CE Consumer Electronics Material S
CE Consumer Electronics Material S
Fig: Simplified block diagram of (a) picture transmitter and (b) picture receiver
Fig. 30.5 Linear Scanning (a) Top to bottom scanning path of the beam
(b) Vertical retrace path of the beam
(c) Deflecting field waveforms
a)Horizontal scanning:
The linear rise of current in the horizontal deflection coils
deflects the beam across the screen with a continuous, uniform
motion for the trace from left to right.
At the peak of the rise, the sawtooth wave reverses direction
and decreases rapidly to its initial value. This fast reversal
produces the retrace or flyback..
The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hz in the 625 line
system.
b)Vertical scanning.:
The electron beam is being deflected horizontally, the
sawtooth current provided to the vertical deflection coils
moves the electron beam from top to bottom of the raster.
As a result, when traveling from top to bottom, the beam
creates one below the other.
The vertical scanning beam is deflected to the bottom of the
raster by the trace component of the sawtooth wave, After that,
the beam is quickly vertically retraced back to the top.
The horizontal scanning is ongoing during vertical retrace, and
numerous lines are scanned during this time.
The vertical scanning frequency is 25Hz, that is every second
25 frames are scanned.
FLICKER:
The television picture's scanning rate of 25 frames per second is
insufficient to allow the brightness of one picture or frame to the next.
The screen is blanked in between each frame as a result of this effect is
called flicker .
As the screen alternates between bright and dark, the effect is a distinct
flicker of light.
Interlaced scanning:
In television pictures an effective rate of 50 vertical scans per
second is utilized to reduce flicker. This is accomplished by
increasing the downward rate of travel of the scanning electron
beam, so that every alternate line gets scanned instead of every
successive line.
If during one vertical scanning field alternate scanning (odd)
lines are formed and during the second scanning field the
remaining (even) lines are formed, at the end of the one frame
period all the lines are formed. This process called interlaced
scanning .
In television, the odd-line field and the even-line field make
one frame.
=
(c)
Fig. One complete frame in interlaced scanning
(a) Odd line field in interlaced scanning
(b) Even line field in interlaced scanning
(c) Odd-line field in (a) and even line field in (b) interlaced to form a complete frame
The spot traces all the odd lines of the picture. When the spot
reaches the bottom of the picture, it has traced all the odd lines
i.e. a total of 312.5 lines in the 625 line system. This is called
the odd-line field. Fig. (a).
After the spot has traced all the odd lines, the screen is blanked
and the spot is returned quickly to the top of the screen once
again. The time during which the spot travels back to the top of
the screen is called the vertical retrace period.
The timing of the this period is such that the spot reaches the
top centre of the screen when it again starts tracing lines in the
picture as shown in Fig. (b). On this second tracing, the spot
traces even lines.
When the spot completes the tracing of all even lines i.e. a total
of 312.5 lines in the 625 line system and is at the bottom of the
picture, it has traced the even-line field, depicted on Fig. (c).
The screen is then blanked once again, and the spot is returned
to the top-left-hand corner of the screen, Fig. (d)
Fig. Interlaced scanning; (a) odd line field (b) transition period (c) even line field and (d) transition period
Figure3.4 Horz. line and sync details compared to horizontal deflection saw tooth and
picture space on the raster
Front porch:
This is a period of 1.5 µs inserted between the end of the
picture detail for that line and the leading edge of the line sync
pulse.
This interval allows the receiver video circuit to settle down
from whatever picture voltage level exists at the end of the
picture line to the blanking level before the sync pulse occurs.
Thus sync circuits at the receiver are isolated from the
influence of end of the line picture details.
Line sync:
After the front proch of blanking, horizontal retrace is
produced when the sync pulse starts.
The nominal time duration for the line sync pulses is 4.7 µs.
During this period the beam on the raster almost completes its
back stroke (retrace) and arrives at the extreme left end of the
raster.
Back porch:
This period of 5.8 µs at the blanking level allows plenty of
time for line flyback to be completed.
The relative timings are so set that small black bars are
formed at boththe ends of the raster in the horizontal plane
These blanked bars at the sides have no effect on the picture
details reproduced during the active line period.
Vertical sync details
The basic vertical sync added at the end of both even and odd
fields
Its width has to be kept much larger than the horizontal sync
pulse, in order to derive a suitable field sync pulse at the
receiver to trigger the field sweep oscillator.
The standards specify that the vertical sync period should be
2.5 to 3 times the horizontal line period.
In the 625 line system 2.5 line period (2.5 × 64 = 160 μs) has
been allotted for the vertical sync pulses.
Thus a vertical sync pulse commences at the end of 1st half of
313th line (end of first field) and terminates at the end fo 315th
line.
Similarly after an exact interval of 20 ms (one field period) the
next sync pulse occupies line numbers— 1st, 2nd and 1st half
of third, just after the second field is over.
The beginning of these pulses has been aligned in the figure to
signify that these must occur after the end of vertical stroke of
the beam in each field, i.e., after each 1/50th of a second.
This alignment of vertical sync pulses, one at the end of a half-
line period and the other after a full line period , results in a
relative misalignment of the horizontal sync pulses and they do
not appear one above the other but occur at half-line intervals
with respect to each other.
VSB (Vestigial Sideband Modulation):
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation is a modulation technique which
allows transmission of one sideband , where a part of the signal named
as a vestige.
VSB technique was introduced to overcome the drawbacks of SSB
modulation.
VSB technique is used in TV transmission as television signal are
extremely low-frequency signals.
The generation and transmission of Vestigial sideband signal:
Mixing of Colours :
Mixing of colours can take place in two ways—additive mixing and
subtractive mixing.
Additive mixing:
In additive mixing which forms the basis of colour television,
light from two or more colours obtained either from
independent sources or through filters can create a combined
sensation of a different colour.
Thus different colours are created by mixing pure colours and
not by subtracting parts from white.
The additive mixing of three primary colours—red, green and
blue in adjustable intensities can create most of the colours
encountered in everyday life.
The impression of white light can also be created by choosing
suitable intensities of these colours.
Red, green and blue are called primary colours.
These are used as basic colours in television.
By pairwise additive mixing of the primary colours the
following complementary colours are produced:
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta (purplish red shade)
Blue + Green = Cyan (greenish blue shade)
Subtractive mixing:
In subtractive mixing, reflecting properties of pigments are
used, which absorb all wavelengths but for their characteristic
colour wavelengths.
When pigments of two or more colours are mixed, they reflect
wavelengths which are common to both. Since the pigments
are not quite saturated (pure in colour) they reflect a fairly
wide band of wavelengths.
This type of mixing takes place in painting and colour printing.
Note that as additive mixing of the three primary colours produces
white, their subtractive mixing results in black.
Color triangle :
The first chromaticity diagram was a circle devised by Newton.
Later, Maxwell used an equilateral triangle .
In his trichromatic theory, each of the three primary colors—
red, green, and blue—is located at a corner of the triangle.
The white color is in the middle.
Other colors are formed by a combination of the r, g, b
components depending on the distances from each of the three
sides of the triangle.
An additive color space defined by three primaries has a gamut
that is the color triangle if the amount of primaries is non-
negatively bounded.
We can now plot the fraction of red on the horizontal axis and
the fraction of green on the vertical axis of a diagram. This is
the chromaticity diagram or color triangle
When mixing two colors, we must first identify them on the
color triangle, then draw a line between them and, if they were
mixed in equal amounts, find the resulting color in the mid-
point between the two original colors.
The coordinates of any mixed color on the color triangle. The
color triangle rule is: mixing two colors, the resulting color is
always on the line joining the two colors.
C is in the middle point between B and G, M between B and R,
and Y between R and G. The color triangle provides a simple
way of mixing additive primary colors to obtain the desired
color
Pure colors are at the edges of the triangle, while low purity
ones at the center.
The horse-shoe shape in the figure above, describes the area of
human color vision. This area is delimited by the curved line
along which all spectral colors lie (see corresponding
wavelengths in the diagram), and the line between spectral
violet and red.
The color triangle includes only the colors that can be obtained
mixing RGB, but the eye can see more colors, including
spectral colors and purples.
Most of the spectral colors lie outside the color triangle.
Spectral red, green and blue are at the edges of the triangle,
while yellow, cyan and violet are outside. So are the purples.
As well as all the magenta-purple hues are non-spectral colors.
There is no single (dominant) wavelength associated with
them. They are exclusively mixed colors. Magenta is the
mixture of spectral red (700 nm) and spectral blue (440 nm),
while purple is the mixture of spectral red (700 nm) with
spectral violet (400 nm). The mixture of R+B in different
proportions generates all the magentas, the reddishmagentas
and the bluish-magentas. These hues can be obtained mixing
RGB primaries (R+B), therefore you can see them on TV or on
the computer monitor. The purple hue cannot be mixed with
RGB primaries
TV camera tube:
A TV camera tube may be called the eye of a TV system.
Some of the more important functions must be,
Sensitivity to visible light,
Wide dynamic range with respect to light intensity, and
ability to resolve details while viewing a multi-element scene.
Most types developed have suffered to a greater or lesser
extent from
Poor sensitivity,
Poor resolution,
High noise level,
Undesirable spectral response,
Instability,
Poor contrast range and
Difficulties of processing.
Operating Principle of TV Camera Tube:
The main aim of a camera tube is to detect each element
independently and produce an electrical signal according to the
brightness of each element.
light from the scene is focused on a photosensitive surface
known as the image plate, and the optical image thus formed
with a lens system represents light intensity variations of the
scene.
The photoelectric properties of the image plate then convert
different light intensities into corresponding electrical
variations.
The electron beam moves across the image plate line by line,
and field by field to provide signal variations in a successive
order. This scanning process divides the image into its basic
picture elements.
WORKING:
The two photoelectric effects used for converting variations of
light intensity into electrical variations are
Photoemission and
Photoconductivity.
Photoemission :Certain metals emit electrons when light falls
on their surface.
These emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the
emitting surface a photocathode. Light consists of small
bundles of energy called photons.
When light is made incident on a photocathode, the photons
give away their energy to the outer valence electrons to allow
them to overcome the potential-energy barrier at the surface.
The number of electrons which can overcome the potential
barrier and get emitted, depends on the light intensity.
Cesium-silver or bismuth-silver-cesium oxides are preferred as
photo emissive surfaces .
Photoemissive Camera tubes operate on the principle
of photoemission. Image orthicon is the photoemissive type of
camera tube
Photoconductivity :
The method of producing an electrical image is by
photoconduction, where the conductivity or resistivity of the
photosensitive surface varies in proportion to the intensity of
light focused on it.
In general the semiconductor metals including selenium,
tellurium and lead with their oxides have this property known
as photoconductivity.
Photoconductive Camera tubes operate on the principle
of photoconduction, Vidicon and Plumbicon are the two major types of
photoconductive camera tubes.
NTSC only uses 525 with only 486 of them visible. The rest are used as
control mechanisms for synchronization and vertical retrace.
PAL and SECAM both have a higher resolution by using 100 more lines
per frame. Out of the 625 lines of PAL and SECAM, 576 are visible and
the rest are used for control as well.
The biggest drawback of NTSC is its inability to correct the colors on-
screen automatically. Thus, it needs a tint control that a user needs to
adjust manually.
The makers of PAL and SECAM used phase reversal in order to
automatically correct the color and eliminate the need for a tint control.
NTSC uses a refresh rate of 60Hz while PAL and SECAM use 50Hz
NTSC and PAL use QAM while SECAM uses FM
NTSC and PAL sends the red and blue colors together while SECAM
sends them alternately