Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

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Chapter 1

Flowering Plants = Angiosperms

Reproduction:
1. Sexual Reproduction (Syngamy) - Involves formation and fusion of gametes.
It is a complex and slower process.
Also called -
AMPHIMIXIS (Both gametes mixing)

2. Asexual Reproduction - Without fusion of gametes.

Gametes may or may not be involved.
Also called -
APOMIXIS (No mixing of gametes)

Site of Sexual Reproduction - Flower

Content of the topic:

1. Flower

2. Male Sex Organ (MSO) - Stamen

3. Microsporogenesis (micro spores formed by MSO)

4. Male gametogenesis

5. Female Sex Organ (FSO) - Carpal

6. Megasporogenesis

7. Female gametogenesis

8. Pollination

9. Fertilization - Double Fertilization & Triple Fusion

10. Zygote - Embryogenesis

11. Seed & Fruit Formation

12. Seed Germination

Flower
Most fascinating organ of Angiosperms.

Flowers are Morphological marvels. (as they appear different than the whole plant body)

Flowers are Embryological marvels. (as flowers form fruits, which form seeds, which in turn form
new plants)

All flowering plants show sexual reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 1

 Flowering Plants are heterosporous i.e. they produce 2 kind of spores: Microspores (Male Spore) &
Megaspores (Female Spore)

Floriculture - Science of cultivation, breeding and marketing of flowers.

Capsella is a typical Angiosperm.

Parts of a Flower:

Pedicel - Stalk of Flower (Modified stem)

Thalamus - Terminal Part of Pedicel

Sepal - Protect flower in bud stage. Also perform photosynthesis. (Accessory Whorl)
Group of Sepals - Calyx (denoted by letter ‘K’)

Petal - Attract insects for pollination. (Accessory Whorl)

Group of Petals - Corolla (denoted by letter ‘C’)

Stamen - Male Sex Organ. Made up of Anther & Filament. (Essential Whorl)

Group of Stamen - Androecium (denoted by letter ‘A’)

Carpel - Female Sex Organ. Made up of Stigma, Style & Ovary. (Essential Whorl)
Group of Carpels - Gynoecium (denoted by letter ‘G’)

K, C, A & G are the 4 Whorls of a Flower.

If all 4 present - Flower is Complete

If even 1 of the 4 is missing - Flower is Incomplete

If both A & G are present - Flower is Perfect/Bisexual

If either A or G present - Flower is Imperfect/Unisexual (Male or Female)

💡 According to the scientist Goethe, flower is a modified shoot in which internodes do not
elongate, instead the axis of the internodes get condensed to form thalamus. While the 4
whorls of a flower are nothing but modified leaves.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 2

 Differentiation of plants on the basis of flowering:
Monocarpic: Flowering & fruiting takes place only once in the whole life span. E.g. -

Annual Plants (life span - 1 season): Mustard, Wheat, Rice etc.

Biennial Plants (life span - 2 seasons): Radish, Carrot etc.

Polycarpic: Flowering & fruiting takes place many times in their life span.
E.g. - Perennial Plants (life span - many years): Mango, Lichi, Guava etc.

Exceptions: Bamboo (50-100 years) and Strobilanthus kunthiana - Neela Kurengi (12 years) are
perennial but monocarpic.

Events of Sexual Reproduction

Categorised into:

1. Pre-fertilisation

2. Fertilisation - Double fertilisation & Triple fusion

3. Post-fertilisation - Embryo, seed, fruit, germination

Male Reproductive Whorl: Androecium (A)

Epipetalous - The condition in which stamen is fused with petal.

Anther:
They are bilobed with each lobe having 2 theca (pollen sack), i.e., they are dithecous &
tetrasporangiate.
Often a longitudinal groove runs lengthwise the anther, separating the theca.
The two anther lobes are connected by a parenchymatous tissue.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 3

 Bilobed & Tetrasporangiate (Maximum plants)

Exception: In Malvaceae plant - 1 lobe & 2 pollen theca i.e. Monothecous

Histology of Anther

Structure of Anther:
i. Epidermis - Single-celled outermost protective layer.

ii. Endothecium - Single-celled layer, the outer walls of which remain thin, but inner walls and
radial walls become thick due to thickening of α-cellulose fibres. The endothecium becomes
hygroscopic (moisture absorbing) in nature due to the presence of fibrous thickening.
Their main function is to help in
DEHISCENCE of anther.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 4

 At some places, fibrous thickenings are absent, these are called Stomium.

iii. Middle Layers - 1-3 celled thick. Food is stored by Parenchymatous cells in this layer. It is
ephemeral (short-lived) in nature & is absent in mature anther.

iv. Tapetum - Single-celled thick. Innermost layer acts as a nutritive layer to Microspore mother
cells. Its cells have dense cytoplasm. Initially they are diploid but they become polyploid &
multi-nucleated due to endomitosis & free nuclear division respectively.
They have to become very efficient in their function & thus they increase the amount of their
DNA (polyploidy: 2n → 4n → 8n)
It disappears in mature anther.

FUNCTIONS:

Provide nutrition to microspore mother cell & developing pollen grains.

Synthesize and secrete - enzymes, hormones, sporopollenin (complex organic compound,

most resistant material), pollen Kitt substance (oil/fat, lipids, carotenoids, sugars).

Before degeneration, they form Proubisch bodies in cytoplasm where they get surrounded
by the sporopollenin produced earlier to form Ubisch bodies or Orbicules.

The Ubisch bodies (sporopollenin) participate in formation of outer cover of pollen grains
called Exine.

Callase enzyme which dissolves callose of tetrad of microspores to separate 4 microspores

is provided by tapetum.

Microsporogenesis:
Microspore Mother Cells - Forms sporogenous tissue.

Microsporogenesis

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 5

 Pollen tetrads of Angiosperms

Aristolochia elegans is a plant which forms all 5 types of tetrads.

Structure of Pollen Grain

Size of pollen grain: 25-50 µ (micron)

Array / design / ornamentation of exine in pollen grains is very specific.

Study of pollen grain: Palynology

Pollen grains have maximum fossils because the sporopollenin is resistant to decomposition.

💡 Fun fact: If pollen grain fossils are found while digging there might be plants buried
nearby i.e. fossil fuel.

Structure of a mature (2-celled) pollen grain. Formed by 1 meiosis & 1 mitosis. Also called
partially developed male gametophyte.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 6

 Structure of a mature (2-celled) pollen grain.

1. Exine - It is rigid and thick, made up of Ubisch bodies (sporopollenin).

2. Intine - It is flexible as it is made up of pectin and cellulose. It bulges out slightly at germ
pores and later in pollination forms pollen tube through the germ pores.

3. Germ pore - Formed due to absence of exine.

4. Generative Cell - Floating in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell.

💡 A 3-celled male gametophyte formed by mitosis in Generative Cell of 2-celled male

gametophyte is called a Mature male gametophyte. Thus, it is formed by 1 meiosis & 2
mitosis.

Pollen tablets are available in the market for supplement food.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 7

 Aero-allergens:
Pollen grains of many species cause severe allergies and bronchial afflictions in some people
aften leading to chronic respiratory disorders like asthma, bronchitis etc.
E.g. - Chenopodium (Bathua), Parthenium (Congress/Carrot grass - Exotic plant. It has become
ubiquitous i.e. it is found everywhere.)

Viability of Pollen Grains:

The Period for which pollen grains remain viable is highly variable and to some extent
depends on prevailing temperature and humidity.

Rosaceae, Leguminous & Solanaceae - For months

Rice & Wheat - within 30 mins

Pollen Banks

Cryopreservation - It is possible to store pollen grains of a large number of species for years in
liquid nitrogen (-196℃). Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks,
in crop breeding programmes.

Development of male gametophyte: Pre-pollination

Mature pollen Grains consist of 2 cells:

Vegetative Cell Generative Cell

1. Bigger 1. Smaller

2. Abundant food reserve. 2. Spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm.

3. Float in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell.

3. Large & irregularly shaped nucleus.

Female Reproductive Whorl: Gynoecium/Pistil (G)

Differentiation on the basis of number of carpels:

1. Monocarpellary: Single carpel. Always free i.e. apocarpous.

2. Multicarpellary: More than one carpel. It has 2 types -

a. Apocarpous i.e. Free carpels. E.g. - Rose, Lotus, Michelia etc.

b. Syncarpous i.e. Fused carpels. E.g. - Papaver, Hibiscus etc.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 8

 Structure of Carpel:

Carpel

Structure of Ovule (Integumented Megasporangium)

Anatropous Ovule. Embryo Sac is 7 celled but 8 nucleated as Central Cell is binucleated. Nucellus.

Questions related to position of different cells would be answered according to Orthotropous ovule.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 9

 Orthotropous/Straight/Basic/Fundamental Ovule

Types of Ovules on the basis of Integuments:

1. Unitegmic - One Integument. Maximum Gymnosperms.

2. Bitegmic - Two Integuments. Maximum Angiosperms.

3. Tritegmic - Three Integuments

ARIL is a type of 3rd integument which develops from funicle at the base of the ovule.

E.g. - Fleshy/pulpy part of Lichi

Megasporogenesis
Process of formation of megaspores from MMC or megaspore mother cells (one cell of nucellus)
is called megasporogenesis.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 10

 Megaspore - 1n, Female Gametophyte - 1n.

💡 Only 1 out of 4 Megaspore formed by meiosis survive, which is nearest to the Chalazal
end.

Development of Embryo Sac from the sole surviving megaspore:

i. The nucleus divides into 2, then further divides into 4 & then 8 by free nuclear division.

ii. The 8 nuclei are located in groups of 4 on opposite ends - Micropylar end & Chalazal end.

iii. Then, 1 nucleus from each of the 2 groups come to the center, providing 2 Polar nuclei for
Central Cell.

iv. The rest nuclei, left in groups of 3 on each end get into cells of their own, making Egg
Apparatus on the Micropylar end & Antipodal Cells on the Chalazal end.

v. Thus, the mature embryo sac now contains 7 cells and 8 nuclei.

Functions of Filiform apparatus:

1. Absorption of nutrition from nucellus.

2. To guide pollen tube toward embryo tag by secreting some chemicals.

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 Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains (shed from the anther) to the stigma of a pistil.

Flowering plants have evolved an amazing array of adaptations to achieve pollination. They make
use of external agents to achieve pollination.

Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be divided into

three types:

1. Autogamy/Self Pollination - In same flower.

Requirements:

Plant must be bisexual.

Synchrony must be present in pollen release and stigma receptivity.

The anther and the stigma should lie close to each other

2. Geitonogamy - Between different flowers of same plant.

Geitonogamy is genetically autogamy (as plant is same) but functionally or ecologically it is

cross pollination.

3. Xenogamy/Allogamy/True Cross Pollination - Between different plants.

This is the only type of pollination which during pollination brings genetically different types of
pollen grains to the stigma.

Division of plants on the basis of presence of A & G:

a. Monoecious Plants:

Plant is Bisexual (A & G), but flower is Unisexual (A or G).

Prevent Autogamy but not Geitonogamy.

E.g. - Castor, Cucurbits, Coconut & Maize.

b. Dioecious Plants:

Plant & flower both are Unisexual (A or G).

Prevent both Autogamy and Geitonogamy.

E.g. - Papaya, Date palm.

Adaptations for self-pollination/inbreeding/selfing:

1. Monocliny - Bisexual flower. E.g. - Pea

2. Homogamy - Synchrony (same time maturity) in pollen release and stigma receptivity. E.g. - Pea

3. Cleistogamy - Flowers that never bloom are called cleistogamous flowers. These are often
underground while the flowers above ground bloom.

ln some plants bisexual flowers are formed which never open throughout their life.

In such flowers, the anthers and stigma lie close to each other.

When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains come in contact with the stigma to
effect pollination (syngamy).

Thus, cleistogamous flowers are invariably (w/o exceptions) autogamous as there is no chance
of cross-pollen landing on the stigma.

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 Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence of pollinators.

E.g. - Commelina, Viola (Common pansy) , Oxalis

4. Bud Pollination - Pollination inside closed bud. E.g. - Pea, Wheat, Rice

Adaptations for cross-pollination/outbreeding:

1. Dicliny - Unisexual flower. E.g. - Date palm, Papaya & Maize

2. Dichogamy - No synchrony (different time maturity) in pollen release and stigma receptivity. E.g. -
Ficus, Salvia & Sunflower

3. Chasmogamy - Flowers that bloom are called chasmogamous flowers. They have exposed stigma
and anther.
It is the primary requirement for cross pollination
Most flowers show Chasmogamy.

4. Heterostyly - Occurrence of different types of styles.

Heterostyly

5. Self sterility / Self incompatibility - This is a genetic mechanism to prevent self pollen (from the
same flower or other flower of the same plant) from fertilising the ovules by inhibiting pollen
germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil. E.g. - Petunia, Tobacco

💡 Anthesis - First time blooming of floral bud.

Agents of Pollination:

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 13

 1. Abiotic : Non-living

Anemophily - By Wind

Hydrophily - By Water

2. Biotic : Living (Zoophily)

Abiotic Agents:

Only a small proportion of plants use abiotic agents.

Pollen grains coming in contact with stigma is a chance factor in both wind and water pollination.

To compensate for this uncertainties and associated loss of pollen grains, the flowers produce
enormous amount of pollen grains when compared to the number of ovules available for
pollination.

Both wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and do not produce nectar.

Anemophily (Wind pollination):

More common amongst abiotic pollinations.
Features of anemophilous flowers:

a. The anemophilous flowers produce enormous amount of pollen grains.

b. The pollen grains are very small, light weight and dry (non-sticky).

c. They often possess well exposed stamens so that the pollens are easily dispersed into wind
currents.

d. Winged pollen grains present, called Pinus.

e. Stigma is large, often hairy/feathery and mucilaginous (sticky), to easily trap air borne pollen
grains.

Other Features:

a. The anemophilous flowers neither attractive nor with fragrance.

b. They do not have nectar glands.

c. Generally unisexual.

d. Often have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers are packed into an inflorescence.
E.g. - Corn cob.

e. Wind pollination is quite common in grasses.

E.g. - Gymnosperms, maize (corn), sugarcane, bamboo, coconut,
Cannabis, grasses, date palm, papaya

Disadvantages of anemophily:

a. Maximum loss of pollen grains takes place in this type of pollination.

b. It is completely non directional process.

Hydrophily (Water pollination):

Not all aquatic plants show hydrophily. Most show anemophily or entomophily.

Pollination by water is quite rare in flowering plants and is limited to about 30 genera, mostly
monocotyledons.

Hydrophily is of 2 types:

1. Epihydrophily: Occurs on the surface of water. E.g. - Vallisneria.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 14

 2. Hypohydrophily: When the pollination takes place below the water surface. E.g. - Zostera
(sea grass - exine breaks from pollen grains and the intine stretches to make a ribbon like
shape)
In most of t he water pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from wetting by a
mucilaginous covering.

Biotic Agents (Zoophily):

Entomophily - By insects

Ornithophily - By birds

Chiropterophily - By bats

Myrmecophily - By ants and termites

Malacophily - By Snail

Ophiophily - By Snake

Entomophily:
Among the animals, insects, particularly
bees (80% contribution) are the dominant biotic pollinating agents
Flowers are large, attractive, fragrant and with nectar glands.

In smaller flowers, a number of flowers are clustered together into an inflorescence to make them
conspicuous (visible).
Flies & Beetles pollinate foul-smelling flowers.
Night flowering plants are pollinated by Moths. They are highly scented and there flowers are generally
white coloured.
Pollen grains of insect pollinated flowers become sticky due to presence of pollen kitt.

Floral Rewards:

Nectar and pollen grains are usual floral rewards.

In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs.
e.g. Yucca, Amorphophallus (tallest flower : 6-7 feet height)

Yucca plant provide space to deposits eggs of moth in the locule of the ovary and the flower, in
turn, gets pollinated by the moth. (Essential - Obligatory symbiosis)

Pollen / Nectar robbers:

Many insects may consume pollen or the nectar without bringing about pollination, such floral visitors
are referred to as pollen /
nectar robbers.

Fertilization
The fusion of male & female gamete is called fertilization.

The process is completed in the following steps:

i. Germination of pollen grains on stigma.

ii. Entry of pollen tube into ovule

iii. Entry of pollen tube into embryo sac

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 15

 iv. Double fertilization

Fertilisation with the help of pollen tube is called - Siphonogamy

Pollen-Pistil Interaction

All events from pollen deposition on stigma until the entry of pollen tube into ovule are together
referred as pollen-pistil interaction. (rapid/dynamic process)

They are genetically controlled processes.

If a pollen grain is not suitable (incompatible) for a stigma, it gets rejected.

If a pollen grain is suitable (compatible) for a stigma, then intine of vegetative (main) cell escapes
through germ pore in the form of pollen tube.

There are 2 types of STYLE:

Solid - Has transmission tissue

Hollow - Doesn’t have transmission tissue

Every pollen tube carries 2 gametes. Generative cell undergoes mitosis to form 2 non-motile male
gametes carried by pollen tube.

There is chemotropic movement of pollen tube, mainly due to Boron, in Filiform Apparatus in
Synergid Cells. Other chemicals responsible - Calcium, Sugar, Inositol.

Entry of pollen grain into ovule:

Pollen tube always enters through micropyle.

If it directly enters through Micropyle, its called Porogamy. E.g. - Most Angiosperms.

If it first enters the Chalaza and goes around the ovary to reach the micropyle, its called
Chalazogamy.

If it first enters the Funicle or Integument and goes around the ovary to reach the micropyle, its
called Mesogamy.

Double Fertilization & Triple Fusion

Entry of pollen grain into embryo sac:

Pollen tube reaches 1 of the 2 Synergid Cells which degenerates.

Pollen tube liberates its content into the Degenerating Synergid Cell.

2 male gametes are carried by the pollen tube for Double Fertilisation:

1. True Fertilisation (Syngamy) - The first one fuses with the egg/ovum in the Egg Cell to form
Zygote (2n - Diploid).

2. False Fertilisation (Triple Fusion) - The second one fuses with the 2 polar nuclei (or the polar
nuclei might have already fused forming a secondary nucleus) to form the Primary
Endosperm Nucleus (3n - Triploid).

After fertilisation, Synergid Cells and Antipodal Cells degenerate.

Unique character of angiosperms.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 16

 After Fusion.

Post-Fertilization Events: Structure & Events:

Endosperm (nutritive tissue) development.

Embryo development - Embryogeny

Maturation of ovule into seeds.

Over into fruit.

💡 Endosperm development precedes embryo development.

Development of Endosperm:

The PEC (Primary Endosperm Cell) divides repeatedly and forms a triploid (3n) endosperm tissue.

The cells of this tissue are filled with reserve food materials and are used for nutrition of
developing embryo.

Endosperm is of two types on the basis of development:

1. Nuclear endosperm or free nuclear endosperm - Maximum Angiosperm

2. Cellular Endosperm

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 17

 Special Points -

Endosperm is absent in some angiosperms. E.g. - Orchidacae & Trapaceae

Maize and tomato have mosaic endosperm in which patches of different colors are present.

The drinking portion (Coconut water) is Nuclear Endosperm an edible portion (white kernel) is
the Cellular Endosperm in coconut.

Starchy endosperm is found in rice, wheat, maize etc.

Embryo:
Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.

Most zygotes divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed. This is an adaptation to
provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo.

Though the seeds differ greatly, the early stages of embryo development (embryogeny) are similar
in both monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

Development of dicot embryo:

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 18

 💡 The function of suspensor is to push the embryo toward endosperm to provide more food.

Cotyledon:

Dicot & Monocot Cotyledons

Epiblast - Remanent of the 2nd cotyledon proving that Monocots are advanced.

Life cycle of Angiosperms: Diplontic

Main generation - Sporophyte
Flower:

Carpel (Megasporophyll) -Sporophyte- Stamen (Microsporophyll)

Ovule (Megasporangium) Pollen sac (Microsporangium)
Megaspore Mother Cell (1) Sporophyte 2n Microspore Mother Cell (many)

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 19

 Megaspore (1 of 4 survives) gametophyte n Microspore (All 4 survive)
Female gametophyte (Embryo sac) Male gametophyte (3 cell, 3 nuclei)
(7 cell, 8 nuclei) 2 Male Gametes
Fem. Gamete, Sec. Nucleus

Female Gamete + Male Gamete Secondary Nucleus + Male Gamete

Syngamy (True Fertilization) Triple Fusion (False Fertilization)
Zygote (2n) (Oospore) Endosperm (3n)
Embryo ← nutrition
Seed (Ovule + Embryo)
Germination

Angiospermic Plant (Sporophyte)

💡 Q) Why do you think Zygote is dormant for some time in a fertilised state?
A) Zygote requires nutrition to develop into embryo, which is provided by endosperm, so it
has to wait for the development of endosperm.

Seed (Ovule + Embryo)

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 20

 Fertilized ovule is known as seed. (Final product of sexual reproduction)

In other words, seed is a mature fertilized, integumented megasporangium (Ovule) formed inside
fruits.

Seed consists of -

1. Micropyle - Seed Pore

2. Hilum - Scar like structure, point of attachment with fruit wall.

3. Seed Coat - Testa (outer), Tegmen (inner)

4. Embryo -

a. Embryonal Axis - Plumule, Epicotyl, Hypocotyl, Radicle

b. Cotyledons - Simple structures, generally thick & swollen due to storage of food reserves
(as in legumes).

5. Endosperm - Triploid

Types of seeds:

1. Non-Endospermic/Non-Albuminous - Endosperm at maturity absent, completely consumed

during embryo development.
E.g. Most Dicots - gram, pea, bean, ground nut. But in castor (dicot), seeds are endospermic.

2. Endospermic/Albuminous - Endosperm at maturity present, not completely consumed during

embryo development.
E.g. Most Monocots - wheat, rice, coconut, barley and maize etc. But in orchid (monocot), seeds
are non-endospermic.

Structure of Seed

1. Dicot Seed (Gram)

2. Monocot Seed (Maize - Corn)

Maize Grain = Caryopsis - Single seeded fruit in which fruit wall and seed coat are fused.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 21

 Aleurone Layer helps in seed germination.

💡 Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta - Non Seeded Plants

They produce motile male gamete - Water is required for fertilization.

Advantages of Seed

Since reproductive processes such as pollination and fertilization are independent of water,
seed formation is more reliable.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 22

 Seeds can become Dormant for a period of time in unfavourable conditions.

Better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats.

Provides nourishment to embryo. (by endosperm or nucellus or cotyledon)

Provides protection to the young embryo. (by hard seed coat)

Generates new genetic combinations leading to variations. (evolution)

Seeds are the basis of agriculture.

Seed Viability

In a few species, the seeds lose viability in a few months.

Large number of species seed remain viable for several years.

Some seed can remain alive for 100s of years. There are several records of very old viable
seeds.

E.g. – Lupine – Lupinus arcticus excavated from Artic Tundra (10,000 years of dormancy)

E.g. – Date Palm – Phoenix dactylifera discovered during the archaeological excavation at King
Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea. (2000 years old viable seed)

Number of Seeds in a Fruit

Generally equal to or less than the number of ovules (not all are fertilized) in an ovary.

Orchid fruit contains thousands of tiny seeds (dust seeds - very small) .

Parasitic species like Orobanche and Striga also have many seeds in a fruit.

Factors Affecting Seed Germination

Moisture/water :- 75 to 95% (Primary Requirement)

Oxygen (Makes ATP available)

Temperature :- 20 to 25°C (Optimum)

Nutrition (Good for germination)

Light (Most seeds do not need light.)

Seed Dormancy

Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats.

The micropyle remains as a small pore in the seed coat.

This facilitates entry of oxygen and water into the seed during germination.

As the seed matures, its water content is reduced, and seeds become relatively dry (10-15 per
cent moisture by mass). - DORMANT

The general metabolic activity of the embryo slows down. The embryo may enter a state of
inactivity called dormancy, or if favourable conditions are available (adequate moisture, oxygen
and suitable temperature), they germinate.

Seed Germination

1. Epigeal Germination - Cotyledon Above Soil - Mostly Dicots

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 23

 2. Hypogeal Germination - Cotyledon Below Soil

3. Viviparous Germination - Germination of plant inside the fruit, when present on mother plant.
E.g. - Mangrove Plants, Rhizophora

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 24

 💡 Perisperm - Occasionally, in some seeds such as black pepper and beet, remnants of
nucellus are also persistent.
This residual, persistent nucellus is the perisperm.

In Epigeal generation, more growth is performed by Hypocotyl.

In Hypogeal generation, more growth is performed by Epicotyl.

The Fruit (Ripened/Mature Ovary)

Characteristic feature of the flowering plants (Angiosperms).

Mature or ripened ovary, developed after fertilization

PERICARP (Fruit Wall)

After ripening, the ovary wall changes into pericarp.

Pericarp may be thick and fleshy or thick and hard or thin and soft.

In fleshy fruits, pericarp is generally differentiated into these 3 parts:

1. Epicarp/Exocarp - Outermost

2. Mesocarp - Middle

3. Endocarp - Innermost

In dry fruits pericarp is not differentiated into different parts.

Fruits

There are 3 types of fruits:

1. True Fruits (Eucarpic) - Develop only from Ovary.

E.g. - Lichi, Mango

2. False Fruits (Pseudocarpic) - Develop from parts other than Ovary.

E.g. - Apple, Pear, Cashew nut, and Strawberry.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 25

 3. Parthenocarpic Fruits - Fruit formed without fertilization of ovary

These are seedless fruits.

E.g. Grapes, banana, papaya, watermelon (fruits in which seeds are not eaten)

In Pomegranate, Parthenocarpy is harmful.

Parthenocarpy - Without fertilization, Ovary turns into Fruit.

Parthenogenesis - Without fertilization, egg cell (ovule) turns into embryo.

Asexual Reproduction
2 types:

1. Vegetative Propagation

2. Apomixis/Agamospermy

Vegetative Propagation:

By Roots: Asparagus, Dahlia

By Stem: Rhizome, Tuber, Corm, Bulb, Runner, Offset, Stolon, Sucker, Phylloclade of Opuntia

By Leaves: Bryophyllum

By Fleshy Buds: Bulbil - Agave

Apomixis/Agamospermy: Formation of seed w/o fertilisation

Although seeds, in general are the products of fertilisation, a few flowering plant such as some
species of Asteraceae and grasses, have evolved a special mechanism, to produce seeds without
fertilisation, called apomixis.

Such seeds are - Apomictic Seeds

Such genes are - Apomictic Genes

Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual

reproduction.

Ways of Development of Apomictic Seeds:

1. Diplospory - Formation of Diploid (2n) spore.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 26

 In some species, megaspore mother cell directly acts as megaspore and forms diploid embryo sac
and diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division or meiosis hence diploid embryo is formed
without fertilisation.

2. Adventive embryony - Formation of Embryo outside Embryo sac.

In many Citrus and mango varieties some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac start
dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into the embryos. (Polyembryony)

3. Apospory - No spore formation.

In some species megaspore is not formed and diploid embryo sac and diploid egg cell is formed
without meiosis from any cell of nucellus hence diploid embryo is formed without fertilisation.

Agamospermy

Hybrid Varieties:

Hybrid varieties of several of our food and vegetable crops are being extensively cultivated.

Cultivation of hybrids has tremendously increased productivity.

Problems of Hybrids

Hybrid seeds have to be produced every year. If the seeds collected from hybrids are sown,
the plants in the progeny will segregate and do not maintain hybrid characters.

Production of hybrid seeds is costly.

If these hybrids are made into apomicts, there is no segregation of characters in the hybrid
progeny. Then the farmers can keep on using the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year after
year and he does not have to buy hybrid seeds every year.

Because of the importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry, active research is going on in
many laboratories around the world to understand the genetics of apomixis and to transfer
apomictic genes into hybrid varieties.

Pollen viability test

We can easily study pollen germination by dusting some pollen from flowers such as Pea,
Chickpea, Crotalaria, Balsam and Vinca on a glass slide containing a drop of sugar solution

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 27

 (about 10 per cent).

After about 15–30 minutes, observe the slide under the low power lens of the microscope. We
can see pollen tubes coming out of the pollen grains.

Artificial hybridization

A breeder is interested in crossing different species and often genera to combine desirable
characters to produce commercially ‘superior’ varieties.

Artificial hybridisation is one of the major approaches of crop improvement program.

In such crossing experiments it is important to make sure that only the desired pollen grains are
used for pollination and the stigma is protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen).

This is achieved by emasculation and bagging techniques.

If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal of anthers from the flower bud before the
anther dehisces using a pair of forceps is necessary. This step is referred to as emasculation.

Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size, generally made up of
butter paper, to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This process is
called bagging.

When the stigma of bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen grains collected from
anthers of the male parent are dusted on the stigma, and the flowers are rebagged, and the
fruits allowed to develop.

If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. The female
flower buds are bagged before the flowers open. When the stigma becomes receptive,
pollination is carried out using the desired pollen and the flower rebagged.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 28