STOCHIOMETRY

1. CHEMICAL FORMULAE
A chemical formula gives:
 symbols of elements present in a substance, and
 number of the atoms

e.g water H2O : contains elements Hydrogen and Oxygen in the proportion 2 H atoms
and 1 O atom.

(a) COVALENT FORMULA results from a combination of non-metals. Valencies of

elements are used to write formulae. Valency is the combining power of the element.

Element Valency
H, Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I ) 1
O, S 2
N 3
C, Si 4
P 5

Examples:

Find the formulae of compounds formed when the following elements react.

(a) carbon and hydrogen

4 1
C H cross multiplying gives formula as CH4

(b) nitrogen and hydrogen

3 1
N H gives NH3

Exercise
Deduce the formula for the compounds formed between the following.
(i) carbon and sulphur (ii) nitrogen and oxygen (iii) phosphorus and oxygen

(b) IONIC FORMULA results from chemical combination of a metal and a non-metal
ions.

Simple ions: consist of only one element.

Na+ sodium Halides (F-, Cl-, Br-, I- : fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide)
2+
Mg magnesium H+ hydrogen, H- hydride
Al3+ aluminium O2- oxide
2+
Cu copper(II) S2- sulphide

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Fe2+ iron(II) Se2- selenide

Fe3+ iron(III) N3- nitride
Zn2+ zinc P3- phosphide
Pb2+ lead(II)

Radicals(complex ions): consist of 2 or more elements.

A radical is a group of atoms chemically combined and can exist on its own as a single
unit.

NO3- nitrate SO42- sulphate PO43- phosphate

OH- hydroxide CO32- carbonate HCO3- hydrogencarbonate
NH4+ ammonium

Write ionic formulae for the compounds of using the above ions:

Examples:

(i) sodium fluoride (ii) potassium nitrate

Na+ F- gives formula as NaF K+ N3- gives K3N

(iii) aluminium phosphate (iv) ammonium sulphate

Al 3+ PO43- gives AlPO4 NH4+ SO42- gives (NH4)2SO4

Exercise:
(i) copper(II) sulphate (ii) zinc hydrogen carbonate (iii) calcium carbonate

2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation describes a reaction in an abbreviated way.

Reactants are the substances which are reacting together and products are the
substances resulting from the rearrangement of atoms of reactants.

A word equation expresses the reaction in words.

e.g. hydrogen + oxygen → water

A symbolic(chemical) equation expresses the reaction using symbols and formulae of

substances.
e.g H2 + O2 → H2O

The state symbols indicate the state or form of the substance. There are 4 state symbols:
(s) refer to solid (g) refer to gaseous
(l) refer to liquid (aq) refer to aqueous / in solution ( i.e dissolved in water)

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Common acids
HNO3 nitric H2SO4 sulphuric
HCl hydrochloric H3PO4 phosphoric
CH3COOH ethanoic / acetic H2CO3 carbonic

All acids are ionic i.e they break down in solution to give H+ and other negative ion.
The H+ is called a proton.
e.g
HNO3 (aq) ↔ H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) ↔ 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Balancing Chemical Equations

Equations are balanced in order to conserve matter. The law of conservation of matter
states that “ MATTER IS NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED”

A balanced chemical equation also shows appropriate state symbols.

e.g 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

3KOH(aq) + H3PO4(aq) → K3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Exercise:
Construct and balance the following equations.

(i) methane (CH4) reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

(ii) aluminium hydroxide reacts with nitric acid to form aluminium nitrate and water.

(iii) silver(I)nitrate solution reacts with potassium chloride solution to form a precipitate
of silver(I)chloride and potassium nitrate.

(iv) ammonia reacts with water to form ammonium hydroxide.

Ionic Equations show how ions react. In the substances used, only the aqueous solutions
are split up into ions. Solids, liquids and gaseous substances have no ions. Some ions
appear unchanged on both sides of the equation, these do not take part in the chemical
reaction, they are called spectator ions.

e.g Write the net ionic equation of the following reaction.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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*split aqueous substances into ions to get

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

*cancel out spectator ions to get net ionic equation as

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

spectator ions: Na+ and Cl-.

Exercise:
Write the following as ionic equations. Show spectator ions.
(i) Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)
(iii) Ag(NO3)(aq) + BeCl2(aq) → AgCl(s) + Be(NO3)2(aq)

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

1. Relative Atomic Mass, RAM or Ar : is the mass number of an element. It is the

average mass of isotopes of the element compared to the mass of an isotope of carbon-12.
There are no units because it is ‘relative’.
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e.g. 7N : Ar = 14 (no units) as seen in the Periodic Table of elements.

2. Relative Molecular (Formula) Mass, RMM (RFM) or Mr : of a substance is the sum

of Ar values present in a formula unit of the element or compound.

eg. Mr of magnesium chloride, MgCl2 = 1 x Ar(Mg) + 2 x Ar(Cl)

= 1 x 24 + 2 x 35.5
= 95.
Mr of ammonia, NH3, = 17.

Mr of copper(II)sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O = 250.

Water of crystallization(also water of hydration) is the molecules of water trapped in a

lattice during crystallization. Copper(II)sulphate pentahydrate contain 5 water molecules
for every one formula. The ‘full stop’ tells that it is the water of crystallization.

Salts (substances formed when the H+ in acid is replaced by metallic or ammonium,

NH4+, ion) with Water of crystallization are referred to as hydrated salts. When these
crystals are heated they lose water molecules and form dry powder called the anhydrous
form.

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CuSO4.5H2O(s) heat CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

blue crystals white powder
(hydrated) (anhydrous)

Test for water

The white anhydrous form blue crystals when water is poured on powder. This is the test
for presence of water. Water also turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink. Any colourless
liquid that has a boiling point of 100oC and freezing point of 0oC should be water.

Percentage Composition by Mass

Each composition of an element in a compound can be expressed as % of the molecular
mass of compound.

% composition by mass of element in a compound = Ar of element x 100

Mr of compound
e.g Calculate the % composition of the following

(i) potassium hydroxide, KOH: Mr(KOH) = 56

%K = 39 x 100 %K = 39 x 100 %K = 39 x 100

56 56 56
=69.64 = 28.57 = 1.79

Check!! 69.64 + 28.57 + 1.79 = 100.

Exercise:
Find the percentage composition of the following. [hint: treat water of crystallization
with mass of 18].

(i) calcium carbonate (ii) iron(II)chloride dehydrate (iii) PbSO4

MOLE
This is the standard scientific ‘unit’ for measuring the amount( mass, volume,
concentration) of a substance.

1. Mole and Number of Particles

1 mole of substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles = NA is called Avogadro’s number.

number of particles in a substance = number of moles x NA

[particles can be atoms, electrons, protons, ions, molecules]

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e.g. (a) Calculate the number of particles in

(i) 2 mole of water

no.of particles = 2 x 6.02*1023 = 1.204 * 1024

(ii) 0.35 moles of potassium chloride

no.of particles = 0.35 x 6.02*1023 = 2.107 *1023

(b) Find the number of moles in 2.781*1023 ions of sodium chloride

no.of moles = 2.781*1023 = 0.462.

6.02*1023

2. Mole And Mass (in Grams)

mass(g) = moles x Ar or mass(g) = moles x Mr

[1 mol of substance has its mass equal to Ar or Mr in grams].

e.g.
(i) 1 mol NaOH = Mr (NaOH) = 40g. i.e Molar mass of NaOH is 40 (no units)

(ii) moles in 60g NaOH = 60/40 = 1.5

(iii) mass of 0.5 mol CuSO4.5H2O = 0.5 x 250 = 125g.

Exercise
(a) Express the mass in grams
(i) 2.5 moles of ZnO (ii) 0.25 moles of CaBr2 (iii) 0.44 mol bromine

(b) Convert the masses to moles

(i) 48g of oxygen (ii) 0.72g of water (iii) 188.6g of Ca(NO3)2

3.Moles and Gases(Molar volumes of gases)

1 mole of gas occupies 24dm3 at room temperature(20oC) and pressure(1 atmosphere),or
r.t.p.
[1dm3 = 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL]

V(dm3) = moles x 24 or V(cm3) = moles x 24000

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(i) Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in a volume of 72dm3 of gas at r.t.p.
mol NH3 = 72/24 = 3.

(ii) Find the volume of 0.5 moles of CO2 at r.t.p.

V = 0.5 x 24 = 120dm3

(iii) How many moles of hydrogen are in 24cm3 of the gas at r.t.p?
mol H2 = 24/ 24000 = 0.001

(iv) What volume does 8.0g of oxygen gas occupy at r.t.p?

Mr(O2) = 32.
So, mol O2 = 8/32 = 0.25

therefore V(dm3) = 0.25 x 24 = 6dm3.

Exercise:
How many grams of 32.4dm3 sulphur dioxide, SO2, gas are there at r.t.p?

4. Moles and Solutions

A solution is made up of a solute(usually a solid) and solvent(a liquid). If a solute
dissolves it is soluble, but when it does not dissolve it is insoluble.
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute particles dissolved in 1dm3 of
solvent.
A concentrated solution contains a high number of solute particles, a dilute solution
contains a small proportion of solute. A saturated solution contains solute particles that
do not dissolve no more at that temperature. To get more solute to dissolve, the
temperature is increased. The concentration of solute in a concentrated solution is the
solubility of the solute at that temperature. Solubility increases with increase in
temperature.

The concentration of a solution can be expressed in:

a. moles per dm3 or mol/dm3 or moldm-3

Moles per dm3 is the Molarity. It is denoted capital M. [M = mol/dm3]

b. grams per dm3 or g / dm3 or gdm-3

e.g. (i) What is the concentration of 5g of NaOH in 1000cm3 of water?

mol = mass(g) = 5 = 0.125 mol/dm3

Mr 40

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(ii) Express 0.125 mol/dm3 in g/dm3.

g/dm3 = 0.125 x 40
= 5.

g/dm3 = mol/dm3 x Mr

c. For two solutions reacted together, the following can be used to find the concentration
or volume using their reacting moles.

MAVA = MBVB or MAVA = molA

molA molB MBVB molB

where; MA or MB are molarities of solutions A and B

VA or VB are the volume of solutions A and B
molA or molB are reacting moles of solutions A and B

e.g. What volume of 4.0M AgNO3 solution will react with 100cm3 of 1.0M BeCl2
solution, and what will be the concentration in g/dm3 and mol/dm3 of the beryllium nitrate
formed.

step 1: A balanced equation

2AgNO3(aq) + BeCl2(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + Be(NO3)2(aq)
2mol 1mol 2mol 1mol
4.0M 1.0M
100cm3

step 2; mol BeCl2 = 1.0 x 100 = 0.1 mol BeCl2

1000
= 0.2 mol AgNO3 since mole ratio is 2:1 for AgNO3 : BeCl2.
step 3:
then, volume of AgNO3 = 0.2 = 0.05 dm3 = 50 cm3
4.0
total volume present =100 + 50 cm3 = 150 cm3 = 0.15 dm3

step 4: Therefore, mol Be(NO3)2 formed is 0.1 mol for mole ratio BeCl2 : Be(NO3)2 is
1:1.

So, concentration of Be(NO3)2 = 0.1 = 0.667 mol/dm3

0.15

Hence, [Mr Be(NO3)2 is 135.]

concentration of Be(NO3)2 = 0.667 x 135 = 90.00 g/dm3

[Use the relationship for two solutions above to see if you can get correct answers.]

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Exercise:
(i) Express 2.5M of sodium sulphate in g/dm3.

(ii) What is 174g/dm3 of lithium bromide as molarity?

5. Empirical (Simplest) and Molecular(Actual) formulae

Empirical formula shows the simplest ratio in which atoms combine, i.e. it tells us the
simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound.

Molecular formula gives us the actual proportion of each element in a compound.

e.g A sample of hydrogen sulphide gas in eggs was broken down into hydrogen and
sulphur. It was found to contain 6% hydrogen and 94% sulphur by mass. The molar mass
of the sulphide was found to be 34.
What is its empirical and molecular formulae?

step1: express the % in grams

H : S
6g : 94g
step2: find moles of each element
H : S
6 : 94
1 32
6 : 2.9
step3: divide by the smallest to get
H : S
2 : 1 therefore empirical formula is H2S.

To get the molecular formula we need the empirical together with the molar mass.
So, [Mr H2S] n = 34
34 n = 34
n = 1, therefore molecular formula is H2S.

Exercise:
Determine the molecular formula of the compound with percentage composition by mass
of 2.4g C, 3.2g O and 0.4g H, with the relative molecular mass of 180.

6. Percentage Yield /Purity

Yield refers to the amount of product(s) formed in a chemical reaction, often given as
mass (which can be converted to moles or as percentage yield).

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Percentage yield is defined as the actual amount of product expressed as a percentage of

the theoretical (or expected) amount.

% yield = actual yield x 100

theoretical yield

Actual(or experimental ) yield tells how much product (including impurities) was
isolated during a chemical reaction.
Theoretical (or expected) yield is the amount of product that should be isolated given no
error occurs during the process of preparing the product. It is calculated using the mole
ratio of the reaction equation and the moles of reacting substances.
For example:
1. A student reacted 112g of iron with excess of sulphuric acid to make iron(II)sulphate.
(i)How much of this product will be formed given no experimental error?
(ii) If the student obtained 292.5g of iron(II)sulphate, express this as a percentage yield.

A balanced equation with mole ratio:

Fe + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2
1mol 1mol 1mol 1mol
112g 292.5g
(actual yield)
Solution:
(i) [Ar Fe = 56] So, mol in 112g Fe = 112 = 2 mol
56
= 2 mol FeSO4 since mole ratio of
Fe: FeSO4 is 1:1.

[Mr FeSO4 = 152] therefore; mass FeSO4 = 2 x 152

= 304g.

(ii) % yield = 292.5 x 100

304
= 96.22%

2. A student reacted 250cm3 of aqueous 2.0M silver(I)nitrate with excess sodium chloride
to form silver(I)chloride.
(i) Calculate the yield in grams if no experimental error occurred.
(ii) If the student obtained 62.43g of silver(I) chloride, express this as a percentage yield.

Solution:
(i) A balanced reaction eqn:
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
1mol 1mol 1mol 1mol
250cm3 62.43g
2.0M

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So, mol AgNO3 = 2.0 x 250 = 0.5 mol AgNO3

1000
= 0.5 mol AgCl for mole ratio AgNO3 : AgCl is 1:1.
Therefore,
Mass = 0.5 x 143.5 [Mr AgCl = 143.5]
= 71.75g AgCl theoretical

(ii) %yield = 62.43 x 100 = 87.01%

71.75
Purity shows the amount of product without impurities.

i.e. purity = mass of product – mass of impurity

%purity = mass of product – mass of impurity x 100

theoretical yield
eg.
(a) When a student added excess silver(I)nitrate to 200cm3 of 1.0M barium chloride
solution, he obtained a 95% yield by weight of silver(I)chloride.
(i) What mass did he obtain?
(ii) If the silver(I)chloride made was only 90% pure, what was the overall yield of this
product?

Solution:
(i) A balanced eqn:
2AgNO3 + BaCl2 → 2AgCl + Ba(NO3)2
2mol 1mol 2mol 1mol
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200cm 95% yield
1.0M 90% purity

Then, mol BaCl2 = 1.0 x 200

1000
= 0.2 mol BaCl2
= 0.4 mol AgCl since mole ratio of BaCl2 : AgCl is 1:2.

therefore, Mass = 0.4 x 143.5 = 57.4g AgCl theoretical

So, 95 = actual yield x 100 » actual yield = 95 x 57.4 = 54.53g AgCl

57.4 100
hence, the overall yield of AgCl (i.e.mass of product – mass of impurity)

%purity = (mass of product – mass of impurity) x 100

theoretical yield

90 = overall yield x 100 » overall yield = 90 x 57.4 = 51.66g AgCl

57.4 100

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Though the student isolated 54.53g of AgCl some of this mass (54.53g – 51.66g = 2.87g)
is due to impurities, and only (51.66g – 2.87g = 48.79g) is the pure product.

ASSIGNMENT:
(i) When a student reacted 30.8g of iron with excess phosphoric acid she got an 85%
yield if iron(III)phosphate.
Express this in grams to 2 d.p.

(ii) Kago reacted 6.4g of copper with excess hydrochloric acid. She obtained an 80%
yield by weight and 95% purity of the copper(II)chloride.
Calculate the overall yield in percent, and the overall yield in grams to 2 d.p .

(iii) What volume of 2M NaOH will react with 80cm3 of 0.5M HCl, and what will be the
concentration in g/dm3 and mol/dm3 of the sodium chloride formed.

(iv) When calcium carbonate reacted with nitric acid 48dm3 of carbon dioxide at r.t.p was
given off. How much calcium carbonate and nitric acid reacted and how much calcium
nitrate was formed.

(v) How many moles of H2SO4 will react with 160g of NaOH?

7. Volumetric Analysis- Titration

Titration carried out to determine the concentration of a solution by reacting it with
another solution of known strength. The solution of known concentration is called the
standard solution. Solutions of different concentrations can be made by dilutions from
the standard solution. In the titration process, one solution is slowly added to a fixed
volume of the other (usually the standard) until the two react together completely. An
indicator solution is added to show the colour change when the end-point is reached, i.e.
when the reaction is complete.

indicator colour colour change in suitability

Acid Alkaline
methyl orange orange red yellow (i) strong acid – strong base
(ii) strong acid – weak base
screened methyl green grey green (i) strong acid – strong base
orange (ii) strong acid – weak base
phenolphthalein colourless colourless red (i) strong acid – strong base
(ii) weak acid - strong base

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Apparatus for Titration experiments:

1. a 25.0cm3 or 20.0cm3 pipette: it delivers a fixed volume
2 a pipette filler
2. a 50cm3 burette: measure the volume of solution being added to the conical flask
3. a conical flask: a solution from pipette is put in conical flask with drops of indicator
4. a beaker
5. a volumetric flask: for preparing solutions for titration.
6. a white tile to help see the colour change

NB:Some precautions need to be taken into consideration. Give some of the precautions?

Results:
1. Titration readings are to one decimal place.
2. Atleast three accurate burette readings should be consistent and not differ by more
than 0.2cm3.

Example : Acid-base reactions

A solution of sulphuric acid is titrated against a standard sodium carbonate solution of
0.10M. The specimen results are shown below.
Calculate the concentration of the acid.

specimen readings
volume of pipette (base) = 25.0 cm3
indicator: methyl orange
titration number
1 2 3
final volume /cm3 24.0 47.9 34.4
initial volume /cm3 0.0 24.0 10.5
volume added /cm3 24.0 23.9 23.9

Average volume of acid added = 24.0 + 23.9+23.9 = 23.9 cm3

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Calculations:
1. Write down a balanced chemical equation showing mole ratio.
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na 2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
1mol 1mol

2. Find the number of moles of solution with known concentration.

mol Na2CO3 = 25.0 x 0.1 = 0.0025 mol Na2CO3
1000

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3. Use the mole ratio to find the reacting moles of the other solution.
mol H2SO4 = 0.0025 mol H2SO4 since mole ratio is 1:1

4. Use the volumes to calculate the unknown concentration in mol/dm3.

conc. H2SO4 = 0.0025 x 1000 = 0.105M
23.9
Exercise:
In a titration 25.0cm3 of sodium hydroxide is neutralized by 15.4cm3 of a solution of
0.25mol/L hydrochloric acid. Find the molarity of the alkali.

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