PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 1: Basic of Crop Production

Jaafar Juju Nakasha

1.1 Introduction
Efficient method in crop production is important to ensure sustainable production. There are dif-
ferent methods available in cultivating crops such as by using beds, poly begs filled with planting
media, micro propagation and also by water culture. Generally, plants can be propagated via
either sexual (seed) or asexual (stem, root and leaves). Plants that planted by using seed are
non-homogenous compared to each other as the parents come from male and female gametes.
In the case of asexual, or also known as vegetative propagation, the plants produce are identical
and show same traits among each other.

Seed can be planted either direct seeding on the planting media or by transplanting from germi-
nation media to growing media. The ability of the new plant to develop into mature plants is control
by several factors. Factors such as variety, climate, pH, nutrient availability, light and water are
very important for crop establishment. Any stressful condition to the plants can lead to decreasing
its performance and prolong in such condition can cause detrimental effects for the plants and
eventually die. In the case of nutrient availability, grower must be able to understand label on the
fertilizer packaging. Basic elements that are normally written on the fertilizer is the ratio of Nitrogen
(N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). Elements of N, P and K are used for different focus which
are leaves, roots and flower (and fruits), respectively.

1.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Understand different propagation techniques
2. Provide suitable growing condition for plant’s establishment
3. Understand the basic nutrient requirement of plant

1.3 Types of Cropping System

A. Soil culture
Soil culture or known as conventional planting culture is a type of cropping system where the
plants are planted on the soil either by using poly bags or beds at either in open field or protected
environment (glass house). Different types of soil available such as sandy soil, loamy soil and clay
soil. Sandy soils are suitable for crops that have underground storage organs (carrot, cassava
and yam). It allows easy development and harvesting of those storage organs. However, sandy
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

soils have low nutrient and low water holding capacity. Loamy soils are suitable for various types
of vegetables (spinach, water spinach and eggplant). This is because it has higher nutrient, water
holding capacity and good aeration. As for the clay type of soil, there are not much of plants that are
suitable to be planted (broccoli, lettuce and berries). It is advisable to add sand in the heavy clayey
soil.
B. Soilless culture
Soilless culture is another type of planting medium that is getting popular, especially for urban ag-
riculture. It is a method of planting plants without the use of any soil materials. Soilless culture
offers a lot of advantages such as:
• No weed and soil-borne disease problems
• Growers do not have to find a fertile soil, so they can plant in any regions.
• Higher yield quality compared to soil culture
• Increase the efficiency on water use

There are two general categories of soilless culture which are substrate culture and water culture.
Substrate culture is in the form of solid material and can be either in organic type or inorganic
type. Examples of organic substrate are peat moss, wood residues, sawdust, barks and coconut
peat. Examples of inorganic substrates are perlite, sand, vermiculite, calcined clays, pumice, rock-
wool. As for the water culture, which is another type of soilless culture, it uses water as the medium.
The water is mixed with nutrient solution and it can be either circulate (Nutrient Film Technique)
or non-circulate system (Deep Water Culture).

1.4 Methodology
A. Materials
Planting materials: Spinach, long bean, okra, paddy, chili, cucumber, lettuce, potato and banana.
Example of asexual and sexual propagation is shown in Figure 1.1.

A B

Figure 1.1: Example of sexual (left) and asexual (right) propagations.

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

A. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants by Coenette Meyer available at https://www.pinter-

est.com/pin/500251471106870515/ published at s-cool the revision website available at
https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/reproduction/revise-it/sexual-reproduction-in-flowering-
plants

B. Propagation of specialized stems by Vicki Allen available at https://www.78stepshealth.us/flow-

ering-plants/asexual-plant-propagation.html published at 78stepshealth.us blog

1.5 Activities

Find the information that listed in Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Type of plants propagation technique.

Plant Propagation methods Types of planting Total days to

(sexual/ asexual) media harvest

Spinach

Long bean

Okra

Paddy

Chili (Capsicum)

Cucumber

Lettuce

Potato

Banana

1.6 Keywords
Plant’s establishment, asexual, sexual.

1.7 Summary
Cultural practices in crop production is dependent on various factors such as crop species, crop
behavior, life cycle, soil type, cost, location and others. It is important to have knowledge in basic
agriculture in order to meet the requirements for the plants to grow and develop healthily, as well
as sustaining the production and sources. Before choosing any plant to cultivate, it is necessary
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

to study the details of that particular species. Each species requires different growing conditions.
Optimum growth, development and yield can be achieved if the plant is growing in suitable envi-
ronment.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 2: Drip Irrigation System and Fertigation

Puteri Edaroyati Megat Wahab

2.1 Introduction

Drip irrigation also called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil/medium at very
low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole
soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent than with other methods and
this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.

While, fertigation is a word of recent origin and is a combincation of clipped words of fertilizer and
irrigation. So, this technique is a process in which fertilizer is dissolved and distributed along with
water in your drip irrigation system. Most fertigation technique require the use of liquid fertilizers
since they are unable to solublize (dissolve) higher concentration, water-soluble
fertilizers. Fertigation has various advantages over other fertilization methods, and when properly
used, it saves time and money. In fertigation, fertilizers are delivered through the irrigation
water. The use of fertigation enables for highly accurate nutrient supply to plants. Small and
frequent applications of fertilizers, in exact amounts that meet crop requirements, increase the
efficiency of nutrient uptake and minimizes nutrient loses. However, using fertigation requires
careful management and many factors must be taken into consideration.

2.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To discuss the tools and equipment used in drip irrigation system
2. To describe how to prepare the fertigation technique
3. To explain the benefits of the system
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

2.3 Component in fertigation technique

Component Function Image

Nutrient tank To hold the water-nutrient mixture

(nutrient solution)

Plastic material with high grade, to

avoid emit toxic chemicals

Black color. Translucent plastic

allows light to enter the tank and
encourage algae growth.

Lid for the tank, to prevent light

penetration and reduce the Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
amount of dirt and debris that
enters the tank
Water pump Water pump is used to pump
nutrient solution from nutrient tank
to the poli begs

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
Y-disc filter Remove sediment and debris that
can clog an irrigation system

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Nipple, microtube Release nutrient to the plants from

3mm and dripper the mainline tubing (16mm). The
emitters can be inserted into the
end of a length of 1/4" tubing

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
Polypipe 16mm Reveice nutrient from main pipe
(PVC/PE 32mm)

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
Equal tee Connecting piping system to
(16mm), valve distribute nutrient to the poli begs
(16mm) equal
elbow (16mm)
and male
threaten (16mm)

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM

Two Ways To make hole for nipple insert onto

Puncher/Spanner polypipe

Faculty of Agriculture,UPM
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

2.4 Methodology

The fertigation lay out has been done for the practical session. However, students need to insert
the microtube onto polypipe (16mm) for each poly bag. Each group will be given number of poly
bags to grow leafy vegetables (Figure 2.1 and 2.2)

Nutrient tank

Water reservoir

Pump

Figure 2.1: Schematic design of a simple drip irrigation system Cili Fertigasi (Pengurusan Sistem
Pengairan) blog by irwanibrahim available at http://diary-cilifertigasi.blogspot.com/

Figure 2.2: Lay out for the drip irrigation system (Faculty of Agriculture,UPM)
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

2.4 Keywords

Drip irrigation system, fertigation, and nutrient

2.5 Activities
1. Insert the microtube onto polypipe for nutrient solution distribution.
2. Testing the whole irrigation system operates well.
3. Students need to observe the drip irrigation system operates smoothly.
4. Checks the piping system from time to time to avoid clogged emitters

2.6 Student Observation

Briefly explain the technique on how to improve the uniformity of irrigation and fertigation applica-
tions.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2.7 Summary

Students will be able to fix the drip irrigation system for any crop cultivation. They also will have
the opportunity to practice how to overcome irrigation problems during practical.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 3: Seedling Preparation and Maintenance

Martini Mohammad Yusoff

3.1 Introduction
Seedlings are usually prepared and raised in a nursery. A nursery is a facility where seedlings are
raised for planting purposes. In the nursery, the young seedlings are tended from seed sowing
stage to a stage when they are ready to be transplanted to the field, glasshouse or sold. Alterna-
tively seedlings can be raised and placed in some shaded area with adequate water supply.

3.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To describe the facilities and equipment used in nursery production
2. To describe media preparation and seedling management
3. To experience the processes in raising plant seedling from sowing to pre-transplanting

3.3 Methodology
A. Seed Selection
Seed selection should start by obtaining seeds from healthy plants or purchased from reliable
seed suppliers. Only seeds which are genetically pure, true to type and free from pest and dis-
eases are to be used. Small, shriveled and broken seeds should be removed to ensure growth of
stronger and healthier seedlings. A germination test is usually conducted to check the germination
percentage of the seeds. Germination percentage determines the percentage of seeds that are
alive and provides their potential field performance e.g. 95% germination rate means 95 out of
100 seeds are likely to germinate under field condition. At time of purchase, some seeds are pre-
treated with fungicide to protect them from fungal infestations.

B. Seed Tray Preparation

Seeds can be sown in containers, flat seed trays, wooden seed trays, cell seed trays/plug, poly-
bags or jiffy (Figure 3.1). Cell seed trays are ideal since they hold shallow cells where seeds are
directly sown into the medium-filled cell, saves space and allows the grower to easily move the
seedlings. Sowing seeds in divided containers such as in the cell prevents the plants' root systems
from coming into contact, which makes transplanting easier later. Cell seed trays usually have
holes or slits at the bottom to allow excess water to drain out.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Horticulture Tray3.jpg by KVDP (talk), A. Arabidopsis thal background.JPG by Reo

Public Domain (https://creativecom- On, CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecom-
mons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/) via mons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en) via
Wikimedia Commons (https://com- Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wiki-
mons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Horticul- media.org/wiki/File:Arabidopsis_thal_back-
ture_Tray3.jpg) ground.JPG)

B. The future of dirt by Lisa Brewster, CC BY-

SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/li-
censes/by-sa/2.0/), via Flickr Storm
(https://www.flickr.com/photos/soph-
istechate/2849575551/)

Seed tray (cell tray/plug) Jiffy with young seedling

Reducing plastic in the garden - going

back to wooden seed trays by Karen- Onions by Dwight Sipler, CC BY 2.0
Anne Johnson at Plant Genesis Flower (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
and Vegetables Seeds Blog via Flickr Storm
(https://www.plantgenesis.co.uk/reducing- (https://www.flickr.com/photos/photo-
plastic-in-the-garden-going-back-to- farmer/7027257731/)
wooden-seed-trays-c1200x66100)

Wooden seed tray Flat seed tray

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Polibeg putih fertigasi 2.JPG by

Izhamwong, CC BY 3.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
3.0/deed.en) via
Wikimedia Commons (https://com-
mons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poli-
beg_putih_fertigasi_2.JPG)

Polybag

Figure 3.1 :Different types of seedling containers.

C. Growing Media Preparation

The most common growing medium for seedling production is peat moss. However, compost or
coconut coir dust also can be used. Other recommended media are combination of vermi compost
and coconut coir dust or peat and sand, in 1:1 (v/v) ratio.

D. Filling and Sowing

• Fill the tray cell/plug with the selected growing medium, water the medium until moist and
make a hole in each cell of the seed tray.
• Put one to two seeds in each cell of the seed tray and cover it lightly with the growing me-
dium.
• Lightly wet the growing medium by spraying with water or put the seedling tray in a flat tray
which contain water, lets the water sip through the growing media. Cover the trays with
black plastic sheet to conserve moisture until germination. Once germination occurs,
remove the plastic sheet.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

• The growing media should be kept moist throughout the growing period. Do not over- irri-
gate, which could lead to leaching and fungal attack.
• Monitor the growth of the seedlings.
• If more than one seedling germinates in one plug, choose the healthy one and cut the un-
chosen one.

3.4 Keywords
Seeds, Nursery, Growing media, Seed tray, Seedlings, Irrigation system

3.5 Activities
1. Preparation of growing media.
2. Preparation of seedlings.
3. Seedling maintenance.

3.6 Student Observation

1. Students need to observe and record data of seedling growth such as plant height, number
of leaves, any symptoms of damping off and insect attack if any by taking photographs.
Observation records need to be documented as in Table 3.1.
2. The observations of the seedlings are to be compiled into a report and submitted at the end
of week 7. Report can be uploaded to Putrablast.

Table 3.1: Observation on seedlings development

Days after % germination No of days Symptoms of Image

sowing when 2 true damages
leaves emerge
1

7
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

3.7 Summary

After undergoing the practical part in this unit, students are able to describe techniques of sowing
seeds by using seed trays. Students are also exposed to the learning process of how to prepare
the growing media, sowing of seeds and seedling maintenance. Students will have the opportunity
to practice how to raise seedlings to ensure that only quality and healthy seedlings are produced.
Unit 4: Preparation of Planting Medium
Jaafar Juju Nakasha

4.1 Introduction
Growing media consist of mixtures of components that provide water, air, nutrients and support
to plants. Important characteristic of media components that influences watering practices is
wettability, i.e., the ability of dry media to rapidly absorb water when moistened. A surfactant used
occasionally can help media rewet more readily. The choice of media should be influenced by
irrigation systems and practices.

Fertigation technique uses the growing media that contain a variety of soilless ingredients such
as peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, shredded coconut husks (coir), composted bark or other
composted materials. Field soils are generally unsatisfactory for the production of plants in
containers because soils do not provide good aeration, drainage and water holding capacity
required and they need to be pasteurized or fumigated to prevent diseases and weeds. Growing
media are designed to achieve high porosity and water retention while providing adequate
aeration. A nutrient charge is added and the pH adjusted to approximately 6.0.

Coconut coir dust (also known as coco-pith, coir waste or fiber dust) consists of short spongy
fibers and dust which are by-product in the processing of husk to coir fiber. It is 100% organic
and eco-friendly and bio-degradable product (Figure 3.1). Coir dust retains water firmly, holding
it 8-9 times its weight and slowly releases water to the plant through its feeding roots. The benefits
of using this media are:
• Makes the crop tolerant to drought because of its high water - holding capacity, thus,
minimizing the depressive effect of drought on crop physiology and yield.
• Creates favorable soil structure when applied as mulch.
• Supplies some nutrients i.e. macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na) and micronutri-
ents (Zn, B, Fe, Mn, Cu) necessary for plant growth
• Provides for good medium for nursery and seedlings.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Various types of soil and soilless media can be used as the planting media. Generally, composi-
tion for soil mixture media is the combination from few components like top soil, sand and organic
matter. The amount for each component is express by ratio, for example, 3:2:1 media, which
indicate 3 parts of top soil, 2 parts of organic matter (example: chicken manure) and 1 part of
sand. As for the soilless media, it can be use alone, or in combination with other components.
Compounds that are categorized under soilless are vermiculite, perlite, peat moss, calcined clay
and coconut peat. Each component has its own unique character and having pros and cons.
Therefore, it is better to mix different types of media with correct ratio in order to create better
environment for the roots to grow and develop

A B

Figure 4.1: Coconut coir block/brick (Left) and dust (Right)

A. Brick of coco coir.JPG by Matias Miika, CC BY 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/li-
censes/by/3.0/deed.en), via Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Brick_of_coco_coir.JPG)

B. Left over coco coir by Steve and Tracy, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/li-

censes/by/2.0/) via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/photos/9680862@N05/39907111314/)

4.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Prepare planting media
2. Understand the ratio and composition of growing media

4.3 Methodology
A. Materials
Polybag, coco-pith, bricks.

B. Preparation of Planting Media

• Make sure that the area is clean and the drip irrigation system is functioning.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

• Fold ¼ on the top of the poly bag.

• Make sure that the growing medium and the poly bags are clean. Fill-up the poly bag
with growing medium.
• Make sure that the media is not too dense and not too loose.
• Do flushing by running the water onto planting media
• Arrange the poly bags in the plot and make sure that the planting distance is suitable.
• Place the pen dripper in the media and test the system for 5 minutes.

• Make sure all the poly bags are wet after 30 minutes, in order to ensure that each of
the pen dripper is functioning.
4.4. Activities
• Put planting media in poly bag.
• Flushing.
• Arrange the bricks as or putting the poly bag.
• Put the dripper in the polybag and test its working.

4.5 Keywords
Substrate, soil, soilless, plant growth

4.6 Student Observation

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

4.7 Summary
One must understand and know the characteristics of the planting media to be used in order to
decide the fertilizer program and frequency in irrigating the plants.

Unit 5: Seedling Transplanting

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Jaafar Juju Nakasha

5.1 Introduction

In plant cultivation, plants can be planted either by direct seeded at field, or by transplanting. Direct
seeded is easier and does not require many skills compared to transplanting. Transplant technique
is popularly use in plants with fibrous root system. However, it is also applicable to do transplanting
for plants with tap root system. A lot of producers prefer to use transplanting techniques as it offers
more benefits compared to direct seeding. Transplanting started with the establishment of seed-
lings in either temporary plots, germination tray, poly bags, Jiffy-7 or containers filled with germina-
tion media. As transplanting causes disturbance to the seedlings, the plants might grow slower and
more sensitive than those direct seeded plants at initial stage. Therefore, it is crucial to properly
transplant the seedlings in order for the plants to grow and develop.

5.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. To determine the correct stage in transplanting
2. To properly transfer the seedlings from germination tray to growing media

5.3 Methodology
One must gently do transplanting in order to ensure minimal shock to the plants. Few factors such
as species, light, water and temperature contribute to the success of transplanting. When seedlings
are large enough, within 10 to 14 days (depends on plant type) or at least two to three true leaves
established, harden them by withholding water either decrease amount of water given or expose
them to full sunlight.

Hardening of Seedlings Process

Leave your seedlings outside (out of the shelter) for an hour more than the previous day i.e if the
seedlings were previously exposed to sunlight for 3 hours, then increase the duration to 4 hours.
Gradually increase the duration under the full sunlight for each day. At the same time, you can
move the seedlings to a less sheltered location by further from the shelter or out from under a tree.
Hardening process is to prepare the seedlings for a less nurturing environment.

A. Materials
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Seedlings, Scissors, Hand scoop

B. Methods
Before transplanting, selection of plants must be done. Only uniform, healthy and having 2 sets of
true leaves should be taken for transplanting.

1. Selection of seedlings:
• Healthy (No sign of yellowing, wilt, abnormal, retard or too thin compared to others) as
shown in Figure 5.1.
• Must have at least 2 true leaves or 2 set of leaves
• The age of the seedlings depends on species. However, for leafy vegetables, the 7- 10
days-old seedling is sufficient for transplanting.

2. Transplanting:
• Add some water to the germination media if it is too dry.
• Dig a hole on the growing medium and make sure that the hole is bigger than the root cluster
of the seedling.
• Carefully take out the seedlings from germination tray and make sure that the root cluster is
attached with the germination media (Figure 5.1).
• Carefully place the seedling inside the hole and cover it back by using the growing medium.
• Make sure that the seedling is straight by pressing the growing medium firmly. Do not press it
too hard, as it might damage the root (Figure 5.2).
• Irrigate the seedlings thoroughly after transplanting.
• Irrigation should be done frequently during this initial stage.

Tips: As the seedlings undergo stress, and increase in respiration rate during transplanting, you
can reduce it by removing 1-2 leaves, cutting the leaves into half, and make sure that the soil is
not dry.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Figure 5.1. Seedling with root cluster, attach with the germination medium.
UI-03-160610-515 by Steve Long, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
Via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/photos/longlab/37201761442/)

Figure 5.2. Pressing the growing medium.

UI-03-160610-368 by Steve Long, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)
via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/photos/longlab/36560950173/)

5.4 Keywords
Hardening phase, growing medium, plant growth, transplanting

5.5 Activities
• Transplanting the seedlings.
• The plants need to be monitored daily and make sure that the growing medium is not dry.
Record your observation in the table given.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

5.6 Student Observation

Days after Observation (Any signs of wilting, yellowing, retardation, in-

Transplanting crease in height, number of leaves)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

5.7 Summary
Extra care during the transplanting is needed to ensure high survival percentage after
transplanting. Good transplanting technique can lead to uniform, vigorous and healthy de-
velopment of plant.
UNIT 6: Nutrient Application
Elisa Azura Azman & Roslan Ismail

6.1 Introduction

Crop maintenance is an important practice to achieve good and quality yield of any given crop.
This practice include weeding, irrigation, fertilization, insect pest and disease control and pruning
must be practiced during growing season. Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of
water to plants at needed intervals. Irrigation can be practiced in many ways, and for each plant,
there are different types of irrigation method. In this section, nutrient/fertilizer are being applied with
water via drip irrigation system. Drip system often increase fertilizer use efficiency around 80 to 90
per cent. A plant nutrient is a chemical element that is essential for plant growth and reproduction.
These essential elements are divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients as
shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Essential elements required by plants as nutrients

Essential Elements for Plant Growth

Macronutrients Micronutrients

Nitrogen (N) Iron (Fe)

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Phosphorus (P) Manganese (Mn)

Potassiun (K) Boron (B)
Calcium (Ca) Molybdenum (Mo)
Magnesium (Mg) Copper (Cu)
Sulfur (S) Zink (Zn)
Oxygen (O) Chlorine (Cl)
Carbon (C) Nickel (Ni)
Hydrogen (H) Cobalt (Co)
Sodium (S)
Silicon (Si)

Nutrients that plants require in large amount called macronutrient. Carbon (C), for example is
required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds. In addition
to macronutrients, plants also require various elements in small quantities called as micronutrients
(or sometimes referred as trace elements). Both macro and micro-nutrients are required in ferti-
lizer. Thus, both can be combined in liquid form and be applied to plants more effectively by
fertigation method. Lack of these nutrients will inhibit the plant growth. This mean that the plant
will not grow well. The plant may show signs of lack of nutrients called as nutrient deficiency. Each
plant may have different signs of nutrient deficiency. A general indicator of nutrient deficiency as
shown in Table 6.3.

Besides irrigation by fertigation method, electrical conductivity (EC) is also an important factor to
monitor for good and quality plant growth. EC is a measurement of soluble salts in a solution (in
dS/m = mMhos/cm). Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, but conductivity increases as
more and more salt is dissolved in the water. Thus, EC of the nutrient solution gives us an indirect
measurement of the salt content, instead of knowing the availability of the nutrient. The EC of the
nutrient solution as well as the amount and frequency of fertigation (irrigation with nutrient solu-
tion) are the most important variables used by farmers to control the supply of water and nutrients
to the crop. Otherwise, plants will show signs of nutrient deficiency.

Characteristics of fertilizers for fertigation

The success of fertigation depends primarily on the characteristics of the fertilizers used, as
below:
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

• Must be completely soluble in water (< 0.02% insoluble in water) and have quick dissolution
in water with minimum content of conditioners.
• Must not react with dissolved elements in water especially calcium and magnesium salts.
• High nutrient content in the saturated solution must not get leached down easily.
• Should not change the pH of water leading to precipitation and clogging
• Should avoid corrosion of the system.
• Should be safer for field use and for mixing with other chemicals.

6.2 Objectives

Student will be able to:

1. To learn and understand the fertigation method.
2. To relate the significance and importance of electrical conductivity (EC) based on plant
growth stage.
3. To identify nutrients (macro and micro) deficiency signs in plant.

6.3 Methodology
Activity 1: Stock solution preparation
A. Materials
1. Liquid fertilizer A and B (Figure 6.1)
2. Tank – 200L (2 unit)
3. EC and pH meter
4. Water

B. Methods
1. Dissolve Set A (1kg) in 10L of water (Tank A)
2. Dissolve Set B (1kg) in 10L of water (Tank B)
3. Stir until all salt dissolve
4. Let stock solution stable prior to usage about 24 hours
5. Put two tanks under shade

Activity 2: Nutrient solution preparation

C. Materials
1. Stock A and B (Figure 6.1)
2. EC and pH meter
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

3. Water

D. Methods
1. Add 100mL of SET A stock solution and 100mL of SET B stock solution to 20L of water to
achieve EC reading of 1.0 - 1.5 mS/cm.
2. Stock solutions are added in equal volumes to prepare a nutrient solution with an electrical
conductivity (EC) up to 1.5 mS/cm. If one does not have an EC meter, then 10mL of stock
solution A and 10mL of stock solution B should be added to 1L of water in the tank to give about
1.0 -1.5 mS/cm for leafy plants.
3. Add water or nutrients to adjust the EC up or down. Add acidic nutrients or acid to lower pH,
and add water or alkaline pH adjusters to raise pH. Maintain solution pH between 5.5 to 6.5 for
best environment for optimal nutrient availability. If pH rises above 6.5, adjust down to 5.5,
based on preference. If topping off a reservoir to lower the EC, plain water is all that is needed.
If topping off with a nutrient to increase EC, make sure the reservoir is still clean and there are
no signs of salt buildup or microbial growth. If either of these issues are present, empty and
clean the reservoir and fill it with fresh solution.
4. However, the preparation and dilution depends on the supplier suggestion on the packaging.
5. Follow the table 6.2 below for EC schedule
6. A pH and EC meter are essential for managing nutrient solution and understanding changes
that occur as a result of plant interactions. Monitor pH and EC/ppm daily, adjusting as needed.
Keep a log of pH and ppm readings and any changes that are made.
7. Water temperature is an important thing to watch and keep in range with recirculating systems.
The ideal range is 66-72°F in order to maintain optimal levels of dissolved oxygen and prevent
growth of harmful pathogens.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Figure 6.1: Set A and B for stock solution

Table 6.2: EC schedule
Day after transplanting EC (mS/cm) pH
2 0.8 – 1.0 5.5 – 6.5
9 1.1 - 1.3 5.5 – 6.5
21 1.5 5.5 – 6.5

Activity 3: Identification of plant nutrient deficiency

A. Materials
1. Pen and paper
B. Methods
1. Visually inspect the plant for nutrient deficiency symptoms as shown in Table 6.3.
2. Record the observations in Activity 3.
6.4 Keywords
Fertigation, Electrical conductivity (EC), Plant nutrients, Nutrient deficiency symptom, Interplant
6.5 Activities
1. Prepare Stock Solution
2. Prepare nutrient solution
3. Record nutrient deficiency symptoms
Nutrient deficiency, particularly the macronutrients, can adversely affect plant growth. Depending
on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth, slow growth or chlorosis. Extreme de-
ficiencies may result in leaves showing signs of cell death.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Table 6.3: Nutrient deficiency symptoms (signs) in plants

Nutrients Symptoms Examples

Nitrogen (N) Stunted growth. Extremely pale color.
Upright leaves with light green/yellow-
ish. Appear burnt in extreme defi-
ciency

Spitskool stikstofgebrek (nitro-

gen deficiency) Brassica
oleracea convar. capitata var.
alba.jpg by Jan Bakker , CC
BY-SA 3.0 (https://crea-
tivecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/deed.en) via Wikimedia
Commons (https://com-
mons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Spitskool_s
tikstofgebrek_(nitrogen_defi-
ciency)_Bras-
sica_oleracea_convar._capi-
tata_var._alba.jpg
)

Potassium (K) Small spots on the tips, edges of pale

leaves. Spots turn rusty. Folds at tips.

K-deficient dry bean 2 2012 02

16 Cedara 037.jpg by Aland-
manson, CC BY-SA 4.0
(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/4.0/deed.en) via Wikimedia
Commons
(https://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:K-defi-
cient_dry_bean_2_2012_02_1
6_Cedara_037.jpg)
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Phosphorus (P) Plant short and dark green. In extreme

deficiencies turn brown or black.
Bronze colour under the leaf

Tomato Phosphorous defi-

ciency Leaf.jpg by Ollie Martin,
CC-BY-SA 3.0
(https://www.fandom.com/li-
censing) via WikiGardener
(https://gardener.fan-
dom.com/wiki/Phosphorus_de-
ficiency)

Calcium (Ca) Plant dark green. Tender leaves pale.

Drying starts from the tips. Eventually
leaf bunds die.

Cabbage Calcium Defi-

ciency.jpg by Ollie Martin, CC-
BY-SA 3.0 (https://www.fan-
dom.com/licensing) via at Wiki
Gardener (https://gardener.fan-
dom.com/wiki/Calcium_defi-
ciency?file=Cabbage_Cal-
cium_Deficiency.jpg)

Magnesium (Mg) Paleness from leaf edges. No spots.

Edges have cup shaped folds. Leaves
die and drop in extreme deficiency.

Progressive symptoms of Mg
deficiency in the leaves of the
cauliflower ‘Verona’ supplied
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

with a nutrient solution without

Ca by Matheus Saraiva
Bianco,Arthur Bernardes
Cecílio Filho and Leonardo
Bianco de Carvalho, CC BY
4.0 (https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Via ResearchGate
(https://www.re-
searchgate.net/figure/Progres-
sive-symptoms-of-Mg-defi-
ciency-in-the-leaves-of-the-
cauliflower-Verona-sup-
plied_fig3_274725049)

Sulphur (S) Leaves light green. Veins pale green.

No spots

Intercostate chlorosis causing

characteristic marbling of Bras-
sica napus by Ewald Schnug
available at file:///C:/Us-
ers/User/Down-
loads/pb1855.pdf in
Research Gate

Iron (Fe) Leaves pale. No spots. Major veins

green

Clorosi fulles llimonerhu.JPG

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

by Victor M. Vicente Selvas ,

public domain (https://crea-
tivecommons.org/publicdo-
main/mark/1.0/) via Wikimedia
Commons (https://com-
mons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Clorosi_full
es_llimonerhu.JPG)
Manganese Leaves pale in color. Veins and
(Mn) venucules dark green and reticulated

Manganese-deficiency-
rose.jpg by Sten Porse, CC
BY-SA 3.0 , CC BY-SA 2.5, CC
BY-SA 2.0, CC BY-SA 1.0
(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/deed.en)

(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/2.5/deed.en)

(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/2.0/deed.en)

(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/1.0/deed.en)

via Wikimedia Commons

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

(https://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Manga-
nese-deficiency-rose.jpg)

Boron (B) Discoloration and leaf buds. Breaking

and dropping of buds

Cauliflower Boron deficiency

Leaf.jpg by OllieMartin , Public
Domain Mark 1.0 (https://crea-
tivecommons.org/publicdo-
main/mark/1.0/) via Wiki Gar-
dener (https://gardener.fan-
dom.com/wiki/Boron_defi-
ciency?file=Cauliflower_Bo-
ron_deficiency_Leaf.jpg)

Molybdenum Leaves light green/lemon yellow/or-

(Mo) ange. Spot on whole leaf except
veins. Sticky secretions from under
the leaf

Mo deficienct maize subsist-

ence farmer Vulindlela 2017 05
09 6666.jpg by Alandmanson,
CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://crea-
tivecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/4.0/deed.en) via Wikimedia
Commons (https://com-
mons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Mo_defi-
cienct_maize_subsist-
ence_farmer_Vulindlela_2017_
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

05_09_6666.jpg)

Note: A plant can be deficient in several nutrients (macro and micro-nutrients). Thus, a plant
can show single or multiple deficiency symptoms.

6.6 Student Observations

Activity: Plant nutrient deficiency

Plant Day Plant (symp- Nutrient

(type/name) (plant age) toms/condition) deficiency

6.7 Summary

Plants that grows well are the plants that received sufficient nutrient (macro and micro-nutrient)
through irrigation by fertigation method. Thus, these plants are good and quality plants compared
to plants that shows nutrient deficiency symptoms. An EC value of less than 4 dS/m is a good
indicator of sufficient salt availability in soil to support nutrient dissolution and uptake by plant
to grow well.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 7: Disease, Pest and Weed Management

Syari Jamian, Dzarifah Mohamed Zulperi, & Muhammad Saiful Ahmad Hamdani

7.1 Introduction

Pest insects, diseases, and weeds cause significant yield and quality losses to crops. Pest insects
cause problems by damaging crops and food production, parasitising livestock, or being a nui-
sance and health hazard to humans. Diseases include micro-organisms, disease agents (bacteria,
fungi and viruses), infectious agents, parasites and genetic disorders. Weed-crop interference
comprised of direct and indirect impacts. Direct impact consists of weeds competition on crucial
resources, viz. water, nutrient, gases, light, and space. Indirectly, weeds also can potentially be-
come alternative hosts to pest insects and diseases, which may attack crops if left uncontrolled.
Additionally, parasitic weeds growing on crops will absorb nutrient from the host crops, leaving
them less productive. Understanding weeds and the various methods to control them ultimately
reduces costs and improves productivity. Thus, it is important to control the pest insects, weeds
and diseases with an Integrated Pest Management plan using a range of biological, mechanical,
physical or cultural and chemical methods.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

7.2 Objectives

Students will be able to:

1. Identify the symptoms of pest damage, disease and weeds on crops.

2. Measure damages caused by insect pests, disease and weeds. Explain the integrated
management (insect pests, disease and weeds)

7.3 Methodology
Activity 1: Identification of pest insect
A. Materials
Sticky trap

B. Methods
• Place sticky trap on few corner of the plot.
• Insect samples were collected from sticky trap and identified and recorded.

Activity 2: Identification of plant diseases through sign and symptoms.

Plant disease symptoms
Pathogens cause local or general symptoms on host plants and this may occur separately on
different hosts, simultaneously or subsequently on the same host. In general, pathogen causes 3
types of symptoms: i) necrosis (host cell death), ii) overgrowth, i.e., hypertrophy (abnormal cell
enlargement) and hyperplasia (fast cell division), and iii) hypoplasia (stunting of host organs or
overall).

In the most disease, the pathogen lives or produces various kind of structure on the surfaces of
host plant. These structures include mycelia, sclerotia, sporophores, fruiting bodies and spores
which are called signs and they are different from symptoms which show visible responses on the
infected part of the host plant. For example, for mildew diseases, the signs that can be seen con-
sists of the white mycelia and spores on infected stem, leaf or fruit, whereas symptoms consists
of chlorotic or necrotic lesions on leaf, fruit and stem, stunting of growth, etc.

Activity 3: Classification of weed species based on morphological characteristics and

habitat.

Weed
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Materials:
Weed species: broadleaves, sedges, grasses.

7.4 Keywords
Insect pest, beneficial insects, Pathogen, Fungus, Bacteria, Identification, Diagnosis, Control
method, Weed species, Weed-crop competition model

7.5 Activities

1. Identification of insects, diseases and weeds.

Table 7.1: Insect pests, diseases and weeds in planting area

Pest Symptoms Examples
Insect The larvae vigorous
eating patterns, of-
Spodop- tentimes leaving the
tera sp leaves completely
(Ulat destroyed.
ratus)

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

Insect Larvae & adult feed

on young growth,
Aphis flower spikes, and
gossypii developing flower
(Afid) buds.

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

Insect Feeding punctures to

sawi leaves
Phyllotre
ta spp.
(Flea
Bettle/Ku
mbang
Lenting)

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Disease Necrosis
Death of cells or tis-
Downy sues
mildew Cucumber Downy
Mildew.jpg by Ollie
Martin, CC BY-SA 3.0
(https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/) via WikiGar-
dener (https://gar-
dener.fan-

dom.com/wiki/Downy_mildew?file=Cucum-
ber_Downy_Mildew.jpg )

Disease Hypoplasia
Mosaic Size of cells reduced
Plant growth retarded

Tobacco mosaic virus symptoms tobacco.jpg by R.J.

Reynolds Tobacco Company Slide Set, CC BY 3.0 US
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/) via
Forestry Image (https://www.forestry-
images.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1402027)

Dis- Necrosis
ease Death of cells or tis- Hibiscus Bacte-
Leaf sues rial leaf spot
spot caused by Pseu-
domonas cichorii
(5684575818).jpg
by Scot Nelson,
CC0 1.0
(https://crea-
tivecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en) via
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Hibiscus_Bacte-
rial_leaf_spot_caused_by_Pseudomonas_cicho-
rii_(5684575818).jpg) (http://www.ctahr.ha-
waii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/PD-72.pdf)
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Weed Infesting planting me-

dium in the polybag
Oxalis
cornic-
ulata

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

Weed Growing in between

the polybags and can
Linder- become potential
nia du- host to whiteflies
bia

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

Weed Infesting planting me-

dium in the polybag
Sola-
num tu-
berosu
m

Faculty of Agriculture, UPM

7.6 Student Observation

Weeds, Disease and Insect Pest Monitoring Report

Date: Time:
Weather: (Sunny, Rainy, Cloudy)
Crops: Group:
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Crops Damage (Describe)

1.

2.

Insects Found How many? Remarks

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Weed species Habitat Remarks

1.
2.

3.

4.

Disease Symptoms
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Note: Other pest symptoms could be referred through online and others materials.

7.7 Summary

Insects are the dominant life-form on earth. Millions may exist in a single acre of land. In reality,
less than one percent of insect species are pest but at the same time, insects are major pests
of crops and vector disease. To identification insects as beneficial to humans, important as
pollinators of crops, natural enemies of pests and major pests were be important in nature and
agriculture. Disease in plant can be identified though observation on disease symptoms or
signs of the presence of causal agents on plant parts. In most diseases, the pathogens live or
produce various kind of structures on the surfaces of host. These structures include mycelia,
sclerotia, sporophores, fruiting bodies and spores which are called signs and they are different
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

symptoms which show visible responses on the infected part of the host plant. Weeds can be
differentiated by their morphological characteristics and habitat. Growth impact of weed on
crops is weed species-, weed population density-, and crop type- dependence. Impacts of
weeds on crops can be measured through reduction of crop growth and yield caused by weed
competition for resources.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 8: Postharvest Handling

Norazua Zakaria & Siti Zaharah Sakimin

8.1 Introduction

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop management immediately following harvest. It can
be defined as a method and techniques applied to increase shelf life of the products. The full
processes of postharvest handling is as shown in Figure 8.1. The principles determining at
which stage of maturity of vegetables should be harvested are crucial to its subsequent stor-
age and marketable life and quality. Post-harvest physiologists differentiate three stages in
the life span of vegetables which are maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is
indicative of the plant being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the vegetable is
fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate consumption. Ripening
follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste. There are
some indicators to look out for in determining crop maturity include: colour, size and general
appearance of the crop. Time of harvest in either early or late hours of the day to avoid exces-
sive field heat generation. Physical handling can have an extreme effect on the postharvest
quality for most harvested vegetables. It is therefore important to know suitable postharvest
handling practices needed to maintain the quality of harvested vegetables for producers.

Harvesting Sizing Packaging

Precooling Air dry- Storage

ing

Sorting/ Trimming Cleaning Dispatch

Figure 8.1: Postharvest handling processes of agricultural produces.

8.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To understand the postharvest handling practices of fresh vegetables
2. To identify the optimum maturity stage of vegetables to be consumed
3. To recognize the postharvest loss of vegetables

8.3 Methodology
 PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

A. Material
Hand gloves, scissor/knives, bucket/ harvest container, water, packaging.

B. Method

Harvesting

The time, frequency, and method of harvesting vary depending on species. For example,
spinach: most varieties mature in 37- 45 days after planting and the color is green. Individual
leaves or the entire plant is cut off at the soil surface. Method of harvesting depends
mainly on the type of crop but in all cases proper handling practices should be taken to prevent
damaging or bruising the crop (Figure 8.2).
• Cut the stem or pull out the entire vegetables from the pot. (If you want the spinach to
regrow again, cut it at the base whilst leaving a bit of stem for it to regrow).
• Cutting is commonly used technique for harvesting vegetables. The examples of har-
vesting tools are secateurs, scissors or knives
• Put the vegetables in the container after harvesting
• After harvesting the vegetables, collect it and transfer under the shade to reduce heat.

A B C

Secateurs Harvest container Budding knife

Figure 8.2: Tools for harvesting.

A. Secateurs by Brian Edgar, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/) via

Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/photos/29803258@N02/5068697141)

B. A plastic crate, probably for vegetables by focalpointx, CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecom-

mons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/) via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/pho-
tos/7634692@N03/472176246/)

C. R0015711 by yoppy, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/) via Flickr

Storm (https://www.flickr.com/photos/spilt-milk/244540969/)
Precooling after harvest
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Pre-cooling is a means of removing the field heat. It slows down the rate of respiration, mini-
mizes susceptibility to attack of microorganism and reduced water loss.
Sorting and Trimming
Sorting and trimming are the removal of rotten, damaged, or diseased fruits from the healthy
ones. By removing damaged produce from the healthy ones, it reduces losses by preventing
secondary contamination.
• Remove any damaged leaves or yellow-coloured spinach.
• Trimming stems at the base of the vegetables, removing any damaged or unsightly
leaves from the crop, and gently dry brushing the fruit surface to remove dirt and dust.

Cleaning or Disinfecting
Cleaning are necessary to remove soil dust, adhering debris, insects and spray residues.
Chlorine in fresh water is often used as disinfectant to wash the commodity. Only clean water
should be used for washing to protect the produce from contamination (Figure 8.4).

• Wash the vegetables under tap water or in a wash tank to remove dirt, dust, extraneous
matter, pathogenic load and etc.
• Wash vegetables carefully with clean water (preferably with 100 – 150 ppm hypo-
chlorite/chlorine) or soap or calcium hydroxide.
• After washing, the vegetables will then transfer into the washing basket/ container to
filter the excess of water.
• Root vegetables are often washed to remove adhering soil.

Figure 8.4: Chlorinated water application

Current Sanitation Practices for Leafy Green Vegetables For Processors, Retailers and Con-
sumers by Ryan A. Gehringer, Sudhir Sastry and Gönül Kaletunç, availabale at https://ohio-
line.osu.edu/factsheet/aex-261 (Ohioline, Ohio State University Extension) accessed on 27
September 2021, Monday, 1705 pm

Air Drying
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

There are basically 2 ways of drying:

• Sun drying: Sun drying could be done on platforms, clean cemented floors (patios), on
plastic sheets or on tarpaulins. The grains are laid on clean surfaces every day, especially
when sunny.
• Forced air drying: Mechanical dryers – fans that blow hot air through the vegetable– are
also used for drying. The drying is done in batches or in a continuous flow manner.
• After cleaning, wipe the vegetable with dry muslin cloth or air-dried to remove excess sur-
face moisture and excess water to avoid rotting
Sizing
Sizing is the process of categorising the vegetables on the basis of colour, size, stage of ma-
turity.

Packaging
Packaging is enclosing food produce or product to protect it from mechanical injuries and
contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources. Example of packaging mate-
rials: wooden crates, cardboard boxes, woven palm baskets, plastic crates, nylon sacks, jute
sacks, and polythene bags (Figure 8.5).

A B C

Figure 8.5: Example of different packages

A Plastic packaged beans (Woolworths) by Anna Gregory, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecom-

mons.org/licenses/by/2.0/) via Flickr Storm (https://www.fli ckr.com/pho-
tos/144250214@N08/35524291606/)

B. June 19th Organic Vegetable Box by Andy Roberts, CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecom-

mons.org/licenses/by/2.0/) via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/pho-
tos/aroberts/3641343112/)

C. A plastic crate, probably for vegetables by focalpointx, CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecom-

mons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/) via Flickr Storm (https://www.flickr.com/pho-
tos/7634692@N03/472176246/)
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Storage
The marketable life of most fresh vegetables can be extended by prompt storage in an envi-
ronment that maintains product quality. The desired environment can be obtained in facilities
where temperature, air circulation, relative humidity, and sometimes atmosphere composition
can be controlled. An understanding of the correct temperature management during storage
of vegetables are important in extending the shelf life of the fruit whilst maintaining fruit quali-
ties (Figure 8.6).

Dispatch/ Transportation

The product needs to be kept in the best possible condition during transport and properly
loaded on the suitable vehicle.

8.4 Keywords

Maturity stage, fruit quality, container, postharvest practices

8.5 Activity

• Harvest the crop at its mature stage using secateurs or knife.

8.6 Student Observation

Crop Time of Time of Weight before trim- Weight after trim-

Maturity (DAT) Harvesting ming and cleaning (g) ming and cleaning
(am/pm) (g)

8.7 Summary

Postharvest handling is the last stage in the process of producing high quality fresh produce.
The proper methods or technologies of handling the product can minimize the postharvest
losses. Challenges of postharvest handling is to maintain freshness of the product from the
field to the consumer, the careless harvesting methods that can cause damaged product will
reduce the quality and market price. This eventually results in huge economic losses to the
country.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 9: Agricultural Wastes Management

Noraini Md Jaafar

9.1 Introduction

Agricultural wastes are normally generated during post-harvest handling, or during agricul-
tural product processing and end of planting season at the farm. These wastes can be in the
form of leftovers fruit and plant green parts and wastes from planting medium. According to
Malaysia Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), recycling of wastes is highly promoted and is
one of sustainable approaches in sustainable agriculture. These wastes can be transformed
to other forms and repurposes as soil amendments and fertilizer. The wastes can be either
dried or processed, pyrolysed into biochar or composted into value added organic fertilizer.

In order to produce a balance and value-added compost, factors including C (Carbon):N(Ni-

trogen) ratio of the wastes or compost formulation, particle size, moisture, aeration and mi-
croorganisms are important to be considered. For example, larger particle and high C:N
materials may take longer to be composted than the smaller particle and lower C:N. Addition
of Indigenious Microorganisms (IMO) or Effective Microorganisms (EM), suitable moisture
addition and appropriate turning of compost heaps and addition of molasses would improve
the decomposition and composting process, therefore ensuring efficient compost products.
There are no specific ways of making compost, as it may differ based on the amount of com-
post inputs and the materials used. Compost can be in windrow type (figure 9.1) or in con-
tainers (which is suitable for backyard composting) (Figure 9.2) also can be in a room, shel-
ter or in the field.

Composting process may produce smell (odour) and gaseous release and heat, therefore a
close monitoring of the compost bin or compost heap is crucial throughout the process. The
solid products of this composting process is called compost while the leachate is the liquid
products produce during composting. Compost tea can be produced by taking a sachet of
compost and diluted with water. The solid compost can be applied during land preparation
soil amendment and as fertilizer, while the liquid forms (leachate and compost tea) can be
applied as foliar fertilizer. Currently, farmers added worms into compost heaps to fasten the
composting process and the product is called vermicompost.
 PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Figure 9.1: Windrow compost pile by Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA), CC BY 2.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en) via Wikimedia Commons at
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Windrow_building2_(14728380047).jpg )

Figure 9:2: Compost container by Bruce McAdam, CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecom-

mons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en) via Wikimedia Commons at (https://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Compost_bin_cutaway_by_Bruce_McAdam.jpg)

9.2 Objectives

Student will be able to:

1. Identify type of agricultural wastes that can be recycled and formulated for compost-
making
2. Produce compost from agricultural wastes and reapply to soils or plants as fertilizers

9.3 Methodology

A. Material for compost (inputs):

• Chicken manure or goat manure
• Molasses or brown sugar
 PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

• Effective Microorganisms

• Green wastes (freshly cut plant leaves, fruit wastes, banana peels) - must be shredded
• Brown wastes (dried grasses, plant branches, planting medium wastes, rice husks)- must
be shredded
• Additional : coffee wastes, egg shells, kitchen wastes (exclude blood)
• Container for compost making (depend on volume of compost inputs)

B. Methods for compost making:

• Students can be divided into 1-2 groups

• Each members in each groups must ensure to collect wastes beforehand and shred the
wastes into finer particles (1-4 mm)
• During the practical class, students will lay the wastes layer by layer (green wastes-brown
wastes, molasses) into the container
• Molasses, IMO or EM can be added with water and sprayed into the heaps after several
layers
• Repeat the layering and addition of molasses and microorganism.
• The heaps can be compacted half way the layering process until finish
• Close the container and monitor the temperature and composting processes
• Students must monitor and add water accordingly, turning the compost heaps when nec-
essary.

9.4 Keywords

Compost, wastes, C:N, microorganisms, organic fertilizer

9.5 Compost making using EM

Purpose: for rapid conversion and composting process of organic matter into fertilizer

Materials:
1. EM
2. Molasses
3. Compost brown and green input
4. Water
5. Compost bin with aeration inlet

Method:
Step 1: activate EM
Add 5 ml pure EM with 5 ml molasses into 1 L water, mix thoroughly and fermented before
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

being sprayed (or watered) to compost pile.

Step 2: ensure the particle size of the compost input is not too chunky (cut and shred where
necessary), lay the brown and green components layer by layer, water the pile with activated
EM (EM + Molasses + water mixture) in between the layers.

Step 3: observe and ensure to check the compost pile in compost bin to be moist, but not too
wet or too dry. Aerate by turning the compost pile and watering the pile when necessary.

Observations to note:
The smell and heat of the compost pile can be monitored as the composting process in pro-
gress (may take 2 weeks to 4 months depending on the inputs factors such as C/N, particle
size, moisture, aeration etc).
As the compost mature, the change of compost odour, color (turn darker) and particle size may
vary (finer) than the start of composting, these observations can be recorded as well.

Theory to read:
Factors affecting composting, green and brown inputs, phases in composting (mesophilic, ther-
mophillic, mature stages) and the common mistakes during composting.

9.6 Activity
• Look for material that has higher C:N ratio, source of P and K normally used for com-
post material.
• Waste from postharvest of crop should also add as compost material.
• Make the compost using the methods mentioned in 9.3.
• Record the changes of composting process for one month.

9.7 Student Observation

Group: __________
Date compost preparation/making:______________________
Compost Inputs / Raw Materials (Name and descriptions):
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Image of the original compost pile:

Table 9.1 Observation and actions:

Day / Date Odour Colour Other Notes/ Observa- Action
tions

9.8 Summary

Recycling of farm wastes into compost is promoted in sustainable agriculture as a mean to

return the nutrients (from the wastes) back to the soils. The proper methods or technologies
of composting are dependent on wastes; type and volume (capacity). Challenges of compost-
ing is to maintain the right aeration and moisture throughout the composting process to pro-
duce a good quality compost with desirable nutrient content. This compost eventually can be
used as soils amendment with fertilizing values and improving soils and the farm overall input.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

Unit 10: Field Visit

Muhamad Hazim Nazli

10.1 Introduction

Various Malaysians staple item that had been produced via agriculture struggle to meet the
national demand causing low self-sufficiency levels. For decades, the government continu-
ously is making huge efforts in improving the national agriculture industry mainly by starting
with the National Agriculture Policy 1984-1991. Though, many agriculture sectors still strug-
gle to fulfill the government projections until today as agriculture is a complex and ever-
changing system that depends not just on the technical aspect of the production but also
various environment and sociological factors.

The abundance of crops, livestock and aquatic organisms available for cultivation with vari-
ous specific requirement highlights the complexity of agriculture management especially in
integrated farming. Apart from that, most agriculture produce are bound to the erratic
weather in determining the quantity and quality of those produce. In this situation, the im-
portance of good agriculture management is highlighted as human can only adapt to the
environment rather than changing it drastically. A developing country including Malaysia still
depends heavily on smallholders and large-scale farms that are still rely on manual labour
for their productions. These agriculture producers then interact with the consumers through
the human controlled market chain. These human interactions from production until con-
sumption further complicate today modern agriculture management thus demanding it to be
more dynamic.

In conclusion, the modern agriculture system does not only have to be technically species-
specific but also assimilates with the diversity contributed by the ever-changing natural en-
vironment and human society. Hence, the students need to realize the complexity of the
agriculture system in addition to the massive efforts that are needed by the farmers in bringing
food from farm to the table. In doing so, a field visit must be done to expose the students
towards various sectors in agriculture system ranging from upstream until downstream ac-
tivities.

10.2 Objectives
Student will be able:
1. To exposed to the current agriculture activities within UPM and nearby areas.
2. To comprehend the various activities in upstream and downstream agriculture.
3. To understand the various hurdles and risks in agriculture activities.
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

10.3 Methodology
1. The class must choose a location of any upstream or downstream activities within the
agriculture system. Locations with both type of activities and near with the university
are encouraged. For better understanding, the management must be able to give brief
explanation regarding each process of the selected production system. It is best if the
students were given the opportunity to be involved with the production process. The
students should be encouraged to ask questions regarding the agriculture manage-
ment practised there. The proposed visit time is during the practical time but the clas-
ses may allocate a longer period depending on the group consensus subjected to the
university approval.

2. The students should be divided into smaller groups for them to discuss their observa-
tions, reflect and prepare a report of the field visit. The report must incorporate what
have been learned during the lecture and practical sessions. The report can be sub-
mitted via Putrablastdk or presented in the class. Assessment via video recording of
the discussion or debate are encouraged.

10.4 Keywords
• Agriculture system, productions, upstream and downstream activities.

10.5 Activity

• The students need to take notes and picture of each process shown by the manage-
ment.
• Group report must be done in detail regarding the processes observed followed by
reflections.
• Assessment through group presentation and video recording of the report is optional.

10.6 Student Observation

1. Agriculture related activities that had been exposed during the field trip
2. Connect what had been observed with what had been learned during the lecture and
practical sessions.
3. Summarize all the observations either good or bad in report or presentation session.

10.7 Summary
Agriculture is a complex and ever-changing system that depends on various technical aspect
of the production as well as the environment and sociological factors. There are myriad of
PRT2009-Agriculture and Life PJJ, UPM / UPMET

sectors in agriculture that can be broadly classified in either upstream or downstream activi-
ties. The students should understand the complexity of the agriculture system that require
massive efforts by various industrial players especially the farmers and appreciate all of the
efforts that are needed in bringing food from farm to our table.