Diploma Engineering

Laboratory Manual
(Electrical Power Generation & Transmission)
(4330903)

[Electrical Engineering : Semester 3]

Enrolment No
Name
Branch
Academic Term
Institute

Directorate of Technical Education

Gandhinagar - Gujarat
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Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms ………………………………………………………………….

Enrolment No. ………….………………………………of III Semester of Diploma in Electrical
Engineering of Government Polytechnic, Halol(GTU Code) has satisfactorily completed the
term work in course
………………………………………………………………………………for the academic
year:2024 Term: 241(Odd) prescribed in the GTU curriculum.

Place: Halol

Date: …………………..

Signature of Course Faculty Head of the Department

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Continuous Assessment Sheet

Enrolment No: Name of Course:
Name: Term:

Marks
Page Date Sign
Sr no Practical Outcome/Title of experiment (25)

1 Sketch and interpret the schematic diagram of thermal

power station (T.P.S.) and its main cycles.
2 Prepare technical report of visit to a nearby Thermal
Power Station/Hydro Power Station /Nuclear Power
Station / or by collecting data from Internet.
Sketch and interpret the various schemes of
3 hydro power plant.

4 Sketch and interpret the schematic diagram of

nuclear power station(N.P.S.).
5 Prepare and Interpret load curve for given data/data
collected from nearby power station.

6
Demonstrate various types of conductors used in
overhead transmission lines.
7 Demonstrate different types of line supports employed
in transmission system and distribution system.
8 Demonstrate different types of line insulators used in
Over head transmission and distribution system.

9
Calculate sag in overhead transmission line for given
data.

10 Prepare technical report on Load Dispatch Centre.

11 Determine voltage regulation and transmission

efficiency of medium transmission line.

12 Prepare report on HVDC transmission systems.

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Date: ……………
Practical No.1:
Sketch and interpret the schematic diagram of thermal power station and its main
cycles.
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment, student will be able to:
1. Sketch schematic diagram of thermal power station.
2. Sketch main cycles of thermal power station.
3. Describe operation of thermal power station using line diagram.
4. Describe the function of the major equipment and auxiliaries of a TPS.

B. Prerequisite Theory:

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy
is known as a thermal power station.
The thermal power station basically works on the Rankine cycle. Steam is produced by the
boiler by utilizing the heat of coal combustion. The steam is then expanded in the steam turbine
and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into the boiler again. The steam turbines drive the
alternator which converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are available in abundance and a large
amount of electric power is to be generated.

Energy Conversion Process in Thermal Power Station:

The chemical energy of the coal is converted into the heat energy in the boiler. The steam turbine
converts the heat energy into mechanical energy and finally the alternator converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

Figure: 1. Energy Conversion process in Thermal Power Station

C. Theory:

Schematic Arrangement of Thermal Power Station:

Although thermal power station involves the conversion of heat of coal combustion into electrical
energy, yet it embraces many arrangements for proper working and efficiency. The schematic
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arrangement of a modern thermal power station is shown in figure 2. This whole arrangement can
be divided into the following stages for the sake of simplicity:

(1) Coal and ash handling arrangement

(2) Steam generating plant
(3) Steam turbine
(4) Alternator
(5) Feed water
(6) Cooling arrangement

(1) Coal and Ash Handling Plant:

The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is stored in the coal storage.
Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against coal strikes, failure of transportation and
general coal shortages. From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal handling plant
where it is pulverised (i.e. crushed into small pieces) in order to increase its surface exposure, thus
promoting rapid combustion without using large quantity of excess air. The pulverised coal is fed
to the boiler by belt conveyors. The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the
complete combustion of coal is removed to ash handling plant and then delivered to ash storage
plant for disposal. The removal of ash the boiler furnace is necessary for proper burning of coal.

(2) Steam Generating Plant:

The steam generating plant consists of a boiler for the production of steam and other auxiliary
equipments for the utilization of gases.

(a) Boiler:
The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised to convert water into steam at high
temperature and pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through super- heater,
economizer, air pre-heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through chimney.

(b) Superheater:
The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater where it is dried and
superheated (i.e. steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of water) by the flue
gases on their way to chimney. Superheating provides two principal advantages. Firstly, the
overall efficiency is increased. Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of turbine
(which would cause blade corrosion) is avoided. The superheated steam from the superheater is
fed to steam turbine through the main valve.
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(c) Economiser:
An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and drives heat from the flue gases for this
purpose. The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to the boiler. The economiser
extracts a part of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water temperature.

(d) Air Preheater:

An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied from coal burning by deriving heat
from flue gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is passed through
air preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace. The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases
and increase the temperature of air used for coal combustion. The principal benefits of preheating
air are: increased thermal efficiency and increased steam generating capacity per square metre of
boiler surface.

(3) Steam Turbine:

The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to the steam turbine through main
valve. The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is converted into
mechanical energy. After giving heat energy to turbine, steam is exhausted to the condenser which
condenses the exhausted steam by mean of cold water circulation.

(4) Alternator:
The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. The alternator converts mechanical energy of
turbine into electrical energy. The electrical output from alternator is delivered to the bus bars
through transformer, circuit breaker and isolators.

(5) Feed Water:

The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to the boiler. Some water may be lost in
the cycle which is suitably made up from external source. The feed water on its way to the boiler
is heated by water heaters and economiser. This helps in raising the overall efficiency of the plant.

(6) Cooling Arrangement:

In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam exhausted from the turbine is condensed
by means of a condenser. Water is drawn from a natural source of supply such as a river, canal or
lake and is circulated through the condenser. The circulating water takes up the heat of the
exhausted steam and itself becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the condenser is
discharged at a suitable location down the river. In case the availability of water from the source
of supply is not assured throughout the year, cooling towers are used. During the scarcity of water
in the river, hot water from the condenser is passed on to the cooling towers where it is cooled.
The cold water from cooling tower is reused in the condenser.
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Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of Thermal Power Station

Main cycles/circuits used in thermal power station.

1. Fuel and Ash cycle
2. Air and flue gas cycle
3. Feed water and steam cycle
4. Cooling water cycle
5. Electrical circuit

1. Fuel and Ash cycle:

Figure: 3 Fuel and Ash cycle

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Fuel and ash cycle of the power station where coal is used is as shown in fig. 2. When the
coal is brought by railway route, the wagon is weighed and emptied in receiving hopper by wagon
tippler. From there it is stored in the coal storage. There are bolts, pieces of iron etc. with the coal.
These are removed in the power station by magnetic separator. Now coal is taken to crusher
house. Coal is crushed into small pieces. These are transferred to hopper using belt conveyers.
Coal from hopper is taken to the ball mill. Ball mill converts coal into powder form. This
pulverized coal is mixed with hot air and the mixture is taken to furnace. Ash coming out of the
furnace is collected in the ash pit. It is cooled with the help of water. Ash is taken by scrap
conveyers and dumped into open area and disposed off afterwards.
2. Air and flue gas cycle:
Sufficient quantity of oxygen is necessary for proper combustion of coal in boiler furnace.
Flue gases are produced due to combustion of coal. Air and flue gas cycle is shown in fig 4.
Moisture content is present in steam generated by boiler, so this wet steam is taken to
superheater. It converts wet steam into dry steam using heat from flue gases. Economiser heats
feed water using heat from flue gases to increase efficiency of boiler. The forced draught fan
forces the air to air preheater. Here the incoming air get heated using heat of flue gases then the
hot air is supplied to boiler. There are ash particles in flue gases. If they are allowed to enter the
atmosphere, the air pollution increases. These ash particles are collected from flue gases with
help of electrostatic precipitator.
Sufficient draught of air is necessary for proper combustion of coal. This draught is produced by
the induced draught fan. It is kept at base of chimney.

Figure 4: Air and flue gas cycle

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3. Feed water and steam cycle:

Feed water taken into boiler is converted into steam. This steam contains moisture content.
This wet steam is made dry in super heater using heat from flue gases. Steam turbine is driven
with this dry steam. Steam coming out of the turbine is not exhausted into the atmosphere but it
is discharged into condenser at low pressure. There are tubes made of brass through which the
circulating water passes. The steam is around these tubes. So the steam is condensed and is
converted into water. This water is taken out by the condensate extraction pump. This water is
given to the boiler feed pump. In addition to the water coming out of the condenser, the make-up
water necessary to produce steam is taken from the river or well.

The impurities in the water are removed by the water softening plant. If these impurities are not
removed, the calcium in the water is deposited in the boiler tubes. This causes unequal expansion
of the boiler tubes and may result in explosion of the tubes.

Make up water and condensate are taken to the LP heater by the boiler feed pump. Feed water is
heated by the heat of the steam extracted from the low pressure stage of the turbine. This process
is known as ‘bleeding of the turbine’. Feed water is then passed through de aerating heater where
the dissolved oxygen is removed from the feed water.

Then the feed water is taken to the HP heater where it is heated with the heat of the steam
extracted from the high pressure stage of the turbine. From here the feed water is taken to the
economizer where the temperature of the feed water is raised using heat of flue gases.
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5: Feed water & Steam cycle

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4. Cooling water cycle:

The cooling system employed when there is sufficient water in the river throughout the
year is shown in fig 6.
Steam coming out of the turbine is taken into the condenser. The circulating water is taken
by pump from up stream side of river. This water comes in indirect contact with exhaust steam.
So the steam condenses and the cooling water becomes hot. Hot water coming out of the
condenser is not discharged into the river directly but it is taken to the pond where it is cooled
naturally and then it is discharged into the down stream side of river.
Cooling towers are used when there is insufficient water throughout the year in river. The
system is shown in fig 7. in this same quantity of water is circulated through the condenser. Make
up water is taken from the river or well to compensate loss of water due to evaporation. This
water and the water cooled in cooling tower is circulated through the tubes of the condenser. This
water absorbs heat from steam and steam condenses. Hot water coming out of the condenser is
allowed to fall from the height in the cooling tower. Cold air flows into cooling tower and goes
upwards. Thus hot water becomes cold.

Figure :6

Figure:7
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5. Electrical circuit/cycle:
Line diagram of electrical ckt is shown in fig. three phase alternator is coupled to steam
turbine. Three phase a.c. voltage is generated by this alternator. Exciter is coupled to the
alternator. This is a small d.c. generator which generates d.c. necessary for field winding of
alternator. A small d.c. generator with permanent magnet type poles is coupled to the main
exciter. It is called the pilot exciter.
Voltage of generation is around 11 KV to 25 KV. This voltage is stepped up to the
required value such as 132 KV, 220 KV or 400 KV by the step up transformer. Power is taken to
the bus bars through the isolators and the circuit breaker. From the busbars the power is
transmitted with the help of transmission lines.

Figure 8: Electrical Circuit

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I. Conclusion

J. Practical related questions:

1. Collect data of thermal power stations in Gujarat (Name, capacity, turbines used, location etc)
2. State the function of Economiser.
3. State the auxiliaries used in TPS.
4.State the safety rules to be followed to prevent electrical accidents.

Faculty Sign with date:

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Date: ……………
Practical No.2:
Prepare technical report of visit to a nearby Thermal Power Station/Hydro Power
Station /Nuclear Power Station / or by collecting data from Internet.

A. Objective:
After visiting a power station students will
 Learn functioning of the power station practically.
 Understand better the concept of Power Station Practices.
 Get opportunity to interact with power plant experts.
 Get awareness about new technologies.

B. Technical Report on Power Plant:

 Name of Power Plant:

 Place:

 Date:

 Name of Contact Person:

 Faculty Coordinator:

 Type of Power Plant:

 Capacity:
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Details of Power Plant:

Sr No Name of Equipment Rating Function

8
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Draw Block Diagram/Schematic Diagram of any Power Station observed during visit:
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C. Conclusion:

D. Industry related Quiz.

1. State the energy conversion process observed during Power Station visit.
2. List out the safety measures to be followed during Power Station visit
3. List the name of power plants in Gujarat.
4. List the name of equipments observed during Power Station visit.

Faculty Sign with date:

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Date: ……………
Practical No.: 3
Sketch and interpret various schemes of hydro power station.
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment, student will be able to:
 Sketch schematic diagram of hydro power station.
 Sketch various schemes of hydro power station.
 Describe operation of hydro power station using line diagram.
 Describe function of the major equipment and auxiliaries of HPS.
 Differentiates various types of water turbines.
 Differentiates various schemes of HPS.
B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction:

A generating station which utilises the potential energy of water at a high level for the
generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro power station.

Energy Conversion Process in Hydro Power Station:

In hydro power station, water head is created by constructing a dam across a river or lake. From the
dam, water is led to a water turbine. The water turbine captures the energy in the falling water and
changes the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. The turbines drives
alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Figure 1 shows the energy
conversion in hydro power station.

Figure: 1. Energy Conversion process in Hydro Power Station

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C. Theory:

Schematic Arrangement of Hydro Power Station:

The dam is constructed across a river or lake and water from the catchment area collects at
the back of the dam to form a reservoir. A pressure tunnel is taken off from the reservoir and
water is brought to the valve house at the start of the penstock. The valve house contains main
sluice valves and automatic isolating valves. The former controls the water flow to the power
house and latter cuts off supply of water when penstock bursts.

From the valve house, water is taken to turbine through a huge pipe known as penstock.
The turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The turbine drives the alternator
which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

A surge tank is built just before the valve house and protects the penstock from bursting in
case the turbine gates suddenly close due to electrical load being thrown off. When the gates
close, there is a sudden stopping of water at the lower end of the penstock and consequently the
penstock can burst likes a paper log. The surge tank absorbs this pressure swing by increase in its
level of water.

Figure 2: Schematic arrangement of Hydro Power Station

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Constituents of Hydro Power Station:

The constituents of a hydro power station are: (1) hydraulic structures (2) water turbines and (3)
electrical equipments.

1. Hydraulics Structures:
It includes dam, spillways, head-works, surge tank, penstock and accessory work.

(a) Dam: A dam is barrier which stores water and creates water head. Dams are built of concrete
or stone masonary, earth or rock fill. The type and arrangement depends upon the topography of
site. A masonary dam may be built in a narrow canyon. An earth dam may be best suited for a
wide valley.

(b) Spillways: In order to discharge the surplus water from storage reservoir into the river on the
down-stream side of the dam, spillways are used. Spillways are constructed of concrete piers on
the tops of the dam. Gates are provided between these piers and surplus water is discharged over
the crest of the dam by opening these gates.

(c) Head-works: The head-works consist of the diversion structures at head of an intake. They
generally include booms and racks for diverting floating debris, sluices for by passing debris and
sediments and valves for controlling the flow of water into the turbine.

(d) Surge Tank: Open conduits leading water to the turbine requires no protection. However,
when closed conduits are used, protection becomes necessary to limits the abnormal pressure in
the conduit. For this reason, closed conduits are always provided with a surge tank. A surge tank
is a small reservoir or tank (open at top) in which water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure
swings to the conduits.

(e) Penstock: Penstocks are open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines. They are
generally made of reinforced concrete or steel. Concrete penstocks are suitable for low heads (<30
𝑚> as greater pressure causes rapid deterioration of concrete. The steel penstocks can be designed
for any head; the thickness of the penstock increases with the head or working pressure.

2. Water Turbines:

In hydro power station, the turbines are used depending upon the head of water. The following
types of turbines are used for different head.
1. High head plant: Impulse Turbines –Pelton wheel
2. Medium head plant: Reaction turbine-Francis turbine
3. Low Head plant: Propeller turbine-Kaplan turbine

(a) Impulse Turbine:

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It is horizontal shaft turbine. It is used in the high head plant where velocity of water is high. In
this, buckets are mounted on wheel. Water comes from the penstock through the valve to nozzle.
Jet of water comes out of nozzles.
This jet is directed towards the buckets. Due to the impact of the jet, water changes the direction
of the bucket. So the wheel rotates both due to impulse effect and the reaction effect. Figure 3
shows Impulse turbine-Pelton wheel.
Speed is controlled with help of needle valve in the nozzle. When the speed of the turbine
increases due to the reduction of load on the alternator; the needle valve is pushed sothe quantity
of water is reduced so the speed decreases. This is achieved automatically with the help of
governor.

Figure 3: Impulse Turbine

(b) Reaction Turbine:

This type of turbine is used for medium head. In such type of turbine, the available head is
partly converted into pressure energy and partly converted into kinetic energy. Reaction turbine
may be of horizontal or vertical shaft type. However, turbines with higher ratings are of vertical
shaft type. Particular type of reaction turbine is the Francis turbine.

There is one outer ring in which there are guide blades. In the inside of it, there is inner
ring on which the moving blades are mounted. As shown figure 4, water flows radially in side
through the outer ring, flows through the runner blades and comes out axially. When water comes
out, its pressure is less than that of the atmosphere. So, the water is discharged through the draft
tube. Larger end of the draft tube is kept submerged in water in the tail race so that air cannot go
in-side.
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Figure 4: Reaction Turbine

(c) Propeller Turbine:

This type of turbine is always of vertical shaft type. Simple sketch of this type of turbine is shown
in figure 5. Particular form of this turbine is the Kaplan turbine.

This type of turbine is used for low head. In Kaplan turbine the angle of the runner blades can be
adjusted. Therefore this type of can be used at different heads. The efficiency of Kaplan turbine is
more than other reaction turbines as the angle of the blades can be adjusted depending upon the
head.

Figure 5: Kaplan Turbine

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3. Electrical Equipment:

The electrical equipment of a hydro power station includes alternators, transformers, circuit
breaker and other switching and proactive devices.

Schemes of Hydro Power Station:

According to the available head of water, various scheme of hydro power station are as under:

(a) High Head Scheme:

The plant in which the head of water is above 300 m is called the high head plant. Such schemes
are arranged in the hilly regions. Dam is constructed across the river so large reservoir is formed
on the upstream side of river. Water is allowed to flow through the penstock. Water comes down
and passes through the turbine. From the turbine the water is discharged into the tail race. The
high head scheme is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: High head scheme

(b) Medium Head Scheme:

The plant in which the head of water is between 60 m to 300 m is called the medium head plant.
In this scheme as shown in figure 7. The reservoir is away from the penstock so thefore bay is
used. Also as the hill comes in between, the tunnel is used to bring water from the reservoir to the
fore bay.
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Figure 7: Medium head scheme

(c ) Low Head Scheme:

The plant in which the head of water is below 60 m is called the high head plant. Normally
in such scheme, there is no hilly region. Reservoir is formed by constructing the dam across the
river.
Many times, low head scheme is arranged as a part of the high head or medium head scheme. In
the scheme shown in figure 8, the turbines are in the river bed in the downstream side of the river
while in figure 9 the turbines are placed on the bank of the river.

Figure 8 Figure 9
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D. Conclusion

E. Practical related questions:

1. Collect data of hydro power stations in Gujarat (Name, capacity, turbines used, location etc)
2. Classify hydro power station on the basis of head of water.
3. Write function of Surge tower in hydro power station.
4. Give function of following elements of hydro power station.
Penstock and Draft tube.

Faculty Sign with date:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.4:
Sketch and interpret the schematic diagram of nuclear power station.(N.P.S.)

A. Objective:
After completing this experiment, student will be able to:

 Draw schematic diagram of nuclear power station.

 Describes operation of nuclear power station using line diagram.
 Describe the function of the major elements of nuclear reactor.

B. Prerequisite Theory:

Introduction:

A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known
as a nuclear power station.
The most important features of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of electrical
energy can be produced from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other
conventional types of power stations. It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium
(U235) can produce as much energy as can by the burning of 4,500 tons of high grade coal.
Although the recovery of principal nuclear fuels (i.e. Uranium and Thorium) is difficult
and expensive, yet the total energy content of the estimated world reserves of these fuels are
considerably higher than those of conventional fuels, viz., coal, oil and gas. At present, energy
crisis is gripping us and therefore, nuclear energy can be successfully employed for producing low
cost electrical energy on a large scale to meet the growing commercial and industrial demands.

Energy Conversion Process in Nuclear Power Station:

Figure 1: Energy conversion process in Nuclear Power Station

The nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission in a special apparatus known as a reactor.
So the chemical energy of the nuclear fuel is converted into the heat energy. With help of this
heat, water is converted into steam in the heat exchanger. This means that the heat energy is
converted into heat energy itself. Heat energy is converted into mechanical energy by steam
turbine. Alternator coupled to the turbine converts the mechanical energy into the electrical
energy.
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C. Theory:
Schematic Arrangement of Nuclear Power Station:
The heat produced in the nuclear reactor is absorbed by the coolant and this hot coolant is
passed through the heat exchanger. The coolant gives up heat to the heat exchanger, which is
utilized to converts water into steam.
The steam produced by heat exchanger is passed through the steam turbine which converts
heat energy into the mechanical energy.
The steam coming out from the turbine is given to the surface condenser. The cooling
water is passed through the tubes of condenser, which condensate the steam coming out from
turbine. This condensate stream is taken out by the condensate extraction pump and fed to the
feed pump. Make up water is taken out from river and after making it clean by water treatment
plant, it is sent to the heat exchanger by the feed pump.
When sufficient amount of water is available in the river throughout the year, river water
is used for cooling purpose. The cooling water is passed though the tubes of the condenser by the
pump. Hot water coming out from condenser is discharged in the downstream side of river. If
there is no sufficient water in river, the cooling towers are used. Hot water coming out from
condenser is condenser is cooled in the cooling tower and circulated by the pump.
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Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Nuclear Power Plant

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Main Elements of Nuclear Reactor:

The main elements of nuclear reactor are as under:

(1) Core: Core is made up of nuclear fuel. Cladding of aluminum is made over the block of
natural of enriched uranium.

(2) Moderator: Moderator is used to make the fast neutrons slow, which are produced due to the
nuclear reaction. Graphite or heavy water (D2O) used as moderator.

(3) Control Rod: Control rods are used to control the chain reaction. Boron or cadmium is used
for this purpose. These have property of absorbing the neutrons. These rods are inserted into the
core. Mechanical arrangement is done so that the rods can be moved in or out of the core. When
the rods are fully inserted into the core, all the neutrons are absorbed and the chain reaction stops.
When the rods are taken out from the core, the reaction become fast. By inserting rods more or
less in the core, the reaction can be controlled. This is done automatically.
(4) Reflector: Neutrons produced due to nuclear reaction can be go out of reactor. Covering of
iron is used to reflect back the neutrons which try to go out.

(5) Biological Shield: It is provided to absorb the alpha, beta and gamma radiation produced due
to nuclear reaction. This is essential as the radiation is dangerous for the living being. For this, a
thick wall made of concrete is constructed around the reactor. Boron is added to this, which
absorbs the radiation.

(6) Coolant: Coolant is used to absorb the heat produced due to the nuclear reaction. Coolant
enters the reactor at low temperature and comes out with high temperature by absorbing the heat
from the reactor. Carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen, helium, heavy water, liquid sodium, liquid
potassium etc are used as coolant.
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Figure 3: Nuclear Reactor

I. Conclusion

J. Practical related questions:

1. Collect data of Nuclear power stations in India (Name, capacity, turbines used, location etc)
2. State the fuels used in Nuclear reactor.
3. Define Nuclear fission process.
4. State the main elements of Nuclear reactor?

Faculty Sign with date:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.5:
Prepare and interpret load curve for given data/data collected from nearby
power station.

A. Objective:
After completing this experiment, student will be able to:

 Understand importance of load curve in the electrical power system

 Draw load curve for given data of load on power station.
 Calculate maximum demand, no of unit generated, average load and load factor form load
curve

B. Prerequisite Theory:

Introduction:

The loads on power station are of different type and their characteristics are also different.
These loads are switched on and off as per the requirement. Hence the load on power station never
remains constant, but it varies from time to time.
The curve that shows the variation of load on power station with respect to chronological time is
known as load curve.

Figure 1: Daily load curve

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C. Theory:
Types of load curve:

Daily load curve:

The variation of load on power station during the whole day are recorded half-hourly or hourly
and are plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve.

Monthly load curve

The monthly load curve can be obtained from daily load curve of that month. For this purpose,
average of values of power over month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted
on the graph. The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy.

Yearly load curve:

The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load curve of that particular year.
The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual load curve.

Importance of load curve:

The daily load curves have a great importance in the generation of electrical energy as they
provide the following information:

(1) The daily load curve shows the load on station at particular time of day.

(2) The height point on daily load curve represents the maximum load on the station at that day.
(3) The area under daily load curve gives the number of units generated on that day. 𝑖.𝑒.
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑦=𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒.

(4) The area under daily curve load divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on
the station in the day. 𝑖.𝑒. 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑=𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑊ℎ) u𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 24−ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

(5) The ratio of the area under the load curve to total area of rectangle in which it is contained
gives the load curve. 𝑖.𝑒𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟=𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑×24𝑀𝑎𝑥.
𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×24 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑊ℎ) u𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑.

(6) The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units

(7) The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
 Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

D. Conclusion

E. Practical related questions:

1. Draw the load curve from the following data and calculate: (i) Maximum demand (ii) No. of
units generated during day (iii) Average demand, and (iv) Daily load factor.

Time 12 MN 4 AM 8 AM 12 2 PM TO 6 PM 10 PM
(Hrs) TO TO TO NOON 6 PM TO TO
4 AM 8 AM 12 TO 10 PM 12 MN
NOON 2 PM
Load 50 60 100 40 80 120 60
(MW)

2. Draw the load curve from the following data and calculate: (i) Maximum demand (ii) No. of
units generated during day (iii) Average demand, and (iv) Daily load factor.
Time 12 4 6 8 12 1 PM 5 PM 6 8 10 11
(Hrs) MN AM AM AM NOO TO 5 TO 6 PM PM PM PM
TO TO TO TO N TO PM PM TO TO TO TO
4 6 8 12 1 8 10 11 12
AM AM AM NOO PM PM PM PM MN
N
Load 10 20 30 60 40 50 40 85 70 50 30
(MW)

3. Define Load factor.

4. Define Load Duration Curve.

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Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………

Practical No.6:
Demonstrate various types of conductors used in overhead transmission
lines.
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
• Understand properties required for conductors of over head line.
• Sketch cross-sectional view of various types of conductors.
• Compare line conductors with regard to electrical and mechanical properties
required for it.
• Select line conductor for transmission and distribution lines

B. Prerequisite Theory: Introduction.

The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is invested
for it. Therefore, proper choice of material, type and size of the conductor is of
considerable importance.

The line conductor material should have following properties:

(1) high electrical conductivity
(2) high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stress.
(3) low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
(4) low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small

All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while
selecting a conductor material for a particular case, a compromise is made between
the cost, the required electrical and mechanical properties and the local condition
Commonly used Conductor Material:
(1) Copper:
• Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength.
• Copper has high current density. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, smaller X-
sectional area of conductor is required and secondly the area offered by the
conductor to wind loads is reduced.
• However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, it is rarely used for these
purposes.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 1. Copper Conductor

(2) Aluminium:
• Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller
conductivity and tensile strength. The conductivity of aluminium is 60% that of
copper.
• The specific gravity of aluminium (2.71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8.9
gm/cc). Aluminium conductor being light in weight. Therefore it is liable to
greater swings and large cross-arms are required.
• Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of
aluminium, the sag is greater in aluminium conductors.
• Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength,
weight etc aluminium has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used
as a conductor material.
• It is particularly profitable to use aluminium for heavy current transmission
where the conductor size is large and its cost forms a major proportion of the
total cost of complete installation

Figure: 2. Aluminium Conductor

(3)ACSR:

• Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. In order
to increase the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core
of galvanized steel wires. The composite conductor thus obtained is known as
steel- cored aluminium and is abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (aluminium conductor
steel reinforced).
• Steel–cored aluminium conductor consists of central core of galvanized steel
wires surrounded by a number of aluminium strands. The usually, diameter of
both steel and aluminium wires is same. The X-section of the two metals are
generally in the ratio of 1 : 6 but can be modified to 1 : 4 in order to get more
tensile strength for conductor. The result of this composite conductor is that steel
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

core takes greater percentage of mechanical strength while aluminium strands

carry the bulk of current.
• Due to smaller sag with steel- cored aluminium conductors, tower of smaller
heights can be used

Figure: 3. ACSR

Various Conductor configurations:

(1) Solid Conductor:

• When low cross sectional area is required solid conductor is used.
• The following difficulties are experienced when cross sectional area of
conductor increases:
(i) Flexibility of conductor is reduced so the handling becomes difficult.
(ii)The conductor swings due to the wind pressure. So there is possibility of
breaking.

(2) Stranded Conductor:

• Flexibility of conductor decreases when its X-sectional area increases. This
makes handling of conductor difficult. In such case the stranded conductor are
employed. In stranded conductor, one central conductor is taken and layers of
conductor having 6, 12, 18, 24 or more conductors are provided over it.

Total numbers of conductor in a stranded conductor

𝑁 = 3 𝑛 (𝑛+1)+ 1 :Where, n = Number of layers

• If d be the diameter of each conductor, the overall diameter D of the stranded

conductor is given by
𝐷=(2𝑛+1)𝑑 :Where, n = Number of layers

(3) Hollow Conductor :

• To prevent the corona effect, the diameter of the conductor can be increased.To
increase the diameter without increasing the conductor material, hollow
conductors are used. In this layer of stranded conductor wire is provided over
the core of hemp.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

(4) Bundle Conductor:

Figure: 4. Bundle Conductor

Figure: 5. Bundle Conductor

• The bundle conductor is also used in some high voltage transmission line to
prevent corona. When two or more stranded conductors per phase are bound
together then a bundle conductor is formed.
• The spacing between the conductors is kept from 200 mm to 600 mm. Spacers
are provided at some intervals to keep the uniform distance between
conductors. Conductors of each phase are connected in parallel.

C. Resources/Equipment Required
S Instrument/Equipment
Specification Quantity
r
/Components/Trainer kit
.
N
o
1 Piece of ACSR conductor Any specification available 1

2 Piece of all Alluminium Any specification available 1

conductor

3 Bundle conductor piece Any specification available 1

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

D. Observations and Calculations

Sr No of TotalNoof Overall-
No layers(n) Conductor Diameter(D)
s 𝐷=(2𝑛+1)𝑑
𝑁=3 𝑛 (𝑛+1)+ 1

Calculations:
(1)

(2)

(3)
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

E. Conclusion:

F. Questions.
(1) Write properties of good conducting material.
(2) Give name of materials used as conductor.
(3) Draw bundle conductor arrangements for 3 & 4 conductors per phase.
(4) State the advantages of ACSR conductor.

Faculty Sign with date:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.7:

Demonstrate different types of line supports employed in transmission

system and distribution system.
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
• Understand desirable properties of line supports for over head line.
• Compare line supports with regards to material used, cost, life, voltage level etc
• Select appropriate type of line support for specific voltage level

B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction.
Line support plays a major role in power transmission. It kept the proper spacing
between the conductors and maintain the conductor at the prescribed distance from
its ground parts. It also maintains the specified ground clearance

Required Properties for line supports

• High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads
• Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
• Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
• Longer life,
• Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Types of Line Supports:

[1] Wooden poles:

Figure: 1. Wooden Poles

• These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for lines of
moderate X-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say upto 50 metres.
• Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties and,
therefore, are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas as an
economical proposition in earlier days.
• The wooden poles generally tend to rot below the ground level, causing
foundation failure.
• In order to prevent this, the portion of the pole below the ground level is
impregnated with preservative compounds like creosote oil.
• Double pole structures of the ‘A’ or ‘H’ type are often used to obtain a higher
transverse strength than could be economically provided by means of single
poles.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Disadvantages of Wooden pole:

• Tendency to rot below the ground level
• Comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
• Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
• Less mechanical strength and
• Require periodical inspection

[2] Steel poles:

Figure: 2. Steel Poles

• The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles.
• They possess greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans to
be used.
• Such poles are generally used for distribution purposes in the cities as well as in
street lights & high mast towers.
• This type of supports need to be galvanized or painted in order to prolong its life.
The steel poles are of three types viz.rail poles , tubular poles and , rolled steel
joints.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

[3] RCC poles:

Figure: 3. RCC Poles

 The reinforced concrete poles have become every popular as line support in recent
years.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

 They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans than steel
Moreover, they give good outlook, require little maintenance and have good insulating
properties.

[4] Steel tower

Figure: 4. Steel Tower

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

 

400 kv Tower 220 kv Tower

Figure: 5.Steel Towers

• For long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably employed.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

• Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, can withstand most severe climatic
conditions and permit the use of longer spans.
• The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is considerably reduced owing
to longer spans.
• Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimizes the lightning
troubles as each tower acts as a lightning conductor

C. Resources/Equipment Required
S Chart
Specification Quantity
r
.
N
o
1 Chart showing various - 1
types of line supports

D. Observations and Calculations

Sr Voltage level Suitable line support Required Height
No Type(i.e RCC, Rail of line support in
pole, Steel tower meters
type)

1 440 V , 3-ph

2 11kv

3 66kv

4 220kv

5 400kv

E. Conclusion:

F. Questions.
(1) Give name of different types of supports.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

(2) Write disadvantages of wooden supports.

(3) Justify that high voltage transmission is carried out by steel towers.
(4) Write down name of 5 transmission lines with different voltage levels in India.

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Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.8:
Demonstrate different types of line insulators used in Overhead transmission
and distribution system.
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
• Understand properties required for insulators of over head line.
• Compare line insulators with regard to electrical and mechanical properties required for it.
• Select line insulator for transmission and distribution lines

B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction.
Line insulators are used to provide insulation to line conductors so that no current flows to
ground through tower body. They provide supports to hanging conductors over pole or holds
suspended conductor on towers
The line Insulator material should have following properties:
• High mechanical strength in order to withstand the conductor load, wind load etc.
• High electrical resistance in order to minimize the leakage currents
• High relative permittivity of insulating material for high dielectric strength
• High ratio of puncture strength to flashover
• Non porous
• Ability to withstand temperature changes

Types of insulators:
(1)Pin insulators:
• It is used in electric distribution systems up to 33 kV voltage level.
• Placed on the cross arms of the pole to carry power lines ,There is a groove on the upper end
of a pin insulator for housing the conductor
• Conductor wire is passed through this groove and secured by binding with the same wire as
of conductor
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

• A pin insulator is usually made from porcelain, but glass or plastic may also be used in some
cases.
• As pin insulators are almost always employed in open air, proper insulation while raining is
also an important consideration.
• Beyond operating voltage of 33kV, pin insulators become too bulky and uneconomical

Figure:1 .Pin Insulator

(2)Suspension Insulators:

• For 33 kV & above, suspension insulators are used.

• It consists of a number of porcelain discs connected to each other with metal links in the form
of a string.
• conductor is suspended at the bottom end of the suspension string
• Each disc in a suspension insulator string is designed for a low voltage, say 11 kV.
• The number of discs in a string depends on the working voltage. Suspension insulators are
preferred for transmission lines.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 2. Suspension Insulator

(3)Strain Insulator:

• At a dead end of a transmission line or at a corner or sharp curve, the transmission line is
subjected to a great tensile load.
• In order to sustain this great tension, strain insulators are used at dead ends or sharp corners.
• For high voltage transmission lines, stain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension
insulators.
• In this case, the suspension string is arranged horizontally and the insulator discs are in
vertical plane.
• Two or more suspension strings can be assembled in parallel to sustain greater tensions.

Figure: 3. Strain Insulator

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 4. Strain Insulator

(4) Shackle insulator:

• Shackle insulators are used in low voltage distribution lines as strain insulators
• A shackle insulator can be used vertically as well as horizontally and it can be directly fixed
to a pole with a bolt or to the cross arm

Figure: 5. Shackle Insulator

(5) Polymer Insulator(SRI) :

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

• Polymer insulator consists of three parts: FRP(Fiber Reinforced Plastic) rod, silicon rubber
umbrella , and galvanzied fittings
• polymer is a material resistant to electron flow because of the low amount of subatomic
particles. This causes the electrical charges to have difficulty transit through the body.

Advantages:
• Reduced weight
• Hydrophobicity
• Less impact of pollution
• Highly flexible
• Maintenance free
• High resistance to arcing & tracking
• More reliable

Figure: 6. Polymer Insulator

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

(6) Egg insulators:

• A Stay insulator is a form of low voltage insulators made to counterweight and fasten the
dead-end pole by combining stay wire or guy grip.
• It is also introduced as an egg insulator

Figure: 7. Egg Insulator

C. Resources/Equipment Required
Sr Instrument/Equipment
Specification Quantity
No.
/Components/Trainer kit

1 pin insulator 11kv/22kv 1

2 Disc insulator 11kv 1

3 shackle insulator 440V 1

4 Polymer insulator 11kv or Any available 1
(SRI) rating
3 Egg insulator Any available rating 1
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

D. Observations and Calculations

Sr Type of Insulator Application Voltage

No Level
1 Pin

2 Suspension

3 Strain

4 Shackle

5 Polymer

6 Egg/Stay

E. Conclusion:

F. Questions.
(1) Write down need of insulator in transmission lines.
(2) Write down properties of good Insulator.
(3) Give advantages of polymer insulators.
(4) Draw table showing how many numbers of disc insulators required for 66kv,
132kv, 220kv, 400kv transmission lines.

Faculty Sign with Date:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.9:
Calculate sag in overhead transmission line for given data.

A. Objective:
After completing this experiment, student will be able to:
1. Understand the concepts of Sag.
2. Calculate the sag in overhead transmission line.

B. Prerequisite Theory:

 Sag:
It is defined as the difference in level between the point of support and the lowest point on the
conductor for overhead transmission line.

P Q
Sag

O
Figure: 1.

As shown in the figure:1, a Transmission line is supported at two points P and Q of two different
Transmission Towers.
Assuming points P and Q are at the same level from the ground, As per definition of Sag,
difference in level of point P or Q and lowest point O represent the Sag.
.
Calculation of Sag:
When the conductor supports are at equal level.
Considering an overhead line supported at two different towers which are at same level from
ground. The point of support are A and B as shown in figure below. O in the figure shows the
lowest point on the conductor. This lowest point O lies in between the two towers i.e. point O
bisects the span equally.

Figure: 2.

Let,
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

l = Horizontal distance between the towers i.e. Span

W = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension in the conductor
Let us take any point P on the conductor.
Assuming O as origin, the coordinate of point P will be (x,y).
Therefore, weight of section OP = W.x acting at distance of x/2 from origin O.
As this section OP is in equilibrium, hence net torque w.r.t point P shall be zero.
Torque due to Tension T = Torque due to weight W.x
Ty = Wx*(x/2)
Therefore, y = Wx2 / 2T ……………………….(1)
For getting Sag, put x = l/2 in equation (1)
Sag = Wl2/8T

 Effect of Wind and Ice Loading on Sag:

Coating of ice on conductor (it is assumed that ice coating is uniformly distributed on the surface
of conductor) increases the weight of the conductor which acts in vertically downward direction.
But the wind exerts a pressure on the conductor surface which is considered horizontal for the
sake of calculation.

Figure: 3.
As shown in figure above, net weight acting vertically downward is sum of weight of ice and
weight of conductor.
Therefore,

Here,
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

W = Weight of conductor per unit length

Wi = Weight of ice per unit length
Ww = Wind force per unit length
= Wind PressurexArea
= Wind Pressure x(2d+t)x1
Thus from equation (1),
Sag = WtL2/2T
and the angle made by conductor from vertical = tanƟ= W w /(W+Wi)

H. Procedure ( To solve numerical problem):

1. Study and interpret given data by faculty.
2. Write down given parameters.
3. Apply formulas and steps elaborated in theory.

I. Problem Data(Give numerical problem to student):

J. Practical related questions:

1. Define Sag.
2.State the formula for calculation of sag, when the conductor supports are at equal level.
3.What is the effect of Sag on Tension of Transmission line?
4.What is the effect of temperature on Sag of Transmission line?

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Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.10:
Determine voltage regulation and transmission efficiency of medium
transmission line
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
 Calculate voltage regulation and transmission efficiency of medium transmission line
 Interpret effect of line parameters on performance of transmission line.

B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction.
• The important consideration in the design and operation of a transmission line are the
determination of voltage regulation and efficiency of transmission. This values are depends
upon line parameters R L and C. The voltage drop and so voltage regulation of line depend
upon the values of all three parameters and the resistance of line is most important cause of
power loss in line and determines the transmission efficiency

Voltage regulation:
 By keeping the sending end voltage constant, the change in receiving end voltage
expressed as percentage of full load receiving end voltage when full load thrown off is
known as voltage regulation.

Transmission efficiency:
• The ratio of receiving end power and sending end power of a transmission line is known as
the transmission efficiency of the line.
Formulas of voltage regulation and transmission efficiency of medium transmission line:
These lumped parameters of a medium length transmission line can be represented using three
different models, namely:
End Condenser Method
Nominal T representation (nominal T model)
Nominal Π representation (nominal pi model)

[1] End Condenser Method

Here capacitance is lumped at receiving end
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 1.End Condenser method Equivalent circuit

IR = Load Current per phase
VS = Sending end phase voltage
VR = Receiving end phase voltage
C = Capacitance of line per phase
X = Reactance per phase
R = Resistance per phase

Figure: 2.Vector Diagram

Calculations:
VR = VR + j0
IR = IR∠-ØR = IR(CosØR – jSinØR)
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Ic = Ic∠90°= Ic(Cos90° + jSin90°) = jIC

Ic = jωCVR = j2πfCVR
Is = IR + IC = IR(CosØR – jSinØR) + j2πfCVR
= IRCosØR + j(2πfCVR – IRSinØR)
Vs = VR + IsR + jIsX
% Voltage Regulation = ((Vs – VR)x100 )/VR %
% Efficiency = (PR )/PS %

[2] Nominal T representation (nominal T model)

Here capacitance is lumped at middle of line

Figure: 3.Nominal T method Equivalent circuit

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 4.Vector Diagram

Calculations:
V1 =(R/2 + jX/2)IR + VR
Is = IR + I c
Vs=(R/2 + jX/2)Is + V1
= (R/2 + jX/2)Is + (R/2 + jX/2)IR + VR
VR= VR + j0
IR= IR<-ØR = IR(CosØR – jSinØR)
Ic= jωCV1
Is = IR(CosØR – jSinØR) + jωCV1
= IRCosØR + j(ωCV1 – SinØR)
[3] Nominal Π representation (nominal pi model)
Here capacitance is lumped at both ends equally
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 5.Nominal π method Equivalent circuit

Figure: 6.Vector Diagram

Calculations:
VR = VR + j0
IR = IR<-ØR = IR(CosØR – jSinØR)
Charging Current at load end IC1 = j(ωC/2)VR = jπfCVR
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Line Current IL = IR + IC1 (phasor sum)

Sending end voltage Vs = VR + IL(R+jX)
Charging current at sending end IC2 = j(ωC/2)Vs = jπfCVs
Hence, Sending end current Is = IL + IC2 (phasor sum)

C. Observations and Calculations

[1] [Solve using Nominal-T method]
3-phase ,50 Hz,66kv,100km long transmission line has following constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0.1 ohm
Inductive Reactance/phase/km = 0.2 ohm
Susceptance/phase/km = (4 x 10)-6S
If the line delievers load of 10 MW at 0.8 lagging p.f then determine:
(1)Sending end voltage (2)Voltage Regulation (3)Transmission Efficiency
[2] [Solve using Nominal-π method]
3-phase ,66kv,100km long transmission line has following constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0.1 ohm
Inductive Reactance/phase/km = 0.5 ohm
Susceptance/phase/km = (10)-5 S
If the line delievers load at 20 MW at 0.9 lagging p.f then determine:
(1)Sending end voltage (2)Voltage Regulation (3)Transmission Efficiency
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Sr Sending End %Voltage % Transmission

No Voltage(VS) Regulation Efficiency
1

Calculations:

D. Conclusion:

E. Questions.
(1) Draw circuit diagram & vector diagram for End condenser method.
(2) Draw circuit diagram & vector diagram for Nominal-T method.
(3) Draw circuit diagram & vector diagram for Nominal-pi method.

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Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.11:
Prepare technical report on Load Dispatch Centre
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
 Matching the power demand with system integrity, reliability and security of generation
and transmission facilities
 Regulating the system frequency.
 Optimum utilization of resources.
 Quick restoration of normalcy after system disturbances.

B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction.
The load dispatch department is the centre for the operation, planning, monitoring and control of
the power system. Electricity cannot be stored and has to be produced when it is needed. It is
therefore essential that power system is planned and operated optimally & economically. This is
the main objective of load dispatch centre
• The centre government makes regional wise load dispatch centre in order to economical and
integrated transmission and supply of electricity. The co-ordination of facilities for the inter-
state, regional and inter – regional generation and transmission of electricity.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 2.LDC
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

National load dispatch centre (NLDC)

Functions NLDC :
• Supervision over the regional load dispatch centre
• Co-ordination with regional load dispatch centre for achieving optimum economy efficiency
in the operation of national grid.
• Scheduling and dispatch of electricity over inter – regional links according with the grid
standard provided by the central commission in co-ordination with regional load dispatch
centres.
• To monitor operation and security of national grid
• To coordinate with regional power committees for regional power outage schedule
• To coordinate with regional load dispatch centre for energy accounting for inter regional
exchange of power
• Levy and collection of fee and charges from the generating stations companies or licensees
involved in the power system
• Dissemination of information relating to operation of transmission system time to time
according to regulations issued by CERC ( Central electricity regulatory commission ) and
central government

Figure: 3.NLDC website

Regional load dispatch centre (RLDC)
The regional load dispatch centre shall comply with the direction of national load dispatch centre
RLDC in India:
• Northern
• Eastern
• Southern
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

• Western
• North – Eastern

Functions of RLDC:
• Responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within region
• To monitor grid operations
• Keep account of quantity of electricity transmitted through regional grid
• Supervision and control over inter-state transmission system
• To carry out real time operation of grid control and dispatch of electricity within the region
according with Grid standards and Grid codes
• Levy and collection of fee and charges from the generating stations companies or licensees
engages in inter-state transmission of electricity

Figure: 4. WRLDC web page

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

State load dispatch centre (SLDC)

Function of SLDC
 To ensure integrated operation of the power system

 Daily optimum scheduling and operational planning

 Facilitate bilateral and inter regional exchange of power

 Monitor grid operations

 System studies, planning and contingency analysis

 Keep records of quantity of electricity transmitted through state grid

 To supervise and control over intra state transmission

 Carrying out real time operating of the state grid in accordance of Grid standards and Grid codes

Figure: 5. SLDC Gujarat web page

C. Observations and Calculations

Sr Name of LDC Generation in MW Frequency Date & time

No units (MUs)
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

1 NLDC(POSOCO)

2 WRLDC
3 ERLDC

4 NERLDC
5 SRLDC
6 SLDC Gujarat
Student has to visit website of LDC & from it write down Generation data & frequency for particular
Date & time

D. Conclusion:

E. Questions.

1. Draw hierarchy of LDCs in India

2. Write down various load dispatch techniques.
3. Write down functions of LDC
4. Write down details of Black out events in India showing date & time and cause of
event

Faculty Sign with Date:

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Date: ……………
Practical No.12:
Prepare report on HVDC transmission systems
A. Objective:
After completing this experiment students will be able to
 Understand basic concept of high voltage DC transmission scheme.
 Draw various types of high voltage DC transmission systems.
 Compare various type of high voltage DC transmission system with regards to cost,
reliability application etc.

B. Prerequisite Theory:
Introduction.
• With the development of high voltage technique, use of high voltage long distance lines has
increased gradually. However, the basic difficulties of AC transmission system such as
inductance, capacitance, inductance, corona effect, skin effect, charging of line, poor power
factor etc. cannot be solved.

• Such difficulties do not arise in DC transmission system. But there are difficulties on
generating high voltage DC due to commutation problem. Moreover, the voltage level of DC
cannot step up or step down. With the development of high voltage static rectifier and
inverter, it become possible to generate the electric power at high voltage AC and then it is
transmitted by high voltage DC system. As a result, the use of high voltage DC transmission
(H.V.D.C.T.) system is increased.

Block diagram of HVDC

Figure: 1.HVDC BLOCK DIAGRAM

Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

 The basic scheme of HVDC transmission system is shown in above figure. The power is
generated in power station in the form of three phases AC. This voltage is stepped up by
the step up transformer.

 With the help of static rectifier, this high voltage AC is converted in to high voltage DC.
The power is transmitted at high voltage through the high voltage DC transmission line.
With the help of static inverters, the high voltage DC is converted in to high voltage AC at
the receiving end. Using step down transformer, the high voltage AC is stepped down to
low voltage AC at required as shown.

Types of High Voltage DC Transmission:

1. Mono polar system
2. Bi polar system
3. Homo polar system
4. Back to back system

[1] Mono Polar System:-

Figure: 2.Mono Polar System

 There is only one pole in the mono polar system and the return path of current is
provided through earth or sea. Polarity of pole may be positive or negative with
reference to the earth. Mono polar system was used in low power link. Cost is reduced
as the earth is used as the return conductor.
[2] Bi Polar System :-
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

Figure: 3.Bi Polar System

 There are two poles in this system. One line is positive with reference to the
earth and other line is negative. Mid point is earthed. Some out of balance current
flows through earth in normal operation. The system comes automatically in mono
polar mode when there is difficulty or fault in one pole and the continuity of service is
maintained. The system comes back to the bipolar mode when the fault is cleared.

 There are two conductors in the system. Voltage of one conductor is positive
with respect to the earth and that of the other conductor is negative. There is double
voltage between the two conductors so 500 KV system means one conductor is at +
500 𝑘𝑉 with reference to the earth and the other conductor is at – 500 𝑘𝑉 with
reference to earth, while the voltages between the two conductors is 1000 KV.

[3] Homo Polar System :-

Figure: 4.Homo Polar System

 There are two transmission poles in this system but both the poles are of the
same polarity and the return path is through earth.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

[4] Back to BackSystem :-

Figure: 5. Back to back System

 In back to back system there is no dc transmission line. Two AC systems are

interconnected through the converter substations. Such type of tie link makes
asynchronous interconnection of two nearby AC system.i.e. we can connect two grids
with different frequencies.

Application of High Voltage DC System:-

1. Long distance power transmission line
 This is the main application of HVDCT system. High voltage AC is converted
into high voltage DC at the sending end using the converter transformer and converters.
Power is transmitted to long distance with the help of bi-polar transmission line. At the
receiving end DC is converted into AC using converters. Breakeven point comes at the
length of 800 km, so HVDCT becomes economical for the length more than 800 Km.

 There is no need to keep substation in between while in HVACT substations are

necessary to be installed at the distance of 300 Km. Double circuit line is used for the
transmission of bulk power in HVACT while in HVDC only two conductors are required.
Cost of tower is less.

2. Underground or submarine cable transmission

 In AC transmission, it is difficult to transmit power through the underground or
submarine cables as there is temperature rises due to the charging currents. So the length
of the cable is restricted while this can be done easily with help of HVDCT.
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

3.Interconnection of two AC system:-

 HVDCT system can be used effectively for the interconnection of two systems.
For this purpose DC link is economical than the AC link and it is technically superior. It is
not necessary that the two systems should be in synchronism. Frequency disturbances of
one system are not transferred to the other system. There is no change in the short circuit
levels of both the systemsand it does not affect the transient stability. Power flow can be
made in the desired direction through the DC link.

4.Multi terminal HVDC interconnections:-

 Three or more AC systems can be interconnected asynchronously using multi
terminal HVDCT system. Due to this bulk power can be transferred.

5.Back to back asynchronous tie station:

 Back to Back asynchronous tie station has become very useful for the
interconnection of two AC systems having different frequencies. For example, one system
has frequency of 50 Hz and other system has frequency of 60 Hz. Interconnection of these
two systems can be done by DC system. This is not possible in AC system.Such a
connection is called ASYNCHRONOUS TIE LINE.

C. Observations and Calculations

Note: Student has to find any 5 HVDC lines existing in India & fill details given below

Sr Name of HVDC Length of line Type of HVDC Year of

No line line Commissioning
1

5
Electrical Power Generation & Transmission (4330903)

C. Conclusion:

D. Questions.

(1)Give advantages of HVDC over HVAC.

(1) State types of HVDC systems.
(2)Give name of equipments used in HVDC substations.
(3) List out the HVDC lines in India from websites.

Faculty Sign with Date: