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➢ It also consists of springs attached to the

INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMETERS: drum which provides an opposing force to
METERS the motion of the drum to control the
deflection of the pointer.
MULTIMETER ➢ For the measurement of DC voltage, a
resistor is connected in series with the
➢ Refers to an essential measurement
meter, and the meter resistance is taken
instrument, used in every engineering
into account in such a way that the
workshop or lab, mainly to measure the
current passing through the resistor is the
electrical properties of tools, which are
same as the current passing through the
voltage, current, and resistance
meter and the whole reading indicates
the voltage reading.
➢ The multimeter has multiple
➢ For voltage measurement, the
functionalities such as acting like an
instrument is to be connected in
ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter.
parallel with the unknown voltage
source.
➢ It can be used for testing batteries,
➢ For AC voltage or current measurement,
household wiring, electric motors, and
the same principle is applied, except for
power supplies.
the fact that the AC parameter to be
measured is first rectified and filtered to
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MULTIMETERS get the DC parameter and the meter
indicates the RMS value of the AC signal.
There are different types of multimeters
➢ ANALOG MULTIMETER
➢ DIGITAL MULTIMETER
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
(DMM)
ANALOG MULTIMETER ➢ A digital multimeter
(DMM) is a versatile
➢ The Analog electronic device used to
Multimeter or measure various electrical
VOM (Volt-Ohm- properties, including
Milliammeter) is voltage, current, and
constructed resistance.
using a moving ➢ The device displays the
coil meter and a measurements on a digital screen,
pointer to making it easy to read and understand the
indicate the results accurately.
reading on the ➢ The Digital Multimeter consists of an
scale. The moving coil meter consists of a LCD, a knob to select various ranges of
coil wound around a drum placed the three electrical characteristics, an
between two permanent magnets. internal circuitry consisting of signal
conditioning circuitry, and an analog to
digital converter.
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➢ it is designed with a large display. It is
➢ It has two probes positive and negative used to measure the voltage as well
indicated with black and red color as as electrical resistance.
shown in the figure. ➢ The fluke multimeters are protected
➢ The BLACK PROBE is connected to COM against the transient voltage. It is a
JACK and the RED PROBE is connected small portable device used to
by the user’s requirement to measure measure voltage, current, and test
ohm, volt, or amperes. diodes. It automatically ranges to
➢ The jack marked VΩ and the COM jack are select most measurements.
utilized when an LCD shows what is being ➢ This means the magnitude of the
measured (volts, ohms, amps, etc.). signal does not have to be known or
Overload protection prevents damage to determined to take an accurate
the meter and the circuit and protects reading, it is directly moved to the
the user. appropriate port for the desired
➢ To measure the resistance, current measurement. The fuse is protected
flows from a constant current source to prevent damage if connected to
through the unknown resistor, and the the wrong port.
voltage across the resistor are amplified
and fed to an Analog to Digital Converter CLAMP DIGITAL MULTIMETER
and the resultant output in form of
resistance is displayed on the digital ➢ Used to
display. measure the
➢ To measure an unknown AC voltage, the electricity
voltage is first attenuated to get the flow. This
suitable range and then rectified to a DC multimeter
signal and the analog DC signal is fed to includes the
an A/D converter to get the display, which feature
indicates the RMS value of the AC signal. namely the
clamp which
FLUKE MULTIMETER measures the
amps
➢ This kind of whenever the probes measure the
multimeter is volts.
mainly used ➢ As the name suggests, it looks like
for calibration a clamp, which measures the
efforts and amps whenever the probes
used to measure the volts. The adjustment
calibrate of power utilization can be done by
currents, volts multiplying the reading of voltage
& other with the amps.
electrical units. ➢ This instrument is usually
recommended for professionals
only,
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PARTS OF A MULTIMETER
AUTORANGING MULTIMETER
➢ This instrument is
applicable in
simple projects.

➢ it measures a
single component 1. SCALE
at a time. ➢ This is how you read the value being
measured. For an analog multitester, this
is a series of markings in a semicircle.
Depending on the complexity of your
multimeter, you can read different
The Multimeter: What It Does? variations such as voltage, current, and
resistance on the device screen and scale
➢ A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, section. Which value you are measuring
every electronic technician and depends on what port you plugged into on
engineer’s widely used piece of test your analog multitester.
equipment.
➢ mainly used to measure the three basic
electrical characteristics of voltage, 2. NEEDLE POINTER
current, and resistance. ➢ This is the needle-
➢ It can also be used to test the continuity shaped rod that
between two points in an electrical moves over the
circuit. scale of a meter.
The needle
pointer is
mechanically
connected to the
moving coil. The value the pointer hovers
over indicates the value being measured
by the multi-tester. Note that when there
are multiple values being measured on
the same scale, you’ll need to pay
attention to which port the multi-tester is
connected to. Match the port up with the
value being measured.
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3. ADJUSTMENT SCREW
➢ This part ➢ This part is also known as a selector
which is also switch. A range selector knob allows you
known as the to adjust the settings of the multitester
dial or infinity (range selector knobs are also present on
knob allows the bestBinsulation resistance testers).
you to adjust Using this you can change what the
the pointer to multitester is measuring (e.g. voltage,
the zero current, or resistance), as well as the
position of range of the measurement (e.g. volts or
the scale. This is usually accompanied millivolts). The range selector knob can
with the help of a flat head screwdriver. It be auto ranging, or manual ranging.
is good to know that the name ‘infinity
knob’ comes from the fact that at 0
voltage, you have ‘infinite resistance’.
6. PORTS
➢ The holes at
the front of the
multimeter are
4. ZERO OHM ADJUSTMENT KNOB known as
➢ The zero- ports. You
ohm need to plug
adjustment your test probes into the appropriate
knob is used ports to allow the multimeter to measure
to calibrate the parameter that you’re interested in.
the
multitester
when you
want to
7. TEST PROBES
➢ A test probe or a
measure the resistance of an object. To
test lead is an
make sure the multitester is calibrated
instrument used to
correctly you have to turn on the
connect a
multitester, then connect the metal tips
multimeter to a
of the two probes and finally use the zero-
Device Under Test
ohm adjustment knob to adjust the
which is known as
needle to point to ‘0 ohms’ on the scale.
DUT. Test probes
5. RANGE SELECTOR KNOB are flexible, insulated wires. They are able
to establish an electrical connection
between a multimeter and the DUT
without exposing electrical workers to live
conductive parts. Red test probes
connect to the positive terminal, and
black test probes connect to the negative
terminal.
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LESSON 2: SEMICONDUCTOR
COVALENT BONDING IN
SEMICONDUCTORS
SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
Semiconductors, especially silicon, form a
➢ Semiconductors possess specific covalent bond in their pure form. Covalent
electrical properties. bonding involves sharing electrons between
➢ A substance that conducts electricity is atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration.
called a conductor, and a substance that
does not conduct electricity is called an • Silicon atoms have 4 electrons in their
insulator. outermost shell and need 4 more to fill it.
➢ Semiconductors are substances with
• In a crystal lattice, each silicon atom shares
properties somewhere between them electrons with four neighboring silicon atoms,
forming strong covalent bonds.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES CAN BE
• At low temperatures, all the electrons are
INDICATED BY RESISTIVITY. tightly bound in these covalent bonds,
preventing the
Conductors that have low resistance and
conduct electricity easily are: •Free movement of electrons, which limits
conductivity.
•Gold
As temperature rises, some electrons gain
•Silver
enough energy to break free from these covalent
• Copper bonds and move to the conduction band, making
the semiconductor more conductive.
Insulators that have high resistance and are
difficult for electricity to pass through are:
• Rubber SEMICONDUCTOR DOPING.
• Glass Doping is intentionally adding impurities to a
semiconductor to alter its electrical properties.
• Ceramics
This technique enhances the conductivity of the
semiconductor and allows control over its
Their resistivity might change behavior in electronic devices.
according to the temperature for TYPES OF DOPING
example: N-Type Doping (Negative Type):
•Low temperature - almost no electricity passes ➢ This is achieved by adding atoms with
through. more valence electrons than the
semiconductor atoms (like adding
•High temperature - electricity passes through
phosphorus or arsenic to silicon).
easily.
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➢ They only consume or store energy that
flows through them.
P-Type Doping (Positive Type): ➢ They rely solely on the electrical energy
➢ P-type semiconductors have a surplus of provided by the circuit itself.
holes, and conduction is due to the
Examples:
movement of electrons filling these holes
(effectively, holes move in the opposite ➢ Resistors
direction to the electron flow). ➢ Capacitors
➢ Inductors
Schematic Symbols ➢ Transformers

➢ Schematic symbols are graphic ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPONENTS

representations used in circuit diagrams
to depict electrical components and their ➢ are devices that use both electrical and
connections. mechanical processes to perform a
function.
Electronic Components ➢ often involve moving parts or mechanical
interactions to carry out electrical tasks
➢ are the general parts in circuits that serve
control and manipulation of electricity Examples:
such as rectification, amplification, or ➢ Relays
converting energy. There are all kinds of ➢ Switches
these components and every kind has a ➢ Motors
certain function.
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
Types of Components Three Main ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
Types: ELECTRICAL WIRE
➢ It’s the symbol that is used to
ACTIVE COMPONENTS represent a wire
➢ are electronic components that can
CONNECTED WIRES
control the flow of electricity, amplify ➢ This symbol represents
signals, and inject energy into a circuit.
the wire connected
Examples: crossing

Transistors NOT CONNECT WIRES

Vacuum tubes ➢ This symbol shows that
wires are not connected
Tunnel diodes on crossing

PASSIVE COMPONENTS SWITCHES SYMBOLS

➢ are electronic components that do not SPST TOGGLE SWITCH
generate power, amplify signals, or inject ➢ The symbol of a switch
energy into a circuit. that disconnects current when open.
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CHASSIS GROUND
➢ This symbol shows the
SPDT TOGGLE SWITCH
wire Connected to the
➢ This symbol of switch
chassis of the circuit.
selects between two
connections.
DIGITAL GROUND
➢ crucial for providing a reference
point for digital signals, managing
PUSH BUTTON (N.O) switching noise, and preventing
➢ A symbol that denotes ground loops in digital circuits.
momentary switch
normally open. INDUCTORS
PUSH BUTTON SWITCH (N.C) INDICATOR
➢ Symbol of a Coil /
➢ A symbol that denotes
solenoid that
momentary switch
generates a
normally closed.
magnetic field.

DIP SWITCH IRON CORE INDUCTOR

➢ It is the symbol ➢ It is the symbol of the iron core
of the DIP Inductor Which Includes iron.
switch which is
used for onboard configuration. VARIABLE INDUCTOR
➢ It is the coil or
RELAYS
solenoid that has a
SPST RELAY Variable magnetic
➢ This shows the field.
symbol of relay that
close connection by MOTOR AND TRANSFORMER
an electromagnet. MOTOR
➢ Symbol of motor,
SPDT RELAY which changes
➢ This shows the symbol of electric energy to
relay that open kinetic energy.
connection by an electromagnet.
AC TRANSFORMER
EARTHING
➢ Transformer changes AC voltage
EARTH GROUND from high to low or low to high.
➢ This Symbol is used for zero
potential reference and RESISTANCE
electrical shock protection. VARIABLE RESISTANCE
➢ It is the symbol of an
adjustable resistor which
has 2 terminals.
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VARICAP DIODE
POTENTIOMETER ➢ This represents the
➢ It is the symbol of an varicap diode.
adjustable resistor that Variable
has 3 terminals. capacitance diode.

TRIMMER RESISTOR LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

➢ It is the symbol of a ➢ LED emits light when
trimmer which is also current flows through it.
known as a Preset resistor.
PHOTODIODE
THERMISTOR ➢ This is the symbol of
➢ It is the symbol of a Photodiode that allows
Thermal resistor that current flow when exposed to light.
changes the
resistance when CAPACITOR
temperature changes. CAPACITOR
➢ Capacitor is used to
PHOTORESISTOR store electric charge. It
➢ It is the symbol of Photo- acts as a short circuit with AC and an
resistor – change open circuit with DC.
resistance with light
intensity change. VARIABLE CAPACITOR
➢ The Symbol represent the
adjustable capacitance.
DIODES
SOURCES
DIODE
➢ Diode allows current VOLTAGE SOURCE
flow in one direction ➢ It is the symbol of a
only – left (anode) to the voltage Source which
right (cathode). generates constant
voltage.
ZENER DIODE
➢ It allows current CURRENT SOURCE
flow in one ➢ It is the symbol of a
direction, but also can flow in the reverse current Source which
direction when above breakdown volt. generates constant current.

SCHOTTKY DIODE AC VOLTAGE SOURCE

➢ Schottky diode is a ➢ This symbol shows the
diode with a low AC Voltage Source.
voltage drop.
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BATTERY CELL NPN BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
➢ It is the symbol of single ➢ It allows current
cell use to generate flow when the high
constant volt. potential is at the base
(middle).
BATTERY
➢ It is the symbol of a battery PNP BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
which is the combination ➢ It allows current flow when the
of two or more cells. low potential is at the base
(middle) of the symbol.
CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCE
➢ It is the symbol of a constant voltage DARLINGTON TRANSISTORS
Source that gives controllable voltage at ➢ It is made from 2 bipolar
the output. transistors. Has total gain of
the product of each gain.
CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE
➢ It represents the controlled JFET-N TRANSISTOR
Current source which gives ➢ N-channel field effect
controllable current at the transistor.
output.
JFET-P TRANSISTOR
METER SYMBOLS ➢ P-channel field effect
VOLTMETER transistor.
➢ used to measure the
voltage. NMOS TRANSISTOR
➢ symbol of Mosfet N-
AMMETER channel MOSFET
➢ It represents the transistor.
ammeter whose work is
to measure the current in the circuit. PMOS TRANSISTOR
➢ This is a symbol of
OHMMETER Mosfet P-channel
➢ It is the symbol of the MOSFET transistor.
ohmmeter which is
UTILITY SYMBOL
needed to measure the value of a resistor.
BUZZER
WATTMETER ➢ Produce a buzzing
➢ This represents the sound when
power meter which current flows
shows the power consumption. through it.

TRANSISTORS SYMBOLS
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ELECTRIC BELL ➢ This shows NAND Gate, which
➢ This is the symbol of Bell Outputs 0 when both inputs are
which Rings when 1. (NOT + AND).
activated.
OR GATE
FUSE ➢ This symbol shows or Gate,
➢ The fuse disconnects when current above which Outputs 1 when any
the threshold---used input is 1.
to protect a circuit
from high currents. XOR GATE
➢ Symbol of XOR
BUS Gate, which
➢ The bus symbol Outputs 1 when
contains several inputs are different. (Exclusive OR).
wires. usually for
data /address. MULTIPLEXER
➢ Symbol of the multiplexer.
LOUDSPEAKER Connect the output to the
➢ Convert electrical selected input line.
signal to sound
waves. DE MULTIPLEXER
➢ This shows DE
MICROPHONE multiplexer. Connect
➢ Microphone Converts selected output to the
sound waves to the input line.
electrical signal.
OPTOCOUPLER
LAMP/LIGHT BULB ➢ This shows
➢ This is the symbol of a lamp Optocoupler.
that glows when current Optocoupler isolates connection to other
flows through it. board.

LOGIC GATES AND MULTIPLEXER

SYMBOLS
LESSON 3: DIODES
NOT GATE
➢ This is the symbol of NOT WHAT IS A DIODE?
Gate. Output 1 when
input is 0. ➢ Is a semiconductor device that
essentially acts as a one-way switch for a
AND GATE current.
➢ This is the symbol of AND ➢ It is also a two-terminal electronic
Gate. Output 1 when both component that conducts current
inputs are 1. primarily in one direction.

NAND GATE
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In circuit diagram, a diode is
represented by a triangle with a line
across one vertex.

VARICAP/VARACTOR DIODE
➢ Is a diode that can change its junction
capacitance by applying a reverse
voltage.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

➢ A semiconductor device that, when
current passes through it, emits light

TUNNEL DIODE
➢ A kind of semiconductor diode where
tunneling, quantum mechanical process,
gives it effectively “negative resistance”

ZENER DIODE LASER DIODE

➢ Is a specific sort of diode that reliably ➢ A device that enables a diode to be
allows current to flow backwards directly pumped with current,resulting in
laser condition at its junction.
SCHOTTKY DIODE
➢ Is a semiconductor diode with a low
END (NARD)
forward

PHOTODIODE
➢ A semiconductor diode that when
exposed to light, produces a potential
difference or modifies electrical
resistance
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