REPRODUCTION FIITJEE NOTES BJS

Organisms reproduce to continue the chain of life, to pass on its genes which are acquired over
millennia. Reproduction is essentially a process by which individuals produce new individuals of
the same kind. And this process is very important for the existence of life on earth.

Different organisms reproduce in different ways.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same
species. Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in the population of a species. If
organisms do not reproduce, their population decreases and species will become extinct.

Significance of Reproduction:
1. It allows continuity of a species generation after generation.
2. It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favorable variations from one
generation to another generation.
3. It maintains number of organisms in species.

 Reproduction at its most basic level involves making copy of the blue print of body
design.
 DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making protein and different
proteins lead to different body design.
 A basic level of reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
 DNA copy is accompanied by a cell division giving rise to two cells.
 DNA copying always involves some variation, hence DNA copies generated are similar
but not identical. this tendency of variation during reproduction leads to evolution.

The importance of variation :- DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining
the body designs of different organisms to survive in the existing environment. But the
environment is constantly changing due to changes in temperature, climate, water levels etc. If
organisms cannot adjust themselves to the changes in the environment then their species will
become extinct. If there are variations in some individuals of a species they may be able to survive
the changes in the environment. So variations in species is necessary for the survival of different
species and for the evolution of new species.

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TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two main types of Reproduction in living organisms :
 Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction– In this process, only a single parent is involved and no gamete
formation takes place.

Sexual Reproduction– In this process, two parents are involved and gamete formation takes
place. Meiosis is an important step in sexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 It involves only one parent.
 There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions and
when there is an abundance of food.
 It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first
pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the
cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It occurs during
highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.
However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at one

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end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable
conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst like in case
of Amoeba. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia. When
conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the cells are released.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an
outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into the
outgrowth which grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell to lead an independent

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existence. Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.

Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows in size and finally
breaks off to live independently.

iv) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body
organisation like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or
fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from tissues which
form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence, they need to use
more complex methods of reproduction.

Planaria. (It is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form a mass of cells from which
different cells undergo changes to become different cell types and tissues. These changes occur in
an organized sequence known as development).

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Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show have
high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction.

(v) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like
structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures
called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall.
They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the unfavourable environmental
conditions. When the spores fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

(vi) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as
roots, stems, and leaves.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

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Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Bryophyllum by leaves. In
Bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and when they fall on the
soil, they develop into new plants.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

 Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative
propagation.

 All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.

 Seedless varieties can be obtained.

 The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods

like layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION.

1. Grafting
Grafting is a horticultural technique that involves joining parts of two different plants to create a
new plant with the best traits of both parents. In grafting, the root system of one plant, called the
stock, is combined with the shoot system of another plant, called the scion. The grafted parts are
then bound together with tape and covered in wax to protect them from dehydration and

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infection. Over time, the tissues of the graft and the rooted plant integrate and develop into a single
plant.

The scion should be younger than the rootstock as well as the rootstock should have a strong
root system.

Process of grafting:

 Both scion and stock should be equal in size for successful grafting.

 First, make a V-shaped incision or notch in the stock and the matching V-shaped cut in
the scion.

 After placed them together for the success of grafting, cover them with the mixture of
wet mud with nutrients like plant hormones and fertilizers surrounded by polythene
bags.

 After some days, the adventitious buds or roots develop, and the composite plant has
successfully grafted.

 It is practised in plants such as guava, mango, rubber, citrus, pear and apple.

2. Cutting
The small part of the stem with nodes and internodes is removed from the parent, planted in moist
soil, and developed as a new plant. And, cutting is also possible in the roots of some plants.

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 Method of stem cutting

 First, cut out the small part of the stem with node and bud from an adult plant.

 Always keep the part with bud above the ground, and the other part should bury in the
soil.

 After some days, the buried part of the stem will start to produce the adventitious
roots, which eventually develops as an individual plant.

 The new plant is structurally and genetically the same as the parent plant.

 The cutting method is successful in Champa, rose, money plant and sugarcane.

3. Layering

Layering in plants – Mound Layering

 Layering is used for low-growing and flexible stems.

 In this method, a part of the stem will be buried and covered with the soil.

 After some days, the adventitious roots develop; eventually, they will be detached from
the parent plant.

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  Layering is the best mode for a climbing rose, Forsythia, Rhododendron, jasmine,
Bougainvillea and honeysuckle.

Layering of rosemary plant

Air layering of plants

Air layering is a method of propagating new trees and shrubs from stems still attached to the
parent plant. The stem is wrapped with damp moss to encourage roots to form.

 Choose a one- to two-year-old stem that is straight, healthy and vigorous. Trim off side
shoots and leaves. Do not leave any snags

 Clear the stem, making a 2.5cm (1in) cut

 Apply hormone rooting compound to the surface of the wound or cut

 Pack a small amount of moist sphagnum moss

 Wrap the wounded stem section loosely with black plastic, sealing it at one end with
weather-proof adhesive tape

 Leave the wrapping in place for up to a year. Open and check it occasionally for signs
of rooting

 For watering, keep a pot above the wounded branch containing water and add water
using thread or rope

 When strong new roots are visible through the moss, remove the plastic sleeve. Cut
through the stem just below the rooted section

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  Pot up the rooted stem in potting compost suitable for the plant in question. Do not
attempt to remove the moss from the roots. Water, label and grow on until large enough
to plant outside

4. Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient
medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where
it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient
medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant.
Plant tissue culture is a technique that involves growing plant cells, tissues, or organs in a
sterile environment using a nutrient medium. It's based on the totipotency of plant cells,
which means that any plant cell can be used to generate a whole new plant.

Advantages of plant tissue culture:

 Rapid production: Plant tissue culture can quickly produce mature plants.

 Disease resistance: Plant tissue culture can produce disease-resistant plants.

 Reduced space: Plant tissue culture can produce a large number of plants in a small
space.

 No seeds or pollinators: Plant tissue culture can produce plants without seeds or
pollinators.

 Sterile containers: Plant tissue culture can produce plants in sterile containers, which
reduces the chances of transmitting disease.

 Germination: Plant tissue culture can produce plants from seeds that have a low chance
of germinating and growing.

Plant tissue culture is also known as micropropagation. It's an important tool for both basic
research and commercial applications

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Reproduction in plants takes place sexually and asexually as well. But the majority of the flowering
plants reproduce sexually. The flower is the reproductive part of a plant i.e., both male and female
gametes are produced by flowers. Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in flowers.

 Angiosperm reproductive components can be found in flowers

 The reproductive portions of the flower, the stamens and pistil, hold the germ cell

 Stamen is the male reproductive part, and it produces dust grains that are yellowish in
shading

 The female reproductive part of a flower is the pistil, which is found in the middle

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  A male and female parents are involved

 Gamete fertilisation and formation take place

 The whole sexual reproduction process is lengthy and slow

 Physically and genetically offspring are different and variation occurs

The complete flower typically consists of four parts:

 Petals

 Sepals

 Stamen (male reproductive part)

 Pistil/Carpel (female reproductive part)

 Calyx: Calyxes are made up of sepals. Florets begin at the base of a flower and appear in
the first three layers. Some plants have green sepals, while others have colorful sepals.
Sepals are primarily used to protect flowers.

 Corolla: A corolla is a group of petals. Birds and insects are attracted to the petals' colors,
which helps with pollination.

 Androecium: Androecium contains stamens. The stamen is a male reproductive part

consisting of filaments and anthers. In nature, anthers resemble sacs, and they store pollen
and produce it. A filament supports an another.

 Gynoecium: The gynoecium is composed of carpels. Pistils contain stigmas, ovaries, and
styles, which are all reproductive parts of females. The stigma is the uppermost part of the
flower. The style is the long tube that joins the ovary with the stigma. In each ovary, there
are thousands of ovules. The ovary is where seeds are produced in plants.

A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both. Based on this, a flower can be either
unisexual or bisexual. A bisexual flower is composed of all the four parts mentioned above, e.g.
Rose, China rose. Whereas, plants like papaya and cucumber produce only unisexual flowers.

POLLINATION
Pollination is a method where pollen grains are picked from an anther, which is the male part of a
flower and transferred to the flower’s female part called the stigma. To make the pollination work
successfully, the pollen grains must be transferred from the same species of flower.

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The process of pollination begins when the pollen grains from the respective flowers lands on the
stigma and form a pollen tube with the style length, which connects both the stigma and ovary.
After the completion of the pollen tube, the pollen grain starts transmitting sperm cells from the
grain to the ovary.

Types of Pollination
All plants having flowers completely rely on pollination method for reproduction. There are 2
types of pollination –

 Self Pollination - When the pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower, it is called as self- pollination. This form of pollination is
common in hermaphrodite or dioecious plants which contain both male and female sexual
parts on the same flower.

o In self-pollinating plants, there is less dependence on the external factors to cause

pollination. These plants depend on wind or other smaller insects that visit the
flower regularly. In self- pollinating flowers, the anthers, and stigma are of similar
lengths to facilitate the transfer of pollen. Self – pollination can be further divided
into two types:

o Autogamy– In this type of self-pollination, the pollen is transferred from the

anthers of one flower to the stigma of the same flower.

o Geitonogamy– In this type of self- pollination, the anthers are transferred from the
anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower but on the same plant.

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  Cross-Pollination - In this type of pollination, the pollen is transferred from the anthers of
one flower to the stigma of another flower. In this case, the two flowers are genetically
different from each other. Cross-pollination is always dependent on another agent to cause
the transfer of pollen. The agents of pollination include birds, animals, water, wind, and
insects. Based on the agent of pollination, cross-pollination can be of different types:

o Hydrophilous Flowers-These flowers are pollinated by water means. The flowers

are often very small and inconspicuous to other agents. They do not have any
fragrance or too much color on their petals. The pollen is adapted to be able to float
in water.

o Zoophilous flowers– In this type of pollination, the pollinating agents are animals
like human beings, bats (chirepterophily), birds etc. The zoophilous flowers have
pollen that is designed to stick on to the body of the animal so that they can be
easily carried from one flower to another.

o Anemophilous flowers– These flowers are pollinated by the agency of wind. These
flowers, like zoophilous flowers, are small and inconspicuous. Another important
feature of flowers that are wind pollinated is that they are very light so that they are
easily carried by the wind. The pollen grains are very light, non-sticky and
sometimes winged.

o Entomophilic flowers– These flowers are pollinated by insects. These flowers are
often attractive to look at with bright petals and are fragrant to attract the insect
visitors to them. They often have broad stigmas or anthers to allow the insect to
perch on it. Many of the insect-pollinated flowers also secrete nectar which attracts
bees, butterflies or other similar insects to the flowers. The pollen grains in these
flowers are often spiny or have extensions that help them to stick on to the body of
the insects.

o Ornithophilous flowers– These flowers are pollinated by birds. Very few flowers
and birds show this form of pollination.

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Double Fertilization in Angiosperms

Angiosperms are flower-bearing plants and are the most diverse group of terrestrial plants. The
flowers form the reproductive part of angiosperms with separate male and female reproductive
organs. Each contains gametes – sperm and egg cells, respectively.

Pollination helps the pollen grains to reach stigma via style. After pollen is deposited on the stigma,
it must germinate and grow through the style to reach the ovule. The pollen, contain two cells: the
pollen tube cell and the generative cell (which forms the 2 male gamestes). The pollen tube cell
grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell or 2 male gametes travels. The
germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and certain chemical signals. As it travels
through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of
the style. During this process, if the generative cell has not already split into two cells, it now
divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the
synergids present in the embryo sac; it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle.

Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote; the other sperm
fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm. Together,
these two fertilization events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization.

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 In angiosperms, fertilization results in two structures, namely, zygote and endosperm, hence
the name “double fertilization.”

Double fertilization is a complex process where out of two sperm cells, one fuses with the
egg cell and the other fuses with two polar nuclei which result in a diploid (2n) zygote and a
triploid (3n) primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) respectively.

Since endosperm is a product of the fusion of three haploid nuclei, it is called triple fusion.
Eventually, the primary endosperm nucleus develops into the primary endosperm nucleus
(PEN) and then into the endosperm.

After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule forms the seed,
whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit, usually enveloping the seed.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
In humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes
are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced, and ovum
(female gamete) is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female
reproductive systems in humans.

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system includes the testes, scrotum, spermatic ducts, male accessory
glands, and penis. All these organs work together to produce sperms, the male gamete, male sex
hormones and other components of semen.

 Penis and Urethra are a part of both the reproductive and urinary systems.

 Scrotum, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, testicles (testes), and prostate constitute all the
remaining male reproductive system.

Scrotum
It is a sac of thick skin that protects and surrounds the testes. It also controls the temperature
of the testes since they have to be at a slightly lower temperature than the body temperature
for suitable sperm creation. The muscles in the wall allow the testes to hang far from the body
or shrink to pull them closer for protection and warmth.

Testes

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 A pair of testes are present in humans. Testes are present outside the body in a pouch called the
scrotum. They are oval bodies, around 4 to 5 cm in length and 2 to 3 cm wide. Generally, the
left testis hangs slightly lower than the right one.

The two primary functions of tests are as follows:

 Producing testosterone – a male sex hormone.

 Producing sperms or spermatogenesis – a carrier of man’s genes.

Each testis contains about 250 testicular lobules or compartments.

Sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules. Each testicular lobule contains one to three
seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:

 Spermatogonia or male germ cells – They undergo spermatogenesis to produce sperm.

 Sertoli cells – They provide nutrition to germ cells.

Leydig cells or interstitial cells are present outside the seminiferous tubules in the interstitial
spaces. They secrete male sex hormones or androgens, e.g. testosterone.

Male Sex Accessory Ducts

Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens are male sex accessory ducts.
Seminiferous tubules open into rete testis, which leads to vasa efferentia. Vasa efferentia opens
into the epididymis and epididymis leads to vas deferens. It leads to the ejaculatory duct along
with a duct from the seminal vesicle. Sperms mature in these ducts. Sperms are stored and
transported through these ducts.

Urethra
It is a tube-like structure that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus. In males, the
urethra travels through the penis and is mainly involved in two main functions:

 This region is included in the urinary tract that takes urine from the bladder where
semen is ejaculated.

 The Prostate exists beneath the bladder and covers the urethra. The prostate grows
larger with age. If the prostate grows too much, it can block the urine flow through the
urethra and be responsible for some urinary symptoms.

Male Accessory Glands

The male accessory glands include seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands. A pair
of seminal vesicles are present. The Seminal vesicles are present over the prostate, linked with
the vas deferens to create the ejaculatory ducts that travel through the prostate. The male
accessory glands generate fluid that nourishes the sperm. It is called seminal plasma. This fluid

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 is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes. It constitutes the maximum volume of the
semen, wherein the sperm is ejected during ejaculation.

Structure of sperm

 The sperm is the male gamete in case of human reproduction.

 Approximately 200-300 million sperm are ejaculated at one go.

 The sperm consists of the head, neck, middle piece and tail.

 The entire body of the sperm is covered by a plasma membrane.

 The head consists of a cap-like structure called the acrosome which contains digestive
enzymes that help in the fertilization of the ovum. It also contains a haploid nucleus i.e.
with only 23 chromosomes.

 The middle piece consists of many mitochondria which provide energy to the sperm for
locomotion, it also contains the centrioles.

 The tail is for the motility of the sperm.

Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system consists of the primary as well as accessory sex organs. The
primary sex organs in females are a pair of ovaries, which produce ova or egg and they also secrete
female sex hormones like progesterone and estrogen. The other accessory sex organs include the
uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and vagina.

Ovaries
 Ovaries — There are 2 ovaries, 1 on each side of the uterus where female hormones
(oestrogen and progesterone) are produced, and eggs are stored to mature. Every month,
an egg is released. This is called ovulation.

 Fallopian tubes — these are 2 thin tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus, allowing the
egg to travel to the uterus. This is the site of fertilization.

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  Uterus (the womb) — the lining of the uterus thickens with blood and other substances
every month. If pregnancy occurs, the fertilised egg will implant in the uterus and grow
into a foetus and then a baby. If it does not, this lining flows out of the body. This is known
as menstruation or your period.

 Cervix — this is the lower part of the uterus, that connects the uterus to the vagina.

 Vagina — this is a muscular tube connecting the cervix to the outside of the body.

Cervix and vagina form the birth canal.

Menstrual Cycle
All females, after reaching their puberty produce mature egg cell every month during a process
called the menstrual cycle. During this period, an ovary discharges a mature egg, which travels to
the uterus. In the uterus, if the egg is not fertilized, the lining in the uterine sheds away and a new
cycle begins. Overall a menstrual cycle lasts for 28 days, in some cases, these cycles may either
last for 21 days or as long as 35 days in some individuals.

Each cycle prepares you for a possible pregnancy. The lining of your uterus thickens and once a
month during ovulation, an egg releases from one of your ovaries to the endometrium (internal
lining of the uterus).

During sex, the egg can be fertilized when sperm travels to the uterus. If a sperm fertilizes an egg,
the endometrium will thicken and grow to support the pregnancy. The entire process of the
menstrual cycle is controlled by the endocrine system and the hormones involved are FSH, LH,
estrogen, and progesterone. Both FSH and LH hormones are produced by the pituitary
gland, whereas estrogen and progesterone hormones are produced by the ovaries.

Menopause is when you stop having your period. This usually happens between the ages of 45 and
55 years.

Fertilization and Pregnancy

Following implantation, the placenta originates from maternal and fetal tissues, producing human
chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) that helps in maintaining the level of corpus luteum in the ovary
until the placenta begins synthesizing its own progesterone and estrogen hormones.

Estrogen and Progesterone

Estrogen and progesterone hormones are produced by the ovaries that foster the development of
reproductive organs by maintaining the proper uterine cycle and by developing female secondary
sex characteristics. During menopause, usually between age 45 and 55, the uterine cycle stops, and
the ovaries are no longer produce estrogen and progesterone hormones.

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CONTRACEPTION
Contraception is an artificial method or technique, mainly used to prevent pregnancy as a
consequence of sexual intercourse. When a sperm reaches the ova in a woman, she may become
pregnant. Contraception is a method that prevents this phenomenon by:

 Stopping egg production.

 Keeping the egg distinct from the sperm.

 By stopping the fertilized egg from attaching to the lining of the womb.

Barrier or Mechanical Method

Barrier contraceptives are devices that are used to prevent pregnancy by blocking sperm from
entering the uterus. Some of them include female condoms like diaphragm, male condoms,
contraceptive sponges with spermicide, diaphragms and cervical caps. Among them the most
common birth control methods are condoms. They help in protecting against HIV and sexually
transmitted diseases. Most modern condoms are made up of latex.

Contraceptive sponges with spermicide give the best barrier protection method. The spermicide
kills most of the sperm entering the vagina. Then the remaining sperms are blocked from passing
through the cervix to fertilize an egg.

Natural Birth Control

Natural birth control methods include total and continuous abstinence and the rhythm method. The
rhythm method involves having no intercourse or protected intercourse during the time when the
woman is fertile. A woman is fertile for 9 days every month during which she is most likely to
conceive. The fertile period starts 5 days before ovulation and continues for 3 days after ovulation.

Surgical Methods

Both men and women could be surgically operated on, to prevent fertilization. For women, the
process is called Tubal ligation/Tubectomy and for men, it is called Vasectomy.

In tubal ligation, the fallopian tube is either cut or sealed so that eggs do not reach the uterus at all.

Vasectomy involves the cutting and sealing of the vas deferens so that the sperms do not enter the
ejaculation stream.

Chemical Methods

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Medicines interferes with the hormonal balance in a woman’s body in order to hamper fertilization,
ovulation or fertilized egg implantation. It could be done with the help of contraceptive pills,
estrogen and progestin-releasing patches or vaginal rings. Birth control injections are also available
nowadays.

Intrauterine devices or IUDs are small T-shaped devices that are planted in the uterus. There are
two types of IUDs.

 Copper IUD– Releases small amounts of copper in the uterus which prevents sperms from
reaching the ovary.

 Hormonal IUD– Releases progestin in the body which prevents the formulation of eggs.

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