Equity & Excellence in Education

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Five Essential Components for Social Justice

Education

Heather W. Hackman

To cite this article: Heather W. Hackman (2005) Five Essential Components for Social Justice
Education, Equity & Excellence in Education, 38:2, 103-109, DOI: 10.1080/10665680590935034

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Equity & Excellence in Education, 38: 103–109, 2005
Copyright
c University of Massachusetts Amherst School of Education
ISSN 1066-5684 print /1547-3457 online
DOI: 10.1080/10665680590935034

Five Essential Components for Social Justice Education

Heather W. Hackman

The question of how to teach effectively from a clear social justice perspective that empowers, encourages students to
think critically, and models social change has been a consistent challenge for progressive educators. This article intends
to shed light on this issue by demonstrating how educators can utilize a social justice pedagogical lens to treat their
content in ways that meet their commitment to empowering education. Specifically, this article clarifies what social
justice education is by introducing readers to five key components useful in teaching from a social justice perspective:
tools for content mastery, tools for critical thinking, tools for action and social change, tools for personal reflection,
and tools for awareness of multicultural group dynamics. While no pedagogical approach is a panacea, this approach
offers readers five specific areas to focus on in their teaching and their efforts at working toward social justice in their
classrooms.

T his is a critical time in our world, in our nation,

and certainly in public education. The tense polit-
ical discourse and hugely contrasting ideas about
the future of U.S. education leaves many families, teach-
creates multiple points of entry in teaching for social jus-
tice, it ultimately does the field a disservice by diluting
the essence of social justice education and weakening
the call for teachers, schools, and communities to be true
ers, communities, and administrators at a loss for how to vanguards for change. I address this issue by presenting
best serve the students in their schools and our society as what I perceive to be most fundamental to social justice
a whole. In a climate characterized by well-intentioned education via a definition of it and then a presentation
but poorly funded policies like No Child Left Behind of five components I view as necessary for its effective
(NCLB), educators need to take a stronger and more implementation. These five components (content mas-
vocal stance against the furtherance of policies and ap- tery, critical thinking, action skills, self-reflection, and an
proaches that serve some at the expense of many. Instead awareness of multicultural group dynamics) represent
of trying to work with policies such as NCLB, educators neither an exhaustive nor an exclusive understanding of
need to demand educational environments conducive social justice education. They do, however, help clarify
to engaged, critical, and empowered thinking and ac- what constitutes a social justice educational approach,
tion. Equity and social justice need to move beyond be- and provide for socially and politically conscious K-12
ing merely buzzwords and instead become part of the teachers a clearer sense of how to focus their classroom
lived practice in the classroom. content and process.
Over the last decade, a number of authors have in-
cluded the concept of social justice in their work and
DEFINING SOCIAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
called for a commitment to social justice education (SJE).
And yet, a review of the literature reveals a range of Working in chorus with the goals of other educa-
definitions of social justice education and its manifes- tional theory bases, social justice education encourages
tation in the classroom. Those unfamiliar with it might students to take an active role in their own education
see social justice education as being about treating all and supports teachers in creating empowering, demo-
students equally, while others might think it involves cratic, and critical educational environments. Bell (1997)
the dismantling and reconstructing of education from defines social justice as being a goal and a process. “The
its very core. While having a broad definitional range goal of social justice education is full and equal partici-
pation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped
to meet their needs,’’ (Bell, 1997, p. 3) while, “the pro-
Address correspondence to Heather W. Hackman, Human Rela- cess for attaining the goal of social justice . . . should be
tions and Multicultural Education, B-118, CoE, St. Cloud State Univer-
sity, 720 Fourth Avenue South, Saint Cloud, MN 56301-4498. E-mail: democratic and participatory, inclusive and affirming
[email protected] of human agency and human capacities for working
103
104 HEATHER W. HACKMAN

collaboratively to create change’’ (p. 4). I have distilled components:

Bell’s goals of social justice education to include stu- r Content mastery
dent empowerment, the equitable distribution of re- r Tools for critical analysis
sources and social responsibility, and her processes to r Tools for social change
include democracy, a student-centered focus, dialogue, r Tools for personal reflection
and an analysis of power. Social justice education does r An awareness of multicultural group dynamics
not merely examine difference or diversity but pays care-
ful attention to the systems of power and privilege that The diagram in Figure 1 reveals that solid work in
give rise to social inequality, and encourages students to any of these five areas will lead to more critical educa-
critically examine oppression on institutional, cultural, tional environments that benefit students and commu-
and individual levels in search of opportunities for so- nities. However, it is the combination and interaction of
cial action in the service of social change. Clearly, this all five components that creates an effective environment
definition goes well beyond the celebration of diversity, for social justice education. To illustrate, I briefly explain
the use of dialogue groups in the classroom, or even the each component and then discuss how their interactions
existence of democratic processes regarding class goals contribute to a social justice educational environment.
and procedures. To be most effective, social justice edu-
cation requires an examination of systems of power and
oppression combined with a prolonged emphasis on so- Tool 1: Content Mastery
cial change and student agency in and outside of the
Content mastery is a vital aspect of social justice ed-
classroom.
ucation and consists of three principle spheres: factual
information, historical contextualization, and a macro-
FIVE ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS FOR to-micro content analysis. Content mastery is the first
SOCIAL JUSTICE EDUCATION component of effective social justice education because
information acquisition is an essential basis for learn-
Although it is important to clarify the meaning of so-
cial justice education, it also is vital to identify a spe- ing. Without complex sources of information, students
cific course of classroom implementation. My desire for cannot possibly participate in positive, proactive so-
a more equitable approach to teaching encouraged me to cial change. Importantly, factual information must not
examine the literature for a more specific explanation of a merely reproduce dominant, hegemonic ideologies but
social justice educational approach. I found that a social instead represent a range of ideas and information that
justice approach can be characterized by five essential go beyond those usually presented in mainstream media

Figure 1
Five essential components for social justice education.
 COMPONENTS FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE EDUCATION 105

or educational materials. More specifically, the “facts’’ tent mastery, however, would include an explanation of
necessary for effective social justice education must rep- the science and health impact of global warming, un-
resent broad and deep levels of information so that stu- derscored by statistical data and international research.
dents can not only critically examine content but also Students could examine this information through a crit-
effectively dialogue about it with others. Remembering ical lens and question the progression of global warm-
that social justice education asks students to engage in so- ing and deforestation throughout the last two centuries
cial responsibility, educators must provide students with with a special emphasis on the industrialization period.
enough critical information to do so effectively; other- What global and national historical, political, and eco-
wise, students are set up for failure and frustration. nomic forces have contributed to and maintained (sped
Ahistorical information, however, leaves students up or slowed down) the progression of global warm-
with a limited understanding of the political, social, and ing on this planet? And finally, students would exam-
economic forces and patterns that create and sustain the ine the implications of this issue globally, as well as lo-
oppressive social dynamics students are contesting and cally, addressing macro scale questions, such as: “Which
transforming. Thus, a thorough understanding of the his- countries produce the most waste? Where is this waste
torical context of all classroom content is vital for stu- distributed globally? How are people in other countries
dents to construct an analytical lens. Again, this content affected by global warming? What policies have been ef-
must be examined with a critical perspective because his- fective in curbing the production of greenhouse gases?
tory is written by the members of dominant groups and Why have some countries continually undermined ef-
the need for a broad representation of history is essen- forts at curbing global warming? Which countries are
tial. Loewen (1996) illustrates the empowering effect that they? How do multinational corporations figure into this
critical views of history can have on students through his issue? What is environmental racism?’’ On a micro level,
analysis of historical bias in public school history books. students would address questions such as: “What are my
And finally, content mastery involves student under- own consumption patterns? What does this classroom,
standing on both the micro and the macro levels. First, school, and community do with our waste? How do we
as countless authors in both multicultural and social jus- contribute to the problem or the solution? What is the
tice education indicate, students need information that impact for me, right now in my life, regarding global
is connected to their lives and that helps them to un- warming? What will be the impact on me in 20, 30 and
derstand the micro-level implications of macro issues 50 years?’’
(Delpit, 1995; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1997; Nieto,
2000). From this, students can engage in social action and Tool 2: Critical Thinking and the Analysis
formulate ideas for concrete ways to incorporate class-
of Oppression
room content into their lives, communities, and society as
a whole. Second, students need to develop a solid under- For four key reasons, content alone is insufficient to
standing of how classroom content connects with larger create democratic, empowering classroom settings, or to
issues in society. In a socially just classroom, these two adequately prepare students to become active agents of
levels are constantly interacting, thus helping students change and social justice in their lives and communi-
to truly understand the phrase, “think globally, act lo- ties. First, the mere possession of information does not
cally.’’ Ultimately, both students and teachers need to be necessarily translate into wisdom or deep knowledge.
able to answer the question, “Why is this information im- This is evident, for example, in that individuals in the
portant on both a micro and macro scale?’’ Understand- U.S. have “known’’ about the historical and current man-
ing both micro and macro implications for content mas- ifestations of racism, and yet that knowledge has not
tery draws from student experience, invites them into been enough to motivate change on the deepest of lev-
the knowledge construction process, and leads to a more els. Closer examination reveals that content without his-
student-centered classroom. torical context, especially when combined with lack of
To better understand these three aspects of content analysis, results in the inability to challenge racism in
mastery, consider the issue of global warming. Main- any significant way. Second, the possession of informa-
stream media and information sources often portray this tion alone does not necessarily provide students with a
issue as something that seems to “just be happening’’ pathway for action. In my classes, for example, I have
without any specific reference to its sources, implica- witnessed students feeling overwhelmed by the infor-
tions, or suggestions of proactive measures that indi- mation presented and, as a result, feeling “stuck’’ and
viduals and governments can take to stop it. This pre- unsure of how to act to change unjust social patterns.
sentation leaves students minimally exposed to how Third, presentation of information as truth devoid of cri-
to accurately address the issue, or leaves unquestioned tique runs the risk of creating a dogmatic and prescrip-
the consumption and production patterns of the United tive classroom environment. In a social justice classroom,
States and other industrial nations. Examining this is- all content is subject to debate and critique. And finally,
sue from a social justice perspective with respect to con- information presented outside a context of power and
106 HEATHER W. HACKMAN

oppression runs the risk of recreating the marginaliza- students in our public and private educational environ-
tion experienced by members of oppressed groups, such ments are taught to feel disempowered (“I can’t change
as students of color, gay, lesbian, bisexual, or queer stu- anything; I am just one person’’), complacent (“I don’t
dents, women, or poor/working-class folks. have time to change anything’’), or hopeless (“Nothing
To avoid these pitfalls and the paralysis, hopelessness, will ever change anyway’’).
cynicism, and powerlessness they often invoke, educa- One of the most effortless forms of cultural imperial-
tors must help students to use critical analysis and the ism is to convince those living within systems of inequal-
careful consideration of issues of oppression to provide ity that there is nothing they can or should do about
both deep knowledge and a direction for the application it (Young, 2000). Those who dare to critique and chal-
of that knowledge in students’ lives. Paulo Freire’s (1970) lenge the status quo are labeled a threat to the fabric
praxis loop is a wonderful example of how information of democracy and freedom in the United States. Our
needs to be combined with tools for critical thinking to current sociopolitical climate is an example of a soci-
bring the power of that information to fruition. In par- ety where dissent from the dominant ideology is seen as
ticular, helping students use information to critique sys- “un-American’’ and unpatriotic. Educators need to dis-
tems of power and inequality in society, to help them rupt the notion that silence is patriotic and teach stu-
ask who benefits from said systems, and to encourage dents that their rights as citizens in this society carry
them to consider what aspects of our social structures responsibilities—of participation, voice, and protest—so
keep those inequalities alive are all important and neces- that this can actually become a society of, by, and for all
sary ways for students to become more engaged in social of its citizens. Students need to learn that social action is
justice education. fundamental to the everyday workings of their lives.
The term critical thinking has become so overused in Specific classroom and teaching tools for action and
education that it has lost some of its meaning. Think- social change vary, of course, according to the content
ing about an issue is not equivalent to critical thinking, and the political perspective of those involved. For some,
which requires: (1) focusing on information from mul- Saul Alinsky’s (1971) radical approach to taking power
tiple, non-dominant perspectives, and seeing those as via grassroots protests and street actions and its redistri-
independently valid and not as an add-on to the domi- bution to the masses via economic and political access is
nant, hegemonic one; (2) de-centering students’ analyti- fitting. To others, Freire’s (1973) “problem posing’’ pro-
cal frame and opening their minds to a broader range of cess for the achievement of awareness and education as
experiences; (3) analyzing the effects of power and op- the practice of freedom is the more useful approach. And
pression; and (4) inquiring into what alternatives exist still for others, Zúñiga’s and Sevig’s (2000) focus on social
with respect to the current, dominant view of reality of change through intergroup dialogue or Christenson’s
this issue. The first two points are particularly important (1998) route to social change through writing and liter-
in that if I critically analyze other cultural perspectives acy development are important approaches. Addition-
while never leaving the safety and comfort of my own, I ally, some approaches and tools for social change will be
do nothing more than reify “the other” or “exotic other” grounded within “the system’’ (Oakes & Lipton, 1999),
status of those groups and perpetuate the dehumaniza- while others will embody Lorde’s (1984) notion that the
tion of those groups. Therefore, critical thinking is the master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house.
process by which we consider perspective, positionality, Whatever the approach, there is a long history of social
power, and possibilities with respect to content. action and social change in this country for both domi-
nant and subordinate groups, and teachers who expose
students to this history and the broad assortment of tools
for social change will prepare them well for social justice
Tool 3: Action and Social Change
work.
The third component, tools for action and social
change, is critical to help move students from cynicism
and despair to hope and possibility. Upon learning about
Tool 4: Personal Reflection
issues of oppression and privilege, dominant group
members may feel mired in the reality of their privilege, Using these first three components is typically the ex-
and subordinate group members may re-experience the tent to which teachers engage in social justice education
frustration of oppression. Teaching about issues of op- (Hackman, 2000). A fourth component, personal reflec-
pression without proffering social action tools for stu- tion, reminds teachers to reflect critically on themselves
dents ultimately creates a classroom atmosphere that and the personal qualities that inform their practice. In
lacks hope and creative energy. If the goal of SJE is to Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom
support critical thinking, then we must create classroom and Teaching Community: A Pedagogy of Hope, bell hooks
spaces that provide the opportunity to do so. It is also (1994: see also hooks, 2003) articulates three central ways
necessary to intentionally teach these tools because most in which the ability to be critically self-reflective lends
 COMPONENTS FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE EDUCATION 107

itself to an effective social justice teaching environment. ful life. Being a “nice person’’ or asserting that “I treat
The first is the issue of power and dominant group priv- all students the same,’’ or that “I don’t see color in my
ilege as it connects to the range of one’s social identities. classroom,’’ indicates the lack of critical interrogation of
The popular essay by Peggy McIntosh (1988) on white one’s positionality.
privilege illustrates self-reflection regarding power and Ongoing self-reflection also reminds educators that
privilege. McIntosh reveals that she had never thought there is always more to consider, and helps to keep their
about her privilege before because it had previously been minds open to other possibilities. Teachers can reflect on
invisible to her, and that she had never imagined the im- such questions as: Where did I get this information? Why
pact of her privilege on members of the target group. do I think this? Do I know this for sure or is it merely an
Her first point can be further broken down into three old idea mistaken for fact? This form of self-interrogation
key aspects relative to self-reflection and one’s privi- also helps educators to be more cognizant of their power
lege as a member of the dominant group: (1) Dominants in the classroom (Hackman, 2000, Kreisberg, 1992), and
are actively taught not to see their privilege: (2) Dom- opens the door for the democratic and dialogical class-
inants are taught to see their life and its privileges as room processes that social justice education requires.
the “norm’’ for society and humanity; and (3) Dominants The final issue regarding the importance of self-
have done nothing to earn this privilege. Unless these reflection is that it provides the educator and students
three areas are critically reflected upon, the invisibility sites to take action. Education as the practice of freedom
of privilege persists and continues to support larger, op- (hooks, 1994) always begins with the individual’s will-
pressive structures in society and in one’s teaching. On- ingness to grow and change. As such, to make a con-
going self-reflection allows dominant group members to sistent commitment to self-reflection and personal in-
begin to extricate themselves from the trappings of this terrogation gives educators and students alike a place
invisible privilege and work to be more effective agents to enact social change and growth. Having the self as a
of change in their classrooms and communities. Teach- site for change is a useful way to prevent the feelings
ers can undertake self-reflection for themselves through of hopelessness and powerlessness that students some-
a continual critique of their practice, ongoing dialogue times encounter when discussing macro-level social is-
with colleagues, and a persistent exposure to new con- sues. In addition, self-reflection can serve as a constant
tent areas. Utilizing pedagogical tools, such as reflective motivator, as it knocks teachers and students out of com-
writing exercises and assignments that connect content placency and steers them in the direction of the solution
to student lives, teachers can extend the importance of instead of the problem. This seems particularly true for
self-reflection in their classrooms and build the habit dominant group members in their work to resist the se-
of critical self-reflection into the educational repertoire duction of privilege and to maintain the commitment to
of students. social justice work on all fronts. Especially in regards to
McIntosh’s (1988) self-reflection exposes that she had white privilege, ongoing self-reflection helps Whites con-
never considered herself to be part of the problem of tinually work to challenge racism and be vigilant about
racism because she was a nice person. Lack of self- the deconstruction of white privilege in society.
reflection allows dominant group members to live with Subordinate group members also can utilize self-
the delusion that simply being nice means they have no reflection by examining how internalized oppression has
connection to racism, sexism, or other forms of social in- impacted their lives and communities, and how their
equality in our society, and therefore have no responsi- dominant and subordinate identities interact. For exam-
bility to work toward the solution. Lack of self-reflection ple, there was a period in my own development as a
may prevent P-12 teachers from creating the kind of woman where I was rightfully angry at the system of
empowering and affirming classroom spaces that effec- sexism in our society, and in the process of challeng-
tively support academic success for all students. Simi- ing it on both micro and macro scales, I was unfortu-
larly, lack of reflection may evoke a response to the real- nately not as aware of how internalized sexism affected
ities of racism such as this one, which I hear frequently my growth and development or my efficacy as a change
in my own classes, “That’s horrible! I had no idea things agent. In addition, this lack of self-awareness kept me so
were this bad. People of color should really do some- entrenched in my subordinate experience that I was un-
thing about this!’’ Only when students also understand able to make the connection to my dominant identities or
their white privilege do they realize that, as white stu- see how I was reproducing oppressive dynamics similar
dents, it is not enough to be a nice person and that they to the ones I was fighting, albeit in terms of race and dis-
have at least an equal, if not more important, part in chal- ability oppression. It was almost as if I were saying that
lenging and changing racism in the U.S. Ultimately, lack because I was experiencing the pain of sexism, I did not
of self-reflection locks all of us, no matter what our so- need to look at my own racism and ableism. To be clear,
cial identities, into places of passivity and powerlessness, I am not equating my lack of awareness of my privilege
while members of our surrounding communities and so- to internalized sexism. But, as I began to reflect critically
ciety lack the necessary resources for a healthy, success- on my own behavior, I could no longer tolerate the fact
108 HEATHER W. HACKMAN

that I was not challenging my own racism and ableism Tatum (1997), Zúñiga and Sevig (2000), Root (2000), and
while expecting men to do so regarding sexism. Teachers Ford (2000), provide very useful and engaging frame-
and students alike can avoid this pitfall by engaging in works for understanding the ways that social identities
consistent self-reflection as it applies both to their sub- impact dialogue in the classroom and offer suggestions
ordinate and dominant identities. An analysis of power for effective cross-cultural communication. Understand-
is one way for teachers and students to begin this aspect ing these dynamics, rather than avoiding the discussion
of self-reflection and to move closer toward the creation altogether, leads to a more effective and engaging social
of a socially just classroom. justice classroom.
While student-centered pedagogy is a key aspect of a
social justice classroom, it should not be used as a means
Tool 5: Awareness of Multicultural for members of traditionally marginalized groups to be
placed in the position of educating the dominant group
Group Dynamics
members in the classroom. It is each class member’s re-
The fifth element for effective teaching for social sponsibility to be an agent of his or her own education
justice involves understanding group dynamics of the and not to reproduce disempowering societal dynamics
classroom and the socially constructed identities of the within the classroom. Thus, effective utilization of mul-
teacher and students. An awareness of these dynamics ticultural group dynamics toward a social justice end
determines how social justice educators will approach can happen only if the class members, and in particular
the previous four dynamics, and thus impacts the ef- the educator, are aware of these issues as well. Class-
ficacy of their implementation. For example, in an all- room activities that create a safe space for students to di-
white classroom situated in an all-white community, the alogue about issues of diversity, classroom expectations
content presented regarding racism and white privilege that underscore the value of diverse life experiences, and
will be different than it would be in a classroom with the infusion of culturally relevant and responsive peda-
diverse racial identities, which is different, again, from a gogy (Gay, 2000) into the classroom all help teachers and
classroom with all students of color. The form and type students make effective use of the multicultural group
of content that the teacher presents, the attention to how dynamics.
these different class compositions affect dialogue and fa-
cilitation, and the amount of time spent on content versus
process will differ for these three classrooms. If a teacher CONCLUSION
teaches the same way in all three environments, he or she
Utilizing any one of these components can benefit a
will not adequately address the needs of the students,
classroom. Nieto (1998) discusses a continuum of multi-
and will miss an important opportunity for social justice
cultural education that has evolved over the last 35 years,
education. Creating a student-centered learning environ-
stating that while regrettable, the lack of clarity about
ment is lauded as an essential element of good teaching
what multicultural education really is from the onset has
by some of the best thinkers in the fields of multicultural
allowed some educators to claim they are teaching from
education and social justice education (Ayers, 1998; Gay,
a multicultural perspective when they are really com-
2000; Nieto, 2000; Shor, 1992), and yet if an educator does
ing from a very limited, uncritical, tolerance-based per-
not consider the group dynamics as they pertain to so-
spective. In order for the field of social justice education
cial identities and multicultural perspectives, they miss
to avoid this development, social justice educators must
the true potential of student-centered teaching and social
continue to work toward a clearer sense of what a social
justice education.
justice educational approach actually entails. To date, the
The make-up of the class is not a reason to shy away
work of Adams, Bell, and Griffin (1997), Ayers, Hunt, and
from addressing critical issues in the classroom. For ex-
Quinn (1998), and many of the other authors referenced
ample, some educators feel that they cannot adequately
in this article have made significant contributions toward
discuss race and racism unless students of color are
that end. To suggest that these five components are es-
present, while others may feel that the lack of student
sential is not an attempt to limit the conversation, but
diversity regarding race indicates that there is no need
to frame a starting point and encourage educators who
for this discussion (Elder & Irons, 1998). Both perspec-
embrace a social justice approach to continue to move
tives are incorrect, and critical and ongoing discussions
the field forward and ultimately create classroom spaces
regarding diversity and social justice issues affect all of
that are empowering and committed to social change.
our lives and therefore should be an integral part of the
classroom regardless of its make-up. Attention to student
identities or multicultural group dynamics should not be
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In M. Adams, W. Blumenfeld, R. Castañeda, H. the cafeteria?’’ And other conversations about race. New
Hackman, M. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings York: Basic Books.
for diversity and social justice (pp. 130–132). New York: Young, I. M. (2000). The five faces of oppression. In M.
Routledge. Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, R. Castañeda, H. W.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed (M. B. Ramos, Trans.). Hackman, M. L. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings
New York: Continuum. for diversity and social justice (pp. 35–49). New York:
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Routledge.
Continuum. Zúñiga, X., & Sevig, T. D. (2000). Bridging the “us/them’’ di-
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research and vide: Intergroup dialogue and peer leadership. In
practice. New York: Teachers College Press. M. Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, R. Castañeda, H. W.
Hackman, H. W. (2000). Power consciousness: Understanding and Hackman, M. L. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings
transforming educator classroom power. Unpublished for diversity and social justice (pp. 488–493). New York:
manuscript. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Routledge.
hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice
of freedom. New York: Routledge.
hooks, b. (2003). Teaching community: A pedagogy of hope. New
York: Routledge. Heather W. Hackman is a faculty member in the Depart-
Kreisberg, S. (1992). Transforming power: Domination, empow- ment of Human Relations and Multicultural Education at St.
erment, and education. New York: State University of Cloud State University. She teaches courses on social justice ed-
New York Press. ucation, multicultural education, racism in the United States,
Ladson-Billings, G. (1997). The dreamkeepers: Successful teach- and heterosexism and homophobia in the United States and
ers fo African American children. San Francisco: presents at national conferences on the topic of challenging
Jossey-Bass. white privilege and racism in teaching.