Subject Geology

Paper No and Title Remote Sensing and GIS

Module No and Title GIS Database Creation
Module Tag RS & GIS XV

Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator

Prof. Talat Ahmad Prof. Devesh K Sinha Prof. P. P. Chakraborty
Vice-Chancellor Department of Geology Department of Geology
Jamia Millia Islamia University of Delhi University of Delhi
Delhi Delhi Delhi
Paper Coordinator Content Writer Reviewer
Dr. Atiqur Rahman Dr. Atiqur Rahman
Prof. Naved Ahsan
Department of Geography, Department of Geography,
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Jamia Millia Islamia
Jamia Millia Islamia Jamia Millia Islamia
Delhi
Delhi Delhi

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Table of Content
1. Introduction
2. Components of GIS
2.1 Software
2.2 Hardware
2.3 Data
2.3.1 Spatial data type
2.3.2 Non-spatial or attribute data
3. Functions of GIS
3.1 Input
3.2 Manipulation
3.2.1 Manipulation with Raster data
3.2.2 Manipulation of attribute data value of vector representation
3.3 Management
3.4 Query
3.5 Analysis
3.6 Visualization
4. GIS Database creation
4.1 GIS data source
4.1.1 Primary source
4.1.2 Secondary source
4.2 Method of GIS data creation
4.2.1 Raster data creation
4.2.1.1 Scanning
4.2.1.2 Image processing
4.2.2. Vector data creation
4.2.2.1 Manual Digitizing
4.2.2.2 Head-up digitizing & vectorization
4.2.2.3 Photogrammetry
4.2.2.4 COGO data entry
4.2.2.5 Geocoding
4.2.2.6 Global positioning system (GPS)
4.2.2.7 Automated surveying

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 4.2.3 Raster data creation
4.2.3.1 Raster data creation through Scanning
4.2.3.2 Raster data creation through image Processing
4.2.4 Vector data creation
4.2.4.1 Manual digitization
4.2.4.2 Heads up digitizing
4.2.4.3 Photogrammetry
4.2.4.4 Coordinate Geometry (COGO)
4.2.4.5 Geocoding
4.2.4.6 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
4.2.4.7 Automated surveying
5. Summary

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 1. Introduction

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool which gives the way to gather and
use geographic data to support the planning and development functions. Digital map
is more valuable than the conventional printed map on a paper. Because large amount
of other data can be combined with a digital map, which helps in better analysis of
information and can also represented in the form of graphs and thematic maps. It is
possible to synthesize large amount of different data, and also attached with different
layers of information and utilize and regain the data in more valuable form with the
help of GIS software. It gives a powerful way to the scientist and society for planning
and development and also helps them in answering their questions.

For collecting, storing, analyzing and management of geographically referenced data

and their attribute information, Geographical Information System (GIS) is a vital tool.
This system is competent with storing, editing, integrating, analysing, sharing and
displaying spatial information. In more common terms, GIS is a software package
which facilitate users with interactive solution, analysis of spatial data, manipulation
of data, preparation of maps, and produce the result in the presentable form. It is also
an important means for combination of maps and other information and produce
modal with real world and real time applicability.

2. Components of GIS

GIS provide a platform for input, management, manipulation, analysis and displaying
the spatial and non-spatial data on same platform by the utilization of computer
system. Software, hardware, data, users and methods are the main components of GIS
(Fig. 1) which is essential for various operations in GIS.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Fig. 1
[Source: Theobald, 2007.GIS Concepts and ArcGIS methods, 3rd edition]

2.1 Software
To store, analyze and display geographic information some functions and tools
are needed and GIS software consists these tools. These tools consist software
like a) software needed to input and output GIS data b) a database management
system (DBMS) (c) Query, analysis and visualization tools (d) a graphical user
interface (GUI) for easy access to tools. There are both commercial software
and open source software available in the field of GIA. For instance, Arc/Info,
Intergraph, MapInfo, Gram++ etc. are commercial software and AMS/MARS
etc. is open source software.

2.2 Hardware
GIS works on hardware of the computer, in another word it is the physical part
of the computer on which GIS operates, which is divided into input and output
device. GIS hardware ranges from centralized computer servers to personal
computer, desktop or laptop.

2.3 Data
Data is the most important part of the GIS system. In GIS both tabular and
spatial data can be used which are collected by self or purchased from
commercial data providers. Data such as toposheet, maps, satellite imageries
and aerial photography are type of spatial data. These data are georeferenced
with the help of latitude and longitude value, so that each pixels of maps,

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 photographs etc. have some geographical coordinate which give them spatial
location and values. These spatial data also have attribute data, which are in
tabular form. Like population, agriculture production, number of urban
centres, utilities services etc.

2.3.1 Spatial data type: There are two broad methods or format to store
spatial data in GIS platform. They are:
 Raster data
 Vector data
Raster: Raster data are in pixel form (Fig. 2). Where entire study area
is divided into regular grids of cells in particular format and sequence
i.e. row by row from top left corner. Each cell has certain value. Every
location of the study area corresponds to a cell in the raster format and
layer is formed by set of cells with their associated values.

In raster format, single cell represents a point, Sequence of

neighbouring cell represent a line and collection of contiguous cells
represents polygon. Size of all cells in raster format is same which
determine its resolution. Cartesian matrix is produced as cells in raster
format are arranged in row and column. Where, x-axis of the matrix
parallel to the row of raster data and y-axis parallel to the column and
there is unique row and column address of each cell.

Vector: In vector data model, every feature is represented in the form

of point, line and polygon (Fig. 2). For instance, wells are represented
by point, rivers by line and lake represented by polygon as x and y
locations. There is only one x and y location for a point, line feature is
saved as array of several x and y pairs and polygon is also stored as a
series of x and y location but in case of polygon starting and ending
points are same.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Fig. 2
[Source: Theobald, 2007.GIS Concepts and ArcGIS methods, 3rd edition]

Voxel: Voxel data model is additionally supported in some selected

GIS software. It represents the value on a regular grid in three
dimensional spaces. This is analogous to a pixel, which represents 2D
image data. Voxels can be interpolated from 3D point clouds (3D point
vector data), or merged from 2D raster slices.

2.3.2 Non-spatial or attribute data

Users: Without user’s value of any system is negligible, because users

are the one who manage the system and develop them for their
utilizations. Users of GIS have vast range from a technical specialist
who is responsible for the designing and maintenance of the system to
the users who used it for their personal utilities. Those who used it for
personal services do not care about the method of analysis; they just care
about the result of analysis. GIS software is very user friendly as it
allows the non-technical users to get access to GIS analytical capabilities
without knowing about the detail commands of software. It consists a
graphic window so that users can execute required analysis with just
pressing the keys without learning the specific commands in detail.
Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS
GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Methods: Different methods like models and other tools which are
necessary for different type of analysis which are in-built present in the
GIS software is the key behind the success of any GIS software.

3. Functions of GIS

There are six major tasks carried out in any GIS software. They are data input,
manipulation, management, query analysis and output or visualization (result).

3.1 Input
Two types of data are used in GIS. They are spatial and non-spatial data. The
geographical location of any entity or feature is shown in the form of spatial
data and attribute data are shown in non-spatial form which provide detailed
information about spatial data. Therefore, attribute data should be logically
attached with the concerned features.

In GIS, there are five type of data entry system (figure 3). They are as follows:

 Keyboard entry
 Coordinate geometry
 Manual digitizing
 Scanning
 Input of existing digital files

Fig. 3 [Source: Theobald, 2007.GIS Concepts and ArcGIS methods, 3rd Edn.]
Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS
GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 3.2 Manipulation
Manipulation procedure with data is applied to all components of geographic
information system. These processes are carried out on the spatial data,
attribute data and also on spatial relations among objects or structure elements
of objects representation.

3.2.1 Manipulation with Raster data: In the process of manipulation with

raster attribute data the procedure carried out are:

 Change of map projection

 Transformation of reference system
 Resampling of raster
 Conversion of representation
 Reclassification of raster values
 Assigning new values to raster
 Extraction of values from raster
 Creation and analysis of surfaces
 Mathematical and logical operations with raster

3.2.2 Manipulation of attribute data value of vector representation: In

manipulation of attribute, data of vector following process are adopted.

 Modification of topology
 Spatial splitting of vector representation
 Matching the edges of map sheets
 Change of raster cell size
 Generalization

3.3 Management
There is enough storage space in computer files to store small GIS project data.
However, it is difficult to store and manage large volume of data and large
number of users. So in that case, data base management system is advised to
use which helps in storage, management and organize large amount of data
like tables, index, query and other processes in database. In DBMS, various
types of models are there, but the relational model database management
system is extremely useful in case of GIS use. Data are stored conceptually as

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 a set of tables and every table will have the attribute data, which are related to
a common entity in relational database model. With the help of this model,
common fields of different tables are used to link with each others. Relational
database management system is very flexible in nature because of the simple
architecture, so it is widely used in the GIS environment.

3.4 Query: With the help of Structured Query Language (SQL), the stored
information of both spatial data and associated non-spatial attribute data can
be retrieved. Query by using SQL depends upon the type of user interface.
Besides this menu derived system is also used in retrieval of data. For instance,
following types of question can be queried:

 Select the districts, which have more than 10,000 populations?

3.5 Analysis
Analysis of geographic data is the most important task of GIS. The analysis
process is also called as geographic or spatial analysis or geo-processing.
Where to identify the patterns and trends and the future scenario the
geographic properties of features are analysed. Therefore, there are various
modern GIS tools for these types of analysis.

3.6 Visualization
Both spatial and tabular data can be presented in hard copy map, statistical
summaries, modelling solutions and graphical representation in GIS platform.
The end result in GIS is map and graphs, in which the result can be best
represented. Best storing, communication and representation of geographic
information is possible only through the maps and graphs, and GIS made it
possible and easier. New and more innovative tools are there in GIS, which
increase the art of visualization of the result or output to the users.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 4. GIS Database creation

In GIS getting the spatial data is not an easy and cheap task. Most costlier and time
consuming phase of GIS is data capturing. For instance, spatial data capturing
constitute about 60 to 80 percent of total cost of fully operational GIS based projects,
Bernhardsen (1999).

4.1. GIS data source

Spatial data are collected from mainly following two sources. They are:

i. Primary source
ii. Secondary source

4.1.1. Primary source: In primary data, source spatial data is captured

directly into GIS environment. For instance, capturing of data from
Global positioning system (GPS) or through satellite imagery from
remote sensing satellite. Attribute data is collected through surveying
and also through GPS.

4.1.2. Secondary source: Capturing of data from Secondary source is easier

task and more common in the field of History. In this source hard copy
map is converted into digital form. For conversion of hard copy map
into digital form generally following two techniques are used. First one
is to produce raster format data or digital data, scanning of hard copy
map is carried out. In second process hard copy map is digitised, where
point, line and polygon features are traced. There are also two ways to
doing this. First on is directly tracing of hard copy map into digital
format and second one is digitization of scanned map. Vector data is
produced in these processes. Attribute data are collected by already
published sources like census, district abstracts, research papers,
articles and books etc.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 4.2. Method of GIS data creation

4.2.1. Raster data creation

4.2.1.1. Raster data creation through Scanning: It is a faster method
of raster data creation than other methods. An electronic
detector moved across the whole map or image. Following two
type of scanner are generally used.

a) Flatbed scanner: In this scanning system a flat

scanning stage is used where map placed on this stage
and in both the x and y direction the detectors moved
on the stage like copy machine.

b) Drum scanner: Map is placed on a rotating cylindrical

drum and detector moves horizontally over whole map.
Movement in x direction is provided by sensor motion
and movement in y direction is provided by drum
rotation.

Output of the scanning is in digital form and generally black

and white result comes out after scanning but color output is
also possible by scanning the same document in red, green and
blue filters in three time scanning.

4.2.1.2. Raster data creation through image Processing: Raster data

is also created from digital image processing. Generally
supervised classification is used for this exercise. In this
processes digital number of sampling pixel is selected as
training sight for each type of features like vegetation, built-up,
open land, water bodies etc. In digital image processing
software like ERDAS or ENVI image is classified in given
number of classes based on the sample pixels or tranning sites
using the classification algorithm (Fig. 4). This process
produces raster dataset.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Fig. 4 [Source: www.directionsmag.com]

4.2.2. Vector data creation

4.2.2.1. Manual digitization: To convert paper-based sources of spatial

data in digital form traditionally manual digitization technique
is used. A digitizing table is used where paper map is attached
through tape to a digitizing table (Fig. 5). Known coordinates
usually between 4-6 initial points are logged. These points are
mostly intersections points of graticule lines. Identifiable
locations such as street intersections or landmarks are used as
points in case of absence of an overlying grid system.

Mouse like hand held device called puck is used for tracing to
digitize the feature. Newly acquired data is transformed from
table units (the coordinates of the digitizing table) into real
world units using and algorithm after all the features are traced.
This algorithm uses the table coordinates of the initial points
which are known and made the data equivalent to the real world
and assign the coordinates to those points.
Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS
GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 RMS (root-mean-square) error is produced in this process if
there is adjustment problem in table units to real world
coordinates. The precision of digitized data and range of error
are shown by RMS error. Human error, shrinkage or physical
alteration of the paper and differences in projection are the
factors leads to RMS error.

Fig. 5 [Source: www.directionsmag.com]

4.2.2.2. Heads up digitizing: Head up digitizing is very popular

method for digital conversion of data, because of its cost
effective nature and large format scanner. It involves direct
digitization over ortho-rectified image like satellite image or an
aerial photograph, so it is also called as on screen digitization
(figure 6). The interested features are directly traced from the
image or photograph. In on screen digitization no
transformation is needed to convert the data into needed
projection. So working in this method is easier than the manual
digitization process. Besides this accuracy in this method is
also better as level of accuracy is derived from the initial
accuracy of the digital image. To extract the data from scanned
and referenced maps heads-up digitizing is also utilized.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 Fig. 6 [Source: www.directionsmag.com]

4.2.2.3. Photogrammetry: To acquire accurate measurement data

from aerial photograph photogrammetry is used. Data related
to ground distance and direction, height of features and terrain
elevation are obtained through this technique.
Photogrammetric techniques determine ground distances and
directions, heights of features, and terrain elevations. GIS data
is produced by 3-D stereo digitizing and by producing spatially
rectified aerial photograph in photogrammetry. Generally,
there is 60% overlap along each flight line and about 30%
overlap between flight lines. These overlapped areas are used
for creating 3 D model.

It is compulsory to georeference photograph to obtain true

georeferenced coordinates from a model. Ground survey or
GPS is used to take control points for georeferencing. Stereo
plotter is used to take measurements from overlapping pairs of
photographs.

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 4.2.2.4. Coordinate Geometry (COGO): Coordinate geometry is
keyboard-based technique for data entry in GIS. To store
cadastral or land records this method is most commonly used.
As the actual survey measurements of the property lines
created by the entering method this is highly precise. Original
surveyor plats records are used to enter the distances and
bearing data. Vector file are build by GIS software based on
these values.

4.2.2.5. Geocoding: It is also a keyboard-based technique like COGO.

To creates x,y coordinate locations interpolated from a
decodable spatial database addresses from a flat file are used in
Geocoding (Fig. 7) (such as a .dbf file, MS Access database or
excel spreadsheet).

Fig. 7 [Source: www.wiley.co.uk/gis]

4.2.2.6. Global Positioning Systems (GPS): To collect accurate linear

and point location data GPS is used. At present GPS have 28
satellites that orbit the earth, transmitting navigational signals
(Fig. 8). It was originally developed in the 1970’s by the
Department of Defence and used for military purposes. The

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 GPS can pinpoint the holder’s location through interpolation of
these signals received by a data logger.

Fig. 8
[Source: www.wiley.co.uk/gis]

4.2.2.7. Automated surveying: Electronic data capturing instruments

like theodolites, electronic distance measurement (EDM)
systems, and total stations to capture spatial and attribute data
are used in automated surveying (figure 9). The total station
that combines the theodolite’s angle-measuring capabilities
with the EDM’s distance calculations is the most sophisticated
of these instruments. Distance and direction data from their
instruments are directly downloaded by surveyors into many
vector-based GIS programs. Pre-processing of data is
compulsory before it can be used to make a map.

Fig. 9
[Source: www.wiley.co.uk/gis]
Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS
GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 5. Summary

So at present time Geographical Information System (GIS) is the most powerful,

most applicable and useful system for every type of planning, management,
development and decision making projects. Ground level reality with the help of
spatial data can be obtained from various sources and managed in GIS platform.
Data integration from various sources is possible in GIS. Like integration of remote
sensing data and image and data of land record and agriculture and economic census
data could be carried out with the help of GIS. So at present time it will be more
appropriate to use GIS application in all types of planning and developmental
activities and also in day to day life.

Frequently Asked Questions-

Q1. What is GIS?

Q2. How many components are there in GIS?
Q3. Write about format of GIS data type?
Q4. Write a short note on function of GIS?
Q5. Give a short note on different method of GIS data creation?

Multiple Choice Questions-

1. What is full form of GIS

a) Geographical information system
b) Geographical information science
c) Geographic innovative science
d) Geographical international science
Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS
GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation
 2. Which of the following is not component of GIS
(a) Hardware
(b) Software
(c) User
(d) GPS

3. Conversion of hardcopy map into pixel form image is called as

a) Rasterization
b) Vectorization
c) Image processing
d) Clipping

4. Process of conversion of pixel image into point, line and polygon format is called as
a) Rasterization
b) Vectorization
c) Image processing
d) Clipping

5. What is full form of COGO

a) Coordinate geometry
b) Clipping geometry
c) Coordinate geography
d) Coordinate Georefrencing

Suggested Readings:

1. Maguire, D. J. (1991). An overview and definition of GIS. Geographical

Information Systems: Principles and applications, 1, 9-20.
2. Jackson, M. J., & Woodsford, P. A. (1991). GIS data capture hardware and
software. Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications, 1,
239-249.
3. Lange, A. F., & Gilbert, C. (1999). Using GPS for GIS data capture.
Geographical Information System, PA Longley, MF Goodchild, DJ Maguire,
and DW Rhind (Eds.), 2nd Edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 467-79.
4. David DiBiase, Understanding Geographic Data.
5. www.wiley.com/gis

Paper: Remote Sensing and GIS

GEOLOGY
Module: GIS Database Creation