Stability

Stability is the inherent quality of an aircraft to correct for conditions that may disturb its
equilibrium and to return to or to continue on the original flight path. It is primarily an aircraft
design characteristic. The flight paths and attitudes aircraft flies are limited by the aerodynamic
characteristics of the aircraft, its propulsion system, and its structural strength.
Static Stability
Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of movement, back to equilibrium.
● Positive static stability—the initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original state
of equilibrium after being disturbed.
● Neutral static stability—the initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new condition
after its equilibrium has been disturbed.
● Negative static stability—the initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the
original state of equilibrium after being disturbed.
Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from a given pitch,
yaw, or bank.
● Positive dynamic stability—over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in
amplitude and, because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium
state.
● Neutral dynamic stability—once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor
increases in amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency.
● Negative dynamic stability—over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and
becomes more divergent.
Longitude Stability (pitching)
Longitudinal stability is the quality that makes an aircraft stable about its lateral axis. It involves
the pitching motion as the aircraft’s nose moves up and down in flight. A longitudinally unstable
aircraft has a tendency to dive or climb progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even a
stall.
Three factors of longitude stability:
1. Location of the wing with respect to the CG
2. Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect to the CG
3. Area or size of the tail surfaces
The longitudinal axis is an imaginary line running from the nose to the tail of the aircraft, motion
about this axis is called "roll," controlled by the ailerons
Longitudinal stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to the trimmed angle of attack
Accomplished through elevators and rudders
Contributors:
● Straight wings (negative)
● Wing Sweep (positive)
● Fuselage (negative)
● Horizontal stabilizer (largest positive)
An aerodynamic center aft of Center of Gravity (C.G.) is a stabilizing moment
An aerodynamic center forward of C.G. is a de-stabilizing moment
Lateral Stability (rolling)
The lateral axis is an imaginary line running from wing tip to wing tip; movement about this axis
causes the nose of the aircraft to raise or lower and is caused by moving the elevators
Lateral stability is the tendency of an aircraft to resist roll
Dihedral Effect:
● Dihedral is evident when an aircraft rolls, creating a side-slip (assume no rudder)
● One of the wings is lower than the other, creating an angle of attack difference for each
wing
● The lower wing has an increase in the angle of attack, which causes it to create more lift
and therefore rise, while the opposite is true for the higher win
● The net result is the aircraft rolling away from the side-slip, thus resisting roll and
attempting to bring the wings back to level
● Use of the rudder will smoothen the turn and overcome these forces as well as others,
such as adverse yaw
Swept Wing Effect:
● Side-slips create more direct relative wind to the upwind swept wing, which creates a roll
toward wings level
Vertical Stability (yawing)
The vertical axis is an imaginary line running from the top of the plane to the bottom of the plane
The rudder controls rotation about this axis and is called "yaw"
Tendency to resist yawing
The more surface area behind the CG, the more directional stability
Dutch Roll:
● Coupling of the lateral and directional axes causes Dutch roll
● Dutch roll is a combined yawing-rolling motion of the aircraft but may only be a
nuisance unless allowed to progress to large bank angles
● Large rolling and yawing motions can become dangerous unless properly damped
● The side-slip disturbance will cause the aircraft to roll
● The bank angle, in turn, causes a side-slip in the opposite direction
● While not unstable, this continual trade-off of side-slip and angle of bank is
uncomfortable
● Dutch roll may be excited by rough air or by lateral-directional over-controlling
● Once induced, normal aircraft stability dampens the effect
● Poor Dutch roll characteristics may make the aircraft susceptible to pilot induced
oscillations
● Lateral-directional PIO is most common when the pilot attempts to line up in the landing
configuration
Lift
● Lift is the critical aerodynamic force that brings an aircraft to fly
● The dynamic effect of the air moving across an airfoil produces lift
● Common airfoils include not just the wings but the flaps/slats, and stabilizers too
● Most see a lift vector as acting "up," but instead, it acts perpendicular to the relative wind and
the lateral axis of the aircraft
● This means "up" is relative to the aircraft, and being in a turn or even upside down
changes the direction the lift vector points (a key principle in understanding turn
performance and aerobatics)
● Lift concentrates from the Center of Lift/Pressure
● In straight and level flight, to be effective, the total lift must overcome the total weight of the
aircraft, comprised of the actual weight and the tail-down force used to control the aircraft's
pitch attitude
● It is important to note that lift has no reference to Earth. This means that when performing a
loop, for example, the lift vector is still perpendicular to the relative wind, which would have
the lift vector pointing toward the ground as the aircraft becomes inverted
● Creation of lift can be understood by observing Bernoulli's principle as well as Newton's
Laws of Motion
Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli's principle demonstrates that as the velocity of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases,
the pressure within the fluid decreases
A1V1P1 = A2V2P2
A = Area, V = Velocity, and P = Pressure
Assuming area is constant, you get: V1P1 = V2P2
The formula shows that as the velocity of fluid (air) increases, its pressure must decrease.
Relating this principle to an airfoil, we see a similar shape. The rounded upper surface increases
the velocity of the air, which causes pressure to decrease. As pressure above the wing decreases,
the relative pressure below it is higher, creating a pressure differential which we know as lift.
Coanda Effect
The Coanda Effect provides another important explanation for lift. While the shape of a wing
(airfoil) is designed to create differences in air pressure, the Coanda Effect explains that a wing’s
trailing edge must be sharp, and it must be aimed diagonally downward if it is to create lift. Both
the upper and lower surfaces of the wing act to deflect the air. The upper surface deflects air
downwards because the airflow “sticks” to the wing surface and follows the tilted wing down.
This phenomenon is also called Flow Attachment. After the wing has passed through the air, the
air must remain flowing downwards for the lifting force to work.

Parts of an Aircraft
Fuselage:
The fuselage is the principal structural unit of an aircraft
The fuselage is designed to accommodate the crew, passengers, cargo, instruments, and other
essential equipment.
Wings:
Wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that
support the airplane in flight
Wings may be attached at the top ("high-wing"), middle ("mid-wing"), or lower ("low-wing")
portion of the fuselage
Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are
called biplanes
Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of
wing structure is called semi-cantilever
A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the
loads without external struts
The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers
The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil)
In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks are either an integral part of the wing's structure or
consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing
Attached to the rear, or trailing edges, of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to
as ailerons and flaps
Ailerons:
Ailerons are control surfaces on each wing which control the aircraft about its longitudinal axis
allowing the aircraft to "roll" or "bank"
This action results in the airplane turning in the direction of the roll/bank
They are located on the trailing (rear) edge of each wing near the outer tips
They extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip, and move in opposite
directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll
The yoke manipulates the airfoil through a system of cables and pulleys and act in an opposing
manor
Yoke "turns" left: left aileron rises, decreasing camber and angle of attack on the right wing
which creates downward lift. At the same time, the right aileron lowers, increasing camber and
angle of attack which increases upward lift and causes the aircraft to turn left. Yoke "turns" right:
right aileron rises decreasing camber and angle of attack on the right wing which creates
downward lift. At the same time, the left aileron lowers, increasing camber and angle of attack
on the left wing which creates upward lift and causes the aircraft to turn right.
Empennage:
Commonly known as the "tail section," the empennage includes the entire tail group which
consists of fixed surfaces such as the vertical fin or stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer; the
movable surfaces including the rudder and rudder trim tabs, as well as the elevator and elevator
trim tabs
These movable surfaces are used by the pilot to control the horizontal rotation (yaw) and the
vertical rotation (pitch) of the airplane
In some airplanes the entire horizontal surface of the empennage can be adjusted from the
cockpit as a complete unit for the purpose of controlling the pitch attitude or trim of the airplane.
Such designs are usually referred to as stabilators, flying tails, or slab tails
The empennage, then, provides the airplane with directional and longitudinal balance (stability)
as well as a means for the pilot to control and maneuver the airplane
Rudder:
Rudders are used to control the direction (left or right) of "yaw" about an airplane's vertical axis
Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface
that, in this case, is the vertical stabilizer, or fin
In practice, both aileron and rudder control input are used together to turn an aircraft, the ailerons
imparting roll
Rudders are controlled by the pilot with his/her feet through a system of cables and pulleys:
"Step" on the right rudder pedal: rudder moves right creating a yaw to the right
"Step" on the left rudder pedal: rudder moves left creating a yaw to the left
Trim Tabs:
Trim tabs are controlled through a system of cables and pulleys
Trim tab adjusted up: trim tab lowers creating positive lift, lowering the nose
This movement is very slight
Trim tab adjusted down: trim tab raises creating positive lift, raising the nose
This movement is very slight
Slats:
Slats are part of the Flight Control System, creating extra lift during lower speeds
Attached to the leading edge of the wings and are designed to be controlled by the pilot or
automatically by the flight computer
Slats increase the camber of the wings/airfoil
By extending the slats additional lift is created when the aircraft is at slower airspeeds, normally
on takeoff and landing
Flaps:
Flaps are part of the Flight Control System
Attached to the trailing edge of the wings and are controlled by the pilot from the cockpit
By extending the flaps additional lift is created when the aircraft is at slower airspeeds, normally
on takeoff and landing
Slats and flaps are used in conjunction with each other to increase both lift and stall margin by
increasing the overall wings camber thus, allowing the aircraft to maintain control flight at
slower airspeeds
Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing
The flaps are normally flush with the wing's surface during cruising flight
When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the
wing for takeoffs and landings
Elevator:
Control surfaces which control the aircraft about its lateral axis allowing the aircraft to pitch
The elevators are attached to the horizontal portion of the empennage - the horizontal stabilizer
When forward pressure is applied on the controls, the elevators move downward
This increases the lift produced by the horizontal tail surfaces
The increased lift forces the tail upward, causing the nose to drop
Conversely, when back pressure is applied on the wheel, the elevators move upward, decreasing
the lift produced by the horizontal tail surfaces, or maybe even producing a downward force
The tail is forced downward and the nose up
The elevators control the angle of attack of the wings
When back-pressure is applied on the controls, the tail lowers and the nose rises, increasing the
angle of attack
Conversely, when forward pressure is applied, the tail raises and the nose lowers, decreasing the
angle of attack
Stabilizer:
A control surface other than the wings which provide stabilizing qualities
Speed Brakes:
Designed to slow the aircraft when in a dive or descent, location and style vary with aircraft, and
are controlled by a switch in the cockpit
History
Balloons
In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers conducted an experiment where they launched an unmanned
balloon that flew more than 1.5 miles. Later that year, the first manned flight occurred as two
men took a Montgolfier balloon and flew over Paris.
Hot air is less dense than cold air → when hot air is blown into the enclosed balloon, the hot air
(and the balloon) rises.
A dirigible is any lighter-than-air craft that is both powered and steerable (as opposed to free
floating, like a balloon). A blimp has no rigid internal structure; if a blimp deflates, it loses its
shape.
Rockets
Dr. Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882-1945) is considered the father of modern rocket
propulsion. A physicist of great insight, Goddard also had a unique genius for invention. He was
the first person to send out the first liquid fueled rocket.
n spite of the difficulties, Goddard achieved the first successful flight with a liquid- propellant
rocket on March 16, 1926. Fueled by liquid oxygen and gasoline, the rocket flew for only two
and a half seconds, climbed 12.5 meters, and landed 56 meters away.
Ornithopter
The first ornithopters capable of flight were constructed by Jobert in 1871 by using a rubber band
to power a small model of a bird.
Building on the work of Alexander Lippisch, in 1942, Adalbert Schmid made the first successful
flight of a powered, manned ornithopter. Although there have been a few others, Schmid's
manned ornithopter still stands as the most successful to date.
Helicopters
Leonardo da Vinci - Developed a concept of spinning rotors can push something into the air
Jacques and Louis Breguet- Brothers from France who developed the Gyroplane No.1 and 2,
some of the earliest rotorcraft to carry humans.
Igor Sikorsky- Creator of the first practical helicopter, with the first modern layout for the rotor
blades. Igor Sikorsky was thinking about how people could use air travel for a faster form of
transportation, so he invented the helicopter. His design would set the standard for all future
helicopters in May 1939.
Unmanned Space Probes
Sergei Korolev - In 1957, he and his team launched the first-ever satellite into orbit, the Sputnik
1. Just four years later, Korolev put a man in space.
Powered Aircraft (WW2 to Present)
Air Force Captain Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager was the first to accomplish this feat on October 14,
1947.
He still received only limited funding and support, and on August 27, 1939, the German Heinkel
He 178, designed by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain, made the first jet flight in history.
Airships
1852 - Henri Giffard becomes the first to design an engine-powered flight and flies 27 km in his
steam-powered airship
1884 - Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs made the first fully controllable free flight
in the French Army; La France
Manned Space Flight
The Cold War starts in 1946
X-15 program starts in 1959
Apollo program beings in 1961
Neil Armstrong is the first man on the moon in 1969.
The Atlantis is the first space shuttle to dock with the ISS in 1990
Why is Annonay, France known as the location of the "invention of aviation?"
Location of Montgolfier Brothers balloon flight

What is the origin of the word "helicopter"?

Greek words for flying and screw
An Aerostat is a craft that gains lift through the use of a gas lighter than air.
Airships and Blimps are lighter than air craft that can be steered.
A Kytoon is a tethered or captive balloon with an elongated bag to give it more stability in wind
than the standard spherical balloon.
A Dirigible is a craft using a buoyant gas and having a rigid internal structure.
In 1910 Zeppelin airships start service with the Deutsche Luftschiffahrts A.G. (DELAG)
company.
In 1852 Frenchman Henri Giffard makes the first successful powered flight.
In 1870 Balloons used extensively during the siege of Paris.
In 1925 Goodyear blimp first flies over a sporting event.
John Wise failed project to cross Atlantic by balloon.
Amelia Earhardt failed to circumnavigate the globe.
S. A. Andree failed to fly across the north pole.
Oakley Kelly and John Macready successfully flew nonstop across the US.