Chapter 1

DC Network Theorems

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 Contents

• Current, Voltage and resistance

• Ohm’s Law, resistors in series and in parallel

• Potential dividers and Variable Resistors

• Electrical Power and Energy

next page

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 Contents

• Kirchhoff’s Laws (Voltage and Current)

• Superposition Theorem

• Thevenin’s Theorem

• Norton’s Theorem

• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• Application in Electrical Circuit Analysis

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 Electric cells
• Electric cells produce electricity from a chemical
reaction.
• All cells consist of two plates of different
substances placed in a fluid or liquid.
• The plates are called electrodes (positive
electrode and negative electrode).
• The fluid is called an electrolyte.
• Symbol of electric cell:

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 What is electrical circuit?

• Electrical circuit is an interconnection of

electrical elements such as resistors and
electric cells, and it forms a complete path
over which an electrical current can move.
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 Electromotive force (E.M.F.)

• Electromotive force is the driving force which tends to

cause current (actually electrons and ions) to flow through
a closed circuit.
• It is defined as the energy (W) per unit charge (Q) that is
converted reversibly from chemical, mechanical, or other
forms of energy into electrical energy in a battery or an
electric generator.
W
EMF 
Q

• E.M.F is measured in volts, like any other potential

difference.
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 Electric currents (conventional &
electron current)

cell electron current

conventional current circuit diagram

• The conventional current flows from the positive

terminal to the negative terminal, just in the opposite
direction to the electron current.
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 Electric current

• The unit of current is ampere.

Q
I amps, or Q  It Coulomb
t

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 Conductors, insulators and
semiconductors
• According to their abilities in conducting electric
current, all materials may be classified into one of
three major categories - conductors, insulators
and semiconductors.
• conductors have many free electrons which will
be drifting in a random manner within the
material.
• Insulators have very few free electrons (ideally
none).
• semiconductors falls somewhere between these
two extremes.
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 Resistors

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 Resistance
• Substances, which offer certain amount of
resistance to the flow of electrons, are
called resistors.
• Unit of resistance is ohm ().

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 Potential Difference (p.d.)
• Whenever current flows through a circuit
element in a circuit such as resistor, there
will be a potential difference (p.d.)
developed across it.
• The unit of p.d. is volts (V) and is
measured as the difference in voltage
levels between two points in a circuit.

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 Ohm's Law

• Ohm's law states that the p.d.

developed between the two ends of a
resistor is directly proportional to the
value of current flowing through it,
provided that all other factors (e.g.
temperature) remain constant.
• Writing this in mathematical form we
have:
VI
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 Ohm's Law

• The proportional constant is the value of

resistance of the resistor.

V  IR I

V
R
V

I
V
I
R V Slope = R

I
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 Internal drop

Equivalent circuit of a Voltage

battery across the
V
terminals A &
B Internal drop
e.m.f.=
E.m.f.=1.5V, Rint. 1.5V

B I A

LOAD
I

• When current flow through the load resistor, a

potential difference will be developed across
the terminal of the load.
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 Resistance of a resister

• Resistance of a resister is related to its dimensions

and properties of its material.
• The resistance value can be determined by:

l
R
A
– R is the resistance of a resistor in ohm()
– l is the length of the resistor in meter(m)
– A is cross-sectional area of the resistor in (m2)
–  is the resistivity of the material in (-m)
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 Resistivity of some materials
• Material  (-m) at 0oC
• Aluminium 2.7 x 10-8
• Brass 7.2 x 10-8
• Copper 1.59 x 10-8
• Carbon 6500 x 10-8
• Zinc 5.57 x 10-8

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 Resistivity of some materials
• e.g. A metal cable of 250 metres in length
and a diameter of 1mm having a
resistance of 15. Determine the
resistivity of this metal.

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 Resistivity of some materials
Hints:
Steps:
1mm = 1x10-3m
r = 0.5mm
cross section area = r2
A = (0.5x10-3)2 m2 = 7.85x10-7m2

ANS:  = 4.71x10-8 -m

 = 4.71x10-8 -m

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 Fixed resistors and variable
resistors
• Resistors can be classified as fixed
resistors or variable resistors.
• Fixed resistor has fixed value of
resistance.
• For variable resistor; its value can be
adjusted.

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 Fixed resistor
• It has only two terminals: the start of the
winding and the end of the winding.
• Symbol:

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 Variable resistor
• The bare resistance wire is space-wound
on a circular form, with moveable contact.
• There are two types:
– Potentiometer
– Rheostat

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 Potentiometer
• Three terminals are brought out: both ends
of the winding, and the movable contact.
• Symbol:

1 2

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 Potentiometer

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 Rheostat
• Two terminals are brought out: one end of
the winding, and the movable contact.
• Symbol:

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 Colour code of resisters

• Resistance and tolerance of a fixed resister are

presented in form of colour code:
0----- Black
1----- Brown orange
purple silver
2----- Red
yellow
3----- Orange
4----- Yellow
5----- Green
6----- Blue
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
7----- Purple
8----- Gray R = 47 x 103 Ω (first 3 bands)
9----- White Tolerance = ±10% (4th band)
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Percent tolerance of resisters
• Presented by the 4th band of resistors:
 Gold band - if the actual value is within 5% of
the nominal value.
 Silver band - if the actual value falls between
 5% and  10%.
 No band - if the actual value is between
 10% and  20%.
 The resistor is discarded when the error is
more than 20%.

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 Colour code of resisters
• e.g. What are the resistance and tolerance
values of a resistor if its colour bands are
brown, black, orange and gold?

ANS.: 10k ohm  5%

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 Principal functions of variable
resistors
• Potentiometer (potential divider) : used
to adjust the amount of potential (voltage)
provided to a circuit.
• Rheostat: used to adjust the amount of
current within a circuit.

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 Potential divider (voltage
divider)
• The purpose of potential divider is to
reduce the voltage fed to some
component.

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 Rheostat

current

No connection

• This amount of current flow depends on

the location of the movable pointer
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 Resistors in Series
V V V
1 2 3

R 1
R 2
R
3
I

• Equivalent resistance of 3 resistors (Req):

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
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 Resistors in Series
• By Ohm’s law
V1 = IR1 volts
V2 = IR2 volts
V3 = IR3 volts
E = V1 + V 2 + V 3
E = I (R1 + R2 + R3) = I Req
when resistors are connected in series the total resistance is
found simply by adding together the resistor values

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 Voltage Divider

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 Voltage Divider

1
 2  1
2

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 Resistors in Parallel

I1 R1

 Equivalent resistance
I2
R2 of 3 resistors (Req):
1 1 1 1
(   )
Req R1 R2 R3
I3 R3

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E
 Resistors in Parallel
• By Ohm’s law

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 Resistors in Parallel
• The total current of the circuit I is the sum
of I1 + I2 + I3 , thus
I = I1 + I2 + I3
• The total resistance or the equivalent
resistance (Req) of the circuit is defined to
be

 ………….…..(equation 1)

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 Resistors in Parallel
I I1 + I2 + I3

………(equation 2)

By comparing equation 1 and 2

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 Current Divider

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 Current Divider
R1
I1
1 
2  3 
R2
I2 1 2 3

I3 R3

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 Current Divider

eq 

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 Using the Ammeter

• The ammeter is used to measure the

current.
• It must be placed in the circuit, i.e.
becomes part of the circuit.
A

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 Using the Voltmeter

• The voltmeter is used to measure the

potential difference between two points.
• It must be placed alongside the circuit,
and connected to the two points.

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 Electrical energy

• If this circuit is turned on for some time, an

amount of electrical energy will flow from the
electric cell to the resister.
I
V

• Energy = W = V I t
where t = turn-on time
• Unit of energy is joules ( J )
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 Electrical power
• The energy consumed in a given time is
the power required.
• i.e. P = V I
• Unit of power is watt ( W )

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 Electrical power
• By Ohm’s law E =IR, the equation can be
modified as:
P = I2R

Use Ohm’s law again, where

The equation can also be:

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 Uses of electrical energy
• Lighting
• Heating
• Communications
• Cooking
• And etc.

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• The algebraic sum of
the potential rises and
drops around a closed
path (or loop) is zero

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• This law requires that we define a

closed path of investigation permitting
us to start at one point in the network,
travel through the network, and find our
way back to the original starting point

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• The applied voltage of a series dc circuit
will equal the sum of the voltage drops of
the circuit

• The sum of the voltage rises around a

closed path will always equal the sum of
the voltage drops

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• When applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, be sure to
concentrate on the polarities of the voltage rises or
drops rather than the type of elements
– do not treat a voltage drop across a resistive element differently
from a voltage rise (or drop) across a source
– polarity indicates that a drop (or rise) has occurred, not whether
it is a resistive element or source

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 Example 1.1
Determine the unknown voltage V1.

Answer:

V1 = 2.8V

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 Example 1.2
(a) Determine V2
(b) Determine I2
(c) Find R1 and R3

Answers:
(a) V2 = 21V
(b) I2 = V2 / R2 = 21V / 7 = 3A
(c) R1 = 18V / 3A = 6 
R3 = 15V / 3A = 5 

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• The algebraic sum of the currents entering
and leaving a junction (also termed “node”)
of a network is zero
– the sum of the currents entering a node of a
network must equal the sum of the currents
leaving the same node

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• If the direction of the current is not known:
– make an assumption about the direction and
then check out the result
– if the result is negative, the wrong direction
was assumed
– if positive, the correct direction was assumed
– in either case, the magnitude of the current
will be correct

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 Example 1.3
Determine currents I3 and I4.

Answers :
I3 = I1 + I2 = 2A +3A = 5A

I4 = I3 + I5 = 5A +1A = 6A
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 Example 1.4
Determine currents I3 and I5.

Answers :
I3 = I1 + I2 = 4A +3A = 7A

I5 = I3 - I4 = 7A -1A = 6A
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Example 1.5 Answers :
a) Determine source current IS (a) IS = 8mA + 10mA + 2mA = 20mA
(b) E = I1xR1 = 2k x8mA = 16V
b) Find source voltage E. (c) R3 = 16V / 2mA = 8k
c) Determine R3 and RT R2 = 16V / 10mA = 1.6 k
RT-1 = R1-1 +R2-1 +R3-1
RT = 800 

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 Example 1.6

a) By using Kirchhoff’s current law, write down the current equation at

node “B”;
b) By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write down the voltage equations,
in terms of I1 and I2, for the circuit path “ABEFA” and “CDEBC”.
c) Find the values of I1, I2 and I3.
I1 B
I2
A C

I3

4 5
3

10V
20V

F D
E

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 Example 1.6 Ans.

a) I1 + I3 = I2  I3 = I2 – I1

b) 4I1 – 3I3 – 10 = 0
4I1 – 3(I2 –I1) – 10 = 0
7I1 – 3 I2 = 10 …………….(eq. 1)

5I2 – 20 + 3I3 = 0
5I2 – 20 + 3 (I2 –I1) = 0
–3I1 +8I2 = 20 ……………. (eq. 2)

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 Example 1.6 Cont’d..

c) eq. 1 x 8
56I1 – 24I2 = 80 …………….(eq. 3)
eq. 2 x 3
–9I1 +24I2 = 60 ……………. (eq. 4)
eq. 3 + eq. 4
47I1 = 140

I1 = 2.979A
I2 = 3.617A
I3 = 0.638A

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 Superposition Theorem
• Superposition theorem is used to:
– analyze networks that have two or more sources that
are not in series or parallel
– reveal the effect of each source on a particular quantity
of interest
– for sources of different types (such as dc and ac that
affect the parameters of the network in a different
manner) a separate analysis for each type can be
applied with the total result simply the algebraic sum of
the results

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 Superposition Theorem
• The Superposition theorem states:
– the current through, or voltage across, any
element of a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents or voltages
produced independently by each source
• in other words, this theorem allows us to find a
solution for a current or voltage using only one
source at a time
• once we have a solution for each source we
can combine the results to obtain the total
solution
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 Superposition Theorem
• To consider the effects of each source,
the other sources have to be removed
– when removing a voltage source from a
network schematic, replace it with a direct
connection (short-circuit) of zero ohms
– when removing a current source from a
network schematic, replace it by an open
circuit of infinite ohms
– any internal resistance associated with the
removed source(s) must remain in the
network
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 Superposition Theorem
• Since the effect of each source will be
determined independently, the number of
networks to be analyzed will equal the number
of sources
• Superposition cannot be applied to power

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 Example 1.7
Determine currents I1 using superposition theorem.

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 Example 1.7 cont’d

Answers: a
Iab1
30V

(a) Retain 30V source, 6 load

I1a = 30V / 6  = 5A
b

(b) Retain 3A source, a

I1b = 0A Iab1
3A
6 load

By Superposition Theorem
I1 = I1a + I1b = 5A + 0A = 5A b

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 Example 1.8
Determine source current I2 through the 12kΩ resistor
using superposition theorem.

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 Example 1.8 cont'd

Answer : I2 = 2.5mA
(a) Retain 6mA source,
I2a = 6mA [6k / (6k + 12k)] = 2mA

(b) Retain 9V source,

Vb = 9V [ 12k / (6k + 12k)] = 6V
I2b = 6V / 12k = 0.5mA

By Superposition Theorem
I2 = I2a + I2b = 2mA + 0.5mA = 2.5mA

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem can be used to:
– analyze networks with sources that are not in
series or parallel
– reduce the number of components required to
establish the same characteristics at the output
terminals
– permit an investigation of the effect of changing a
particular component on the behavior of a
network without having to analyze the entire
network after each change
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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Any two-terminal dc
network can be
replaced by an
equivalent circuit
consisting solely of a
voltage source and
series resistor

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Remove that portion of the network across which
the Thevenin equivalent circuit is to be found
• Mark the resulting two terminals with some
special notation
• Determine RTh by first setting all the sources to
zero and finding the resulting resistance
between the two marked terminals
– voltage sources are replaced by short circuits
– current sources are replaced by open circuits

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Calculate the Thevenin voltage by first re-
establishing each source and finding the open
circuit voltage between the two marked terminals
• Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit and
reattach the portion of the network previously
removed between the two terminals of the
equivalent circuit

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 Thevenin’s Theorem

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Measuring Eth
– Thevenin voltage may be determined,
experimentally, by connecting a voltmeter to
the output terminals of the network

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 Thevenin’s Theorem

• Measuring Rth:
– Thevenin resistance can be measured by setting
all sources to zero (short voltage sources & open
current sources) and measure the resistance at the
output terminals

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• The Thevenin resistance can be measured by applying a
potentiometer to the output terminals and varying the
resistance until the output voltage is one-half the
measured Thevenin voltage
• The resistance of the potentiometer is the Thevenin
resistance for the network

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• The Thevenin resistance can also be determined
by hooking up an ammeter across the output
terminals to measure the short-circuit current and
then using the open-circuit voltage to calculate
the Thevenin resistance as:

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 Example 1.9
(a) Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the
network in the shaded area of the network.
(b) Then, find the current through RL for the values of
2Ω, 10Ω and 100Ω.

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 Example 1.9 cont'd

2
Answers:
(a) RTH = R1 // R2 = 2 
6V
RL
ETH = Vab = 9V x [6 / (3 + 6) ] = 6V

(b) When RL= 2

VL = 6V x [2 / (2 + 2) ] = 3V ; IL = 3V/2 = 1.5A

When RL= 10

VL = 6V x [10 / (2 + 10) ] = 5V; IL = 5V/10 = 0.5A

When RL= 100

VL = 6V x [100 / (2 + 100) ] = 5.88V ;
IL = 5.88V/100 = 58.8mA

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 Example 1.10
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the network in
the shaded area of the network.

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 Example 1.10 cont’d

Answer :
RTH = R1 + R2 = 6 

ETH = Vab = 12A x 4 = 48V

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Any two-terminal dc
network can be
replaced by an
equivalent circuit
consisting of a current
source and parallel
resistor

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Remove that portion of the
network across which the
Norton equivalent circuit is to
be found
• Mark the terminals of the
remaining two-terminal
network
• Find RN by first setting all
sources to zero and then
finding the resistance between
the two marked terminals
(internal source resistance must
remain as part of the network)
– voltage sources are replaced
with short circuits
– current sources are replaced
with open circuits
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 Norton’s Theorem
• Determine IN by first returning
all of the sources to their
original positions and finding
the short-circuit current
between the two marked
terminals
• Draw the Norton equivalent
circuit with the portion of the
network previously removed,
replaced between the
terminals of the Norton
equivalent circuit

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 Norton’s Theorem
• The Norton equivalent circuit can be obtained
directly from the Thevenin equivalent circuit
using a simple source conversion

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Experimental Procedure
– RN
• Since RN = RTh the experimental procedures described for the
Thevenin equivalent circuit can be applied here also
– IN
• Norton current can be determined by placing an ammeter
across the output terminals of the network

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 Example 1.11
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network in the
shaded area of the network.

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 Example 1.11 cont’d
Answers : RN = 2  ; IN = 3A a

RN = R1 // R2 = 3 // 6 = 2 
3A RN = 2
RL

IN = Vab = 9V / 3 = 3A
b

Alternative way:
RTH = R1 // R2 = 3 // 6 = 2  2

ETH = 9V x [6 / (3 + 6) ] = 6V a

6V

RL

IN = ETH / RTH = 6V / 2  = 3A b

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 Example 1.12
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network
external to the 9Ω resistor.

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 Example 1.12 cont'd
Answers : RN = 9; IN = 5.56A
RN = R1 + R2 = 5 + 4 = 9

IN = 10A x [5 / (5 + 4) ] = 5.56A

5
a
a

5.56A
RN = RL
4 10A
9

b b

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 Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
• A load will receive
maximum power from a
network when its
resistance is exactly
equal to the Thevenin
resistance of the network
applied to the load
– maximum power transfer
occurs when the load
voltage and current are
one-half of their maximum
possible values

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 Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
• if the load applied is less
than the Thevenin
resistance the power to the
load will drop off rapidly as
it gets smaller
• if the applied load is
greater than the Thevenin
resistance the power to the
load will not drop off as
rapidly as it increases

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 Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
• The total power delivered by a supply such as
ETh is absorbed by both the Thevenin equivalent
resistance and the load resistance
• Any power delivered by the source that does not
get to the load is lost to the Thevenin resistance
– under maximum power conditions only half the
power delivered by the source gets to the load

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 Example 1.13
A dc generator, battery, and laboratory supply are
connected to resistive load RL .
a) For each, determine the value of RL for maximum power
transfer to RL.
b) Under maximum power conditions, what are the current
level and the power to the load for each configuration?

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 Example 1.13 cont'd

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 Example 1.13 cont'd

Answers:

(a) For generator, RL = RTH = Rint = 2.5Ω

For battery, RL = RTH = Rint = 0.5Ω
For lab. supply, RL = RTH = Rint = 20Ω

(b) I = E / (RL + RTH )

For generator, I = 24A
For battery, I = 12A
For lab. supply, I = 1A max.

For generator, PL = I2RL = 242x2.5 = 1440W

For battery, PL = I2RL = 122x0.5 = 72W
For lab. supply, PL = I2RL = 12x20 = 20W

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 Example 1.14
Find the value of RL for maximum power to the load,
and find the maximum power to the load.

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 Example 1.14 cont'd
Answers : RL = 15 ; Pmax = 273W

RTH = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 + 10 + 2  = 15

Retain 68V source,

Vab1 = - 68V

Retain 6A source,
Vab2 = - 6A x 10 = - 60V

ETH = Vab1 + Vab2 = -68V – 60V = - 128V

For the max power to the load, RL = RTH = 15

Pmax = ETH 2 / 4RTH = (-128)2 / (4x15) = 273W

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 Summary
-Kirchhoff’s Laws
i) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of current at a node
must be zero OR the sum of current entered a node is equal to the sum of current
exit that node.

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 Summary
-Kirchhoff’s Laws
ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the net voltage (or algebraic sum of
voltage) around a closed circuit (or loop) is zero.

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 Summary
-Applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws in Circuit Analysis
a) To solve electric circuit problems involving more than on source. (i.e. To find the current,
voltage of each circuit element.)
b) Procedures:
Step 1: Assign branch currents in unknown variables I1, I2, I3… etc. Assign node
voltages as V1, V2, V3… on each node.
Step 2: Setup voltage or current equations based on KCL and KVL.
Step 3: Solve the simultaneous equations from Step 2 to find the unknown voltages
and/or currents.

-There are TWO ways to solve the problem

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 Summary
i) Find branch currents by KVL

- Assign branch current I1 and I2.

- Add the polarities of voltages on each source and resistors.
- Apply KVL on each loop.
LOOP 1: V1 = I1R1 + (I1 + I2)R2
V1 = I1(R1 + R2) + I2R2 ……... (1)
LOOP 2: V2 = I2R3 + (I1 + I2)R2
V2 = I1R2 + I2(R2 + R3) ……... (2)

Solve equations (1) and (2) to find I1 and I2, then all branch currents can be found.

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 Summary
ii) Find nodal voltages by KCL

- Select a reference node (ground or 0V).

- Apply KCL at each node, express each current in terms of node voltages
There is only ONE independent variable node A in the above circuit.
At node A,

Therefore, VA can be found and then I1, I2 and I3 can be found when VA is known.

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 Summary
-Superposition Theorem states that the circuit currents/voltages can
be found by considering each source separately and adding their effects together.

-Thevenin’s Theorem states that any network with two terminals can be
replaced by a constant voltage source in series with an internal resistance.

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 Summary
-Norton’s Theorem states that any network with two terminals can be replaced by a
constant current source in parallel with an internal resistance.

-Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that maximum power transfer

occurs from source to load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the
source.

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 Reference
• Chapter 5, 6 and 9.
• Boylestad, R. (2010). Introductory circuit
analysis. Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Prentice Hall.

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