall St

To the students and Pro

the curriculum to inclu
Lewis - speaking as an a
Western culture does in
would come in their pl
the reading list would
subjects (he named them
and child marriage wou
riosity about other cul
also come to an end. (C&

Said concludes that su

inflated sense of Wes

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism

of a tremendously l
of the world" (C&I
that Lewis's Orien
Westerner into a vi
boasting about the
an East/West oppo
that does not resolv
"rather than affirm
other, and the nec
another. ..the sepa
West, Orient and O
rial contest" and "a
the East and the W
edge, histories, lite
educate the World as a whole.

The Stanford Debate brought some important changes to the curricu-

lum of many universities across the United States and Canada - offering
more courses in Other cultures, languages, and literatures; and creating an
interdisciplinary and multicultural curriculum, though it is still restricted
and limited. It is important to remember, however, that it was only a few
decades ago that Women's Studies, Native Studies, Ethnic Studies, and all
the other interdisciplinary and critical programs, such as Cultural Studies,
simply did not exist at institutions of higher learning in North America.
Moreover, the field of Education was entirely closed from this expansion
of ideas until recently, focusing primarily on teacher training in a non-
critical academic milieu. The Stanford controversy over curriculum did
result in a widening of that school's curriculum to include Asian and Afri-
can culture and literature, but the long-term effects were more profound:
As the discussion widened and spread to other academic institutions, it
initiated curriculum reform at most American and Canadian universities.
The concept of an inclusive curriculum began to circulate in school sys-
tems, while universities started talking about 'internationalizing' the cur-
riculum. Most importantly, the notion of the canon began to include more
works by women, minorities, and indigenous peoples, undercutting the
predominance of Eurocentrism in the curriculum. However, this trend has
to rise above tokenism to go further into incorporating the Other in aca-
demic critique.

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 168

Cultural Literacy: Who

Cultural literacy is th
and informal content
iar with street signs
most recent slang, lite
tion of it. Knowledge
not sufficient in and of
interwoven with art,
cultures, with diverse
needs to know and be
tives, and stories from
is increasingly reflect
Against this changing
acy: What Every Ame
tural literacy that wa
that a standard know
stream canon was esse
cessful at school and
canon is an authoritative and hierarchical list of texts and works that are

considered important enough to be part of a standard criterion. Tradition-

ally the canon has consisted primarily of white, male, European literary fig-
ures and philosophers, from the Greeks and the Romans to modern times,
who have represented the best of mainstream culture in the curriculum.
The notion of the mainstream, as opposed to the margins, was con-
structed in Western academic discourse in the 1980s as a result of the de-

bates over the Eurocentric notion of culture and curriculum, and the rising
opposition to it by critics such as Said, Spivak, et al. Moreover, the percep-
tion of marginality has been constructed through dominant discourses such
as patriarchy, imperialism, and ethnocentrism, implying that certain forms
of experience are peripheral and thus not important enough to be a part of
the mainstream. Marginality represents various forms of exclusion and op-
pression. The marginal is defined by its limitations in accessing power. In
order to deconstruct this dominant notion, postcolonial theory deconstructs
the very presence of center. As Spivak once said, it is the margins where we
make the key notations; the margins are at the center of knowledge.
The discussions over multiculturalism and multicultural education in
Canada and America wrestled with this idea of mainstream culture as op

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Erasing Eurocentrism

posed to the margin

lum so as to represe
informs today's cla
move beyond token
and dance, to incorp
education policy th
in Canada. Such mo
some positive result
social justice, while
was beginning to ha
In this conflicting
be reflected in the
tices, values, and no
that reading comp
also wide-ranging
schools should not b
a highly specific cu
ern culture. Thus h
dates, words, and co
of these sources of
Eurocentric. Hirsch
mainstream culture
peripheries or the m
Cultural Literacy (
rising to number tw
just behind Allan Bl
quently compared.
women, homosexual
the academic world
us to read only a ha
ing with his theory
'the elite'" (C&I, p. 3
Hirsch's long list o
the epitome of 'cul
though himself a l
cate for a conservat
pedagogy, and a rea

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 170

addressing difference
mation about minoriti
ter the success of hi
1989 with the same ti
tles that were attract
flaunting its Eurocen
and ignoring half of t

The interrelationships b
the institutions of nat
should, but it is neverth
brated humanity or cul
they ascribed to their o
Orient, Africa and even

This deliberate narro

intermingled, intercu
quiresfamiliarity wit
sources, not just can
understanding, insig
knowledge, and share
Ironically, one does n
of Europe as one doe
proximity of the East,
of heritage and trad
European countries i
American works. Mo
edgeable about Eastern
Ukraine to work with
a project helping the
reinvent their cultura
with their knowledg
Tatars, who are indige
ture and heritage whe
stan while Hitler's armies marched into Russia. In 1991 the Crimean Tatars

were repatriated, when the Ukraine gained its independence from the So-
viet Union, but they were living in dire conditions on the margins of society
on the outskirts of cities, having lost their homes, schools, and lands, which
were now occupied by others. The UNDP had set up an experimental school

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Erasing Eurocentrism

for this community

work with students
ate an indigenous cu
I was struck by t
sians, Ukrainians, a
World, generally. A
cal dance gestures (
used as a theme for the ballet. Russian culture has been familiar with Indian

art and film because of the friendly relationship between India and Russia
during the 1950s and 1960s. Ordinary people on the seaside promenade in
Yalta asked about Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi, and the famous
Bollywood actor Raj Kapoor, while welcoming me with the famous slogan
"Hindi-Russi, Bhai Bhai' (Indians and Russians are brothers) and showing
hospitality and warmth.
In Europe I discovered that courses in Cultural Studies at Lisbon Uni-
versity featured Indian writers and critics; in Spain many students studied
about India, the Moors, and Africa; the Germans were surprisingly familiar
with India through their Max Mueller Bhavans, German cultural centers
situated in all the big cities of India and with their cross-cultural research in
Sanskrit and Indo-Germanic linguistics. A German professor who took me
sightseeing knew about the Nizam of Hyderabad and his history. Germans
were especially interested in the poetry of Indian poet Iqbal, who was influ-
enced by Goethe's transcendentalism and after whom a street in Frankfurt
is named. In Britain the knowledge of the subcontinent is not only house-
hold mythology, but is favored because of the former colonial love-hate re-
lationship, which strongly persists in everyday cultural discourse, seen in
popular symbols such as Indian cuisine, cricket, and commonwealth writers.
The Brits seemed to love Nehru and admire Gandhi, as well as the palatial
wealth of the princely states, life on the tea-estates and hill stations, the art
and the common people, and also the Vedic Indian philosophy. Ironically,
visiting London today is like visiting the Bombay of the 1960s. In contrast,
knowledge about the East seems to be fairly limited in North American aca-
demic institutions.

None of this, however, denies or condones the latent Orientalist,

us/them discourse of otherness and underlying animosity ingrained in all
these European cultures. I recollect that while returning from the Fourth
International Semotics Congress in Barcelona in mid-April 1989, I read a

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 172

critical piece on the fr

titled "Whose Cultur
Culture core curriculu
remember the punch
about Western culture

Shared (Hi)stories

To conclude, it is impe
the dots to make a wh
an East/West aestheti
from both the East a
writers, philosophers,
East as well as the W
sign that is understoo
A postmodern individ
fluence of many cultu
century in either the
solely from lists of e
new communications
Marshall McLuhan's
postcolonial cultural
only half the world a
the 'supplement of kn
culture, Said's World
new geopolitical realit
ticing a pedagogy of t
in the next chapter I
minology and critical
have offered.

This content downloaded from

131.104.97.86 on Mon, 21 Jun 2021 14:17:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms