ISSN 0554-6397

UDK: 004.032.26
Review article
Received: 15th November 2020.

David Sopta
Tomislav Bukša
Jadrolinija d.d., Riva 16, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
Juraj Bukša
Adriatic Croatia International Club – ACI d.d., Rudolfa Strohala 2, 51000 Rijeka,
Croatia
Ivan Peronja
University of Split, Faculty of Maritime Studies, Ul. Ruđera Bošković 37, 21000 Split,
Croatia

Alternative Fuels and Technologies for Short Sea

Shipping

Abstract
Awareness of the consequences of excessive greenhouse gas emissions in maritime transport has
prompted research on the use of alternative fuels and technology, towards environmentally neutral
ship propulsion, which has resulted in a number of possibilities. This review provides a systematic
overview of the current state of use of ship propulsion and alternative options from the aspect of costs,
infrastructure, regulations, availability, environmental protection, technology and the perspective of
complete decarbonisation by 2050.

Keywords: alternative fuels, LNG, ammonia, hydrogen, fuel cells

1. Introduction

From the first estimates of limited fossil fuel supplies on Earth in the 1950s,
scientists and engineers began serious research and search for alternative energy
sources, especially in the field of transport, of which maritime transport was the most
interesting. At one point in history, in 1959, when NS Savannah went into operation,
many then relevant sources celebrated the beginning of a new era of marine propellants.
The next moment came in the early 1960s with the outbreak of the First Oil Crisis
(1973-1974) and only six years later (1978-1980) the Second Oil Crisis, which was
a clear signal that the future could not rely on just one energy source. A period of
intensive exploration of new oil and gas deposits followed, as well as alternative energy

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 61

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

sources, in order to avoid the OPEC monopoly and gain energy independence. But it
was only after the Environment and Development Conference (Rio de Janeiro 1992)
that serious reflections began on the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the
need for decarbonisation was accepted by most countries at the 2015 Paris conference
due to obvious climate changes.
The maritime merchant fleet is exposed to pressures to change the energy source
for propulsion machines as one of the major polluters and emitters of CO2. Ship owners,
as socially responsible stakeholders in maritime transport, express their readiness to
use “clean” energy sources hen the technology of propulsion machines is available and
the logistics of fuel supply on waterways are ready to supply ships.
In general, research aimed at replacing heavy diesel fuel for marine engines has
developed in recent history in three different directions depending on the availability
of energy, the development of technology and the required maritime properties and
purpose of the ship. In any event, it was necessary to build new ships or adapt existing
ones. The selection of a new energy source was to meet the economic requirements
of the ship’s operation, except in cases of prototypes or trial use when the financing
of construction and operation was agreed as an incentive or subsidy from the state.
Scandinavian countries have taken the lead in finding new solutions in liner coastal
shipping using available energy sources such as natural gas and electricity. The first
choice was certainly natural gas due to the relatively simple conversion of existing
machines from diesel to natural gas, which created certain losses in power, but also
achieved a significant reduction in CO2 in the exhaust gases. In addition, liquefied
natural gas is easily stored on board, which allows a sufficient radius of movement in
coastal navigation.
The other direction was made up of storage batteries that proved to be more
environmentally friendly and recharging was available throughout coastal ports. The
third direction leads to hydrogen as a clean energy source of high efficiency. All of the
above options appear in multiple hybrid combinations and are in operation with more or
less success. Serious announcements about the decarbonisation of the European Union
focus on coastal liner shipping companies in the EU that need to be transformed into
environmentally neutral carriers in the next three decades. This has activated a whole
range of energy-neutral fuel manufacturers, the shipbuilding industry, the production
of marine generators, logistics as well as a number of stakeholders, professional
lobbyists, NGO innovators and protected patents. Consequently, unification that would
distort competition is not to be expected, rather it is more likely that ship owners will
make their choice based on their expert economic and safety assessments. This paper
provides an overview of previous research, theoretical and practical applications and
points out possible problems in terms of maritime transport, safety requirements and
the advantages and disadvantages of current models of ship propulsion.

62 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

2. Transition period from 2020 to 2050

The transition period until 2050, for the transition to environmentally neutral
propellants, is a necessity arising from insufficiently researched technology of supply
of ecologically neutral energy sources and thus the choice of ship propulsion. In
addition, it should be taken into account that between the decision of the ship owner
which installation and which energy source to use and the beginning of operation, it
is necessary to consider the free capacities of the shipyard, the capacity of making
propulsion machines and the fuel supply schedule to each port of Short sea Shipping
– SSS [1].
SSS vessels typically operate in limited geographical areas, on relatively short
routes with frequent port calls. Due to their relatively low energy demand, these vessels
are often ideal candidates for testing new fuels characterised by high energy or fuel
storage costs. The Norwegian ferry sector is in the process of being electrified, with
about 50 battery-electric ferries to be phased in during the upcoming period. The use
of hydrogen is also technically feasible, and the Norwegian national road authorities,
supported by DNV GL, are working on the development of hydrogen applications and
intend to put a new hydrogen-powered ferry into service by 2021. [2]
The SSS fleet in the EU, with the exception of inland waterway vessels, makes up
a respectable number of vessels that should be replaced or refurbished over a thirty-
year period in accordance with the requirements of environmental neutrality of energy.

2.1. Framework for the transformation

The framework for the transformation of marine propulsion systems of the SSS
fleet to be powered by environmentally friendly fuels is presented systematically by
decision-making levels - the development of technology for supply, transport and
application of environmentally friendly fuels of marine propulsion engines with the
set goal - zero emissions by 2050.

I. Framework - European Green Plan

The European Green Plan is a strategy for achieving sustainability of the EU

economy. This is intended to translate climate and environmental challenges into
opportunities in all policy areas and to ensure a fair and inclusive transition. The
European Green Plan includes an action plan for:
¾ Improving the efficient use of resources by moving to a clean circular
economy,
¾ Restoration of biodiversity and reduction of pollution.

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 63

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

An efficient combination of renewable gas (biomethane) and electricity, together

with existing gas networks, makes the optimal way to decarbonise the EU energy
system, making its constitution fully renewable.
There is great potential for the production of low-carbon renewables and
hydrogen in large quantities within the European Union. The Climate Gas study “Gas
decarbonisation pathways 2020 to 2050” [3] describes how a large amount of 1,700
TWh of hydrogen could be produced in the EU by 2050. In the transition to a clean EU
zero-emission energy system, hydrogen and biomethane will play a major role in the
efficient combination with renewable electricity. The European Commission has a clear
ambition to boost hydrogen growth as early as 2030, as highlighted in its Hydrogen
Strategy [4] and Energy Integration Strategy [5], both published on 8 July 2020.

II. Framework - transition

1. Preparing for transition - Strategic, technical and policy planning to enable

renewable and low carbon gases to play a significant role alongside renewable
electricity in the transition to zero emissions. Long-term infrastructure strategy
for the conversion of existing pipelines (pipelines) to hydrogen. Amendments to
laws and regulations in favor of conversion and readiness for H2.
2. Possible directions of transition - Increase biomethane production (in plants near
the gas network). Start the first hydrogen projects. Improve energy efficiency in all
sectors to enable electrification and the input of renewable and low-carbon gases.
3. Launch of the supply chain - Launch of a hydrogen production project integrated
with supply, use and storage near large consumers and with a basic load, probably
from industry. Developing a hydrogen production plant according to regional
needs. Continuous increase in biomethane supply.
4. Expanding demand - Hydrogen use is expanding to commercial and residential
consumers around the first hydrogen projects. Combining (up to 20%) rapidly
increases initial demand, paving the way for hydrogen clusters (100%).
5. Creation of a regional, national biomethane and hydrogen transport network and
connection to the European gas pipeline system.
6. 100% renewable and low carbon gases. Renewable and low-carbon gases fully
integrated into the EU energy system All gas end-users are supplied with hydrogen
and / or biomethane, the main type of which varies by region. Natural gas is no
longer used except for the production of blue hydrogen. Achieved zero emission
energy system by 2050.

64 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

III. Framework - Transition of SSS fleet persecution systems

Possible scenarios for the transition period - 2021 to 2050:

1. Development of internal combustion propulsion systems:
a. development of dual fuel system - diesel fuel and LNG
b. development of LNG-powered systems
c. development of hydrogen-powered systems.
2. Development of electric propulsion systems:
a. development of hybrid systems - diesel and electric power
b. development of electrical systems - batteries
c. electrical system development - batteries + hydrogen cells
The choice of possible scenarios depends on the technology of development of
marine propulsion machines and infrastructural solutions for the supply of motor fuels.
Scenarios 1a and 2a under the condition of green hydrogen production reach the
target zero emission of harmful gases.
There are two possible uses of hydrogen as a propellant for marine propulsion
systems:
¾ indirect - use of hydrogen fuel cells to start electric motors and
¾ direct - the use of hydrogen as a gas in internal combustion engines.
Both methods are in the phase of testing, prototyping and calculation of economic
viability.
Ship’s hydrogen propulsion systems will prevail as soon as the issue of
infrastructure (filling stations) is resolved, i.e. mass production and distribution of
hydrogen. The SSS must therefore follow national and European trends in this area
and be prepared for them.
The transition phase to the complete elimination of harmful gas emissions by 2050
means reducing emissions to the lowest possible level by using available technological
solutions.
Limitations that cannot be overcome at the moment relate to the climatic and
geographical conditions of the environment in which the fleet operates, which include
the length of the lines served and the strength of the sea and wind to which the
navigation is exposed.
It is proposed that in the transitional phase, the renewal of the fleet takes place
according to the changes related to:
¾ Fossil fuels are used exclusively to drive the main machine in navigation and
maneuvering,
¾ All other energy needed to maintain the ship’s systems is obtained from
renewable sources on board - photovoltaic cells, wind farms, stored energy
in batteries - hybrid propulsion, batteries and onshore power sources.

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 65

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

This would achieve a reduction in emissions of harmful gases per vessel, which
would confirm the savings on fuel.
This approach should guide the ordering of new construction as well as the
reconstruction / adaptation of existing vessels wherever technically and technologically
feasible.
Technology - electric ferry, in order to work properly, an electric ferry requires
large batteries that provide reliability for a long time. Examples of electric projects:
1. Stena Jutlandica - 50.000kWh
The Stena Line shipping company plans to add a 1,000 kW battery system to the
Stena Jutlandica ferry, which sails between Gothenburg in Sweden and Frederikshavn
in Denmark. The project started in 2018 and consists of three phases, of which the
first phase is the installation of batteries, the second phase includes the installation
of 20,000 kWh batteries, which will allow navigation of ten kilometres electrically
powered, while the third phase will focus on increasing battery capacity to 50,000
kWh. The amount of energy will allow the ferry to cross the entire distance between
the two cities using electrical power.
2. AIDAperla - 10,000kWh
Corvus Energy has equipped the German passenger ship AIDA Cruises with a
10,000 kW lithium-ion battery system, as the largest battery ever delivered for such a
purpose. This year, the battery was installed on the cruise ship AIDAperla, which can
carry more than 4,000 passengers and crew. It is also the largest ordered battery for this
type of ship. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the AIDAperla cruise ship was stopped
in Barbados for a month. It returned to Europe in late April, and in July the company
announced that AIDAperla would be one of the first cruisers to resume operations,
departing from Hamburg on 5 August.
3. Ellen - 4,300 kWh
After taking five years to build, the Ellen electric ferry project completed its ten-
month trial in June. The ferry, which will sail in the Danish part of the Baltic Sea, is part
of the E-Ferry project and was partly funded by Horizon 2020, the largest EU-funded
research and innovation program. With a 4,300 kWh battery system and a charging
speed of 4 MW, the Ellen will reduce emissions by 2,000 tons of CO2, as well as 41.5
tons of NOx and 1.35 tons of SO2.
4. Project e5 - 4,000 kWh
A Japanese shipping company, Asahi Tanker, has been working on two electrically
powered projects, which will sail as refuelling ships in Tokyo Bay. The tankers will
use the e5 model designed by the e5 Lab, in collaboration with Asahi Tanker and
Mitsubishi. The e5 project was conceived as a solution to the problems facing the
Japanese shipping industry, including the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and
labour shortages. The name e5 denotes the principles of the project, which include
electrification, environment, evolution, economy and efficiency.

66 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

Technology – hydrogen - In the long run, hydrogen may become an option to

decarbonise industry and the maritime sector. However, this ship propulsion technology
is still in the experimental phase. The strategy and the first projects as well as the
hydrogen supply are planned between 2025 - 2030.
As intermediate phases or transition to environmentally neutral fuels, hybrid
solutions are being developed in various combinations. However, the most common are
1) hybrids diesel - natural gas better known as dual fuel, 2) diesel - battery, 3) natural
gas - battery, 4) diesel - hydrogen, 5) natural gas - hydrogen, 6) battery - hydrogen cells.

2.2. Dual fuel

The transition period, in which the best way to propel a vessel in coastal navigation
is sought, is one in which preference is given to proven ship propulsion systems with
less impact on the environment.
The use of natural gas as a fuel for marine diesel engines began in the mid-1980s.
Due to low cetane number and high temperature self-ignition, natural gas cannot be
used as fuel for conventional use in a diesel engine since such engines would have to
have huge compression ratios and some kind of external heat supply to the cylinder.
However, with certain modifications, the use of natural gas as a fuel is possible with
diesel engines. Today, these problems are solved by using diesel engines with low-
pressure (7-13 bar) or high-pressure (about 200 bar) injection of natural gas [6].
Basic principles of double fuel engine operation
Gas injection into the diesel engine is solved by sucking a mixture of gas and air
into the engine cylinder as in a gasoline engine, and shortly before GMT a small amount
of diesel (pilot) fuel is injected which ignites and starts combustion of the entire mixture
inside the cylinder. This type of engine requires a slightly lower compression ratio
and the addition of an injector to the engine’s intake manifold. Wartsila has developed
its series of modern 32 and 50 DF (Dual Fuel) engines, in which the time period and
amount of injected pilot diesel fuel are controlled electronically. The engine always
starts with pilot diesel fuel (100% share), and switches to natural gas operation only
after the combustion inside the cylinder stabilizes.
The lower compression ratio and optimized injection time during the combustion
of the lean gas and air mixture (Lean Burn) allow to increase the efficiency.
A poor mixture is a condition for avoiding knocking caused by self-ignition of a
mixture of gaseous fuel and air. The cylinder is filled with gas during the suction stroke.
Instead of an electric spark, the ignition of a lean fuel mixture is done by injecting a
small amount of diesel fuel (pilot fuel) into the combustion chamber.
The declared emissions at full load for the 50DF engine are 1.4g / kWh of NOx
and 430 g / kWh of CO2. In order to achieve low NOx emissions, it is essential that the
amount of injected pilot fuel is very small. Wartsila DF engines therefore use so-called
“micro-pilot” injection with less than 1% of the injected pilot fuel at rated engine load.

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 67

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

In this way, in gas mode, NOx emissions are reduced to approximately 1/10 of the
emissions in diesel engine mode.
During engine operation in gas mode, the ratio of gas / air mixture must be strictly
controlled to avoid detonation combustion in the cylinder or the inability to ignite the
sucked gas and air mixture. This is achieved by electronic control of both the amount
of gas and the amount of injected pilot fuel. The electronic Wartsila (WECS) system
of the DF engine controls combustion in each cylinder and optimizes performance and
NOx emissions in all operating modes and allows each cylinder to operate within the
operating range without detonation combustion or no fuel ignition due to a too poor
a mixture.
Wartsila DF engines can run in gas mode and in diesel mode from MGO to heavy
residual fuels. In diesel mode, the engine runs like a conventional diesel engine using
a high-pressure fuel injection system into the working cylinder. The addition of gas
fuel is deactivated in this case, and the pilot fuel branch remains active, which ensures
reliable ignition of the fuel mixture of gas and air at the moment of switching the engine
operation to gas mode. The gas pressure at the engine inlet is around 4 bar at full engine
load. Gas injection control is realised via a robust, electronically controlled solenoid
valve located on the head of each cylinder.
Gas-diesel engines
Wartsila gas-diesel (GD) technology differs from the DF concept in that instead
of a low-pressure system, the DF engine uses a high-pressure gas injection system
directly into the engine cylinder and 3% pilot diesel fuel to ignite the injected gas fuel
into the engine cylinder.
Gas-diesel engines were developed in the late 1980s and were mainly used as
propulsion engines in the offshore industry. High-pressure direct injection of gaseous
fuel into the engine cylinder supported the diesel process by making the concept
insensitive to the methane content in natural gas as a fuel for these engines. This fact has
made the application of GD engines particularly suitable for mobile offshore systems
where the composition of natural gas can vary from site to site and from production
process to production process. Medium-speed GD engines can normally operate in
light or heavy diesel mode and in gas fuel mode.
Changing the engine operating mode from diesel to gas fuel and vice versa is done
automatically without stopping the engine. At the beginning of the development of these
engines, the injection of gas into the cylinder was controlled by a mechanical-hydraulic
system and a high-pressure pump controlled by a camshaft. Although reliable, this
system did not offer the required flexibility in engine operation and was later replaced
by an electro-hydraulic system based on the common rail principle and control of gas
injection by solenoid valves.
Rolls-Royce, as a subsidiary of the Norwegian diesel engine company Bergen
Diesel, has started the development of GD medium-capacity GD series K-series
cylinders with a diameter of 250 mm with the combustion of lean mixture. GD engines

68 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

from the same manufacturer of the KV-G4 series with variable turbocharger geometry
and individual dosing control of air and gas fuel for each cylinder individually achieved
a thermal efficiency of 44% at an average effective pressure of 16-18 bar with very low
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from 1.1 g / kWh. The projected engine power
was 3600 kW. The Bergen B32 medium-range GD series engine: 40 320 mm cylinder
diameters is designed for an output of around 6000 kW.
The world’s leading manufacturer of marine diesel engines MAN B&W Diesel has
offered the market a four-stroke medium-speed GI (English Injection) engine 16V28 /
32-GI manufactured at the Holeby factory, and a 6L35MC two-stroke model.
Use of volatile organic compounds for marine fuels
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a mixture of hydrocarbons (HC),
predominantly methane, propane, butane, and several other gases produced by the
evaporation of crude oil and its derivatives. VOCs are usually divided into non-
methane (NMVOC) and methane (CH4). These gaseous hydrocarbons are emitted
into the atmosphere from oil rigs, tankers, terminals and refineries. During the loading
or unloading of crude oil tankers or petroleum products, VOCs can be collected and
liquefied at special terminals and used as fuel.
The primary goal of marine gas engine manufacturers is to use them for propulsion
of liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers, which use vaporized gas from tanker tanks as
fuel. However, a modified high-pressure gas version of the MAN B&W MC engine in
particular is designed to use volatile organic compounds that are mainly formed during
the loading and unloading of crude oil tankers. Crude oil vapours or VOCs are volatile
components of oil, i.e. mainly methane CH4, which, in addition to developing during
tanker loading and unloading operations, also develops during travel in cargo tanks.

3. Advantages and disadvantages of alternative fuels and technologies

All alternative fuel options are accompanied by benefits and challenges. Below
is an overview of selected alternative ship fuels – LNG, LPG, methanol, biofuel and
hydrogen – as well as emerging technologies such as batteries and fuel cell systems.
To assess all fuels or technologies in a comparable manner, the data is categorized
as follows [7]: 1) Price: Accounts for production process, raw materials, market
price and the reasoning behind it, current/foreseeable (five years) price/expected
price (beyond five years); 2) Infrastructure: Current/future distribution network,
bunkering, availability; 3) Regulation: Existing/expected regulations, consequences;
4) Availability: Current / possible future production as related to the requirements in
shipping; 5) Environmental impact: CO2, NOX, SOX, particulate matter (PM) and
others; 6) Technology: Availability of current/future technology, foreseeable changes.

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 69

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

¾ LNG - The main component of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is methane (CH4), the
hydrocarbon fuel with the lowest carbon content and therefore with the highest
potential to reduce CO2 emissions (maximum reduction: roughly 26 % compared
to HFO).
◊ Price - Natural gas hub prices worldwide (except in certain parts of East Asia)
have been below the price of crude oil and HFO for the last ten years. The
delivered price of LNG fuel to ships must also account for the liquefaction
or break bulk cost, distribution cost and applicable profit margins. Compared
to other alternative fuels, LNG seems to have reached the most competitive
feedstock price level historically among all alternatives fuels.
◊ Infrastructure - While still limited, the dedicated LNG bunkering infrastructure
for ships is improving quite rapidly. A large share of LNG bunkering as well as
LNG distribution to bunkering locations is still taking place by road. Several
LNG bunker vessels where delivered for operation in key locations such as the
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp (ARA) region, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea
and at the coast of Florida.
◊ Regulations - The IMO IGF Code for LNG and CNG came into force on 1
January 2017, establishing an international regulatory basis for the design and
construction of LNG-fuelled ships.
◊ Availability - For the foreseeable future, there are no principal limitations to
production capacities that could limit the availability of LNG as ship fuel.
◊ Environmental impact: Natural gas from LNG is the cleanest fossil fuel
available today. There are no SOX emissions related to it, particle emissions are
very low, the NOX emissions are lower than those of MGO or HFO, and other
emissions such as HC, CO or formaldehyde from gas engines are low and can
be mitigated by exhaust gas after-treatment if necessary.
◊ Technology - Gas engines, gas turbines and LNG storage and processing
systems have been available for land installations for decades. LNG sea
transport by LNG carriers also has a history going back to the middle of the
last century. The technology required for using LNG as ship fuel is readily
available. Piston engines and gas turbines, several LNG storage tank types as
well as process equipment are also commercially available.
¾ LPG - Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is by definition any mixture of propane and
butane in liquid form.
◊ Price - Since 2011, prices have decoupled due to increased LPG production as
a by-product of shale oil and shale gas.
◊ Infrastructure - It is relatively easy to develop bunkering infrastructure at
existing LPG storage locations or terminals by simply adding distribution
installations. Distribution to ships can occur either from dedicated facilities or
from special bunker vessels.
◊ Regulations - The IMO IGF Code is mandatory for all gas and other low-
flashpoint-fuel ships. LPG is currently not included and is not on the agenda for

70 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

the near future. The main safety concern that must be covered is related to the
density of LPG vapours, which are heavier than air. Therefore, leak detectors
and special ventilation systems should be used.
◊ Availability - According to the World LPG Association, global LPG production
is about 284 million tonnes per year. Only 9 % of LPG is used for transportation.
Other uses of LPG include homes (cooking and heating), chemical and other
industries, and refineries.
◊ Environmental impact - LPG combustion results in CO2 emissions that are
approximately 16 % lower than those of HFO. When accounting for the complete
life cycle, including fuel production, the CO2 savings amount to roughly 17%.
◊ Technology - There are three main options for using LPG as ship fuel: in a
two-stroke diesel-cycle engine; in a four-stroke, lean-burn Otto-cycle engine;
or in a gas turbine. An alternative technology offered by Wärtsilä consists in the
installation of a gas reformer to turn LPG and steam into methane by mixing
them with CO2 and hydrogen. This mixture can then be used in a regular gas or
dual-fuel engine without derating.
¾ Hydrogen (H2) is a colourless, odourless and non-toxic gas. For use on ships, it
can either be stored as a cryogenic liquid, as compressed gas, or chemically bound.
◊ Price - The cost of H2 depends to a large extent on the price of electricity (in the
case of electrolysis) or gas (in the case of reformation), as well as on the scale
of the production plant.
◊ Infrastructure - Today, most hydrogen is produced from natural gas using a
related, mainly industrial, land-based infrastructure. Since there is currently
no demand for H2 fuel, there is no distribution or bunkering infrastructure for
ships. Liquefied hydrogen (LH) could be distributed in a similar manner as
LNG.
◊ Regulations - Hydrogen is a low-flashpoint fuel subject to the International
Code for Safety of Ships using Gases or Other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF
Code). The current edition of the IGF Code does not cover hydrogen storage.
◊ Availability - More than 50 million tonnes of H2 are produced per year globally.
This is about equal to the energy content of 150 million tonnes of ship fuel.
Nearly all hydrogen is produced from natural gas. As hydrogen can be produced
from water using electrolysis, there are no principal limitations to production
capacity that could restrict the amount of available H2 to the shipping industry.
◊ Environmental impact - There are energy losses associated with H2 production
and possible compression or liquefaction. When H2 is generated from renewable
or nuclear power using an efficient supply chain, it can be a low-emission
alternative fuel for shipping. Current development initiatives explore hydrogen
production from natural gas while safely capturing and storing the resulting
CO2 (CCS). Hydrogen used in fuel cells as energy converters does not produce
any CO2 emissions and could eliminate NOX, SOX and particulate matter
(PM) emissions from ships. Hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines for

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 71

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

marine applications could also minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,

while NOX emissions cannot be avoided when using combustion engines.
◊ Technology - Power generation systems based on H2 may eventually be an
alternative to today’s fossil-fuel-based systems. While fuel cells are considered
the key technology for hydrogen, other applications are also under consideration,
including gas turbines or internal combustion engines in stand-alone operation
or in arrangements incorporating fuel cells.
¾ Methanol - (CH3OH) is the simplest alcohol with the lowest carbon content and
highest hydrogen content of any liquid fuel. Methanol is a liquid between -93°C to
+65°C at atmospheric pressure.
◊ Price - Since methanol is typically produced from natural gas, its price per
mass unit is usually coupled to natural gas prices and is higher in relation
to energy content. Producing methanol from coal may bring the price down,
but it increases GHG emissions drastically. Methanol is easy to produce from
hydrogen and CO2. Therefore, the production of methanol from renewable
energy makes it a green ship fuel. The costs are currently higher than the costs
of methanol synthesis from methane.
◊ Infrastructure - Distribution to ships can be accomplished either by truck or
by bunker vessel. In the port of Gothenburg, Stena Line has created a dedicated
area for bunkering the vessel Stena Germanica, which includes a few simple
safety barriers to avoid problems in case of a leak. In Germany, the first
methanol infrastructure chain, from production using renewable energy to
trucking and ship bunkering through to consumption in a fuel cell system on
board the inland passenger vessel MS Innogy, was launched in August 2017.
◊ Regulations - For shipping, the main applicable guideline is the IGF Code,
which is compulsory for all gas and other low-flashpoint-fuel ships. The rules
for methanol are still under development.
◊ Availability - The global methanol demand was approximately 80 million
tonnes. The production capacity is more than 110 million tonnes. The energy
content of these 110 million tonnes is equal to approximately 55 million tonnes
of oil. It is expected that the current production can safely cover the demand for
shipping until 2030, assuming that the demand for methanol as ship fuel will
grow slowly initially and remain at a moderate level.
◊ Environmental impact - Methanol combustion in an internal combustion
engine reduces CO2 emissions by approximately 10 % compared to oil.
◊ Technology - There are two main options for using methanol as fuel in
conventional ship engines: in a two-stroke diesel-cycle engine or in a four-
stroke, lean-burn Otto-cycle engine. Methanol is a liquid fuel and can be
stored in standard fuel tanks for liquid fuels, with certain modifications to
accommodate its low-flashpoint properties and the requirements currently
under development for the IGF Code at the IMO. Fuel tanks should be equipped
with a facility for safe inert gas purging and gas freeing.

72 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

¾ Biofuels – are derived from primary biomass or biomass residues that are
converted into liquid or gaseous fuels. The production of biofuel is commonly
categorized based on the carbon source:
◊ First-generation biofuels: sources include sugar, starch or lipid directly
extracted from plants;
◊ Second-generation biofuels: derived from woody crops, purpose-grown non-
food feedstock, and wastes/residues;
◊ Third-generation biofuels: derived from aquatic autotrophic organisms (e.g.
algae).
The conventional biofuels typically have lower energy content and lower
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than conventional marine fuels. NOX emissions
may be higher. The most promising biofuels for ships are biodiesel (e.g. hydrotreated
vegetable oil [HVO], biomassto- liquids [BTL], fatty acid methyl ester [FAME]) and
liquefied biogas (LBG). Biodiesel is most suitable for replacing MDO/MGO, LBG is the
best replacement for fossil LNG, and straight vegetable oil (SVO) can substitute HFO.
Renewable HVO biodiesel is a high-quality fuel in which the oxygen has been
removed using hydrogen, which results in long-term stability. It is compatible with
existing infrastructure and can be used in existing engines, subject to approval by the
manufacturer. The GHG emissions and particulate matter (PM) emissions are likewise
lower. There are no sulphur emissions. Third-generation algae-based biofuels are still
at the research and development stage but were tested in 2011 on the container ship
Maersk Kalmar.
◊ Price In most cases, advanced biofuels will be more expensive than fossil fuels.
The potential for reducing production costs is expected to be higher for second-
generation biofuels compared to the first generation, where a major portion of
the potential is already being realized. Prices and production volumes are the
main barriers to widespread use in shipping.
◊ Infrastructure - There is a lack of global infrastructure and bunkering facilities.
Biodiesel could potentially be used as a drop-in fuel. If biofuel is available, it
can be distributed using the existing distribution systems for MGO and HFO.
◊ Regulations - Annex A of the ISO 8217:2017 fuel standard addresses bio-derived
products, EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 provide biodiesel standards, while
the EN 590 diesel standard is relevant for high-quality diesel for automotive
use. The International Council on Combustion Engines (CIMAC) provides
a guideline for ship owners and operators on managing marine distillate
fuels containing up to 7 % v/v of FAME (biodiesel). The Global Bioenergy
Partnership (GBEP) defines sustainability indicators for bioenergy, specifying
three pillars: environmental, social and economic. Overall, there is a lack of
globally accepted, maritime-specific standards for biofuels.
◊ Availability - Global production data indicates that 32 million tonnes of
biodiesel and 170 million tonnes of straight vegetable oil (SVO) are produced
per year.

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 73

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

◊ Environmental impact - The emission reduction potential of biofuels varies

widely, depending on the specific feedstock, the biofuel generation, the engine
type/model, and the supply chain. CO2 reductions of up to 80 to 90 % for certain
types of biofuels are possible, based on life-cycle assessments. The highest
reduction potential is reported for advanced biofuels.
◊ Technology - Biofuels are used as drop-in fuels substituting conventional fossil
fuels and are compatible with existing infrastructure and engine systems. In
some cases, they require the modification of infrastructure and engine systems.
Liquefied biogas (LBG) consists mainly of methane and can utilize the same
technology as conventional LNG.

3.1. Electric drive

The electric motor uses electric current obtained from a) generators, b) rechargeable
batteries and c) hydrogen cells to start propulsion on SSS ships.
The electricity produced by the electric generator, which originates from diesel
engines or DF motors for starting electric motors, is not the subject of analysis due to
the high presence of GHG.
Batteries
Batteries and hybrid power plants represent a transformation in the way energy is
used and distributed on board vessels. Electric power systems using batteries are more
controllable, and easier to optimize in terms of performance, safety and fuel efficiency.
As ship power systems become increasingly electrified, and as battery technology
improves and becomes more affordable, new opportunities emerge.
Fully electric ships represent a leap forward in power system design, but at present
they are only feasible in limited applications such as ferries and short sea shipping.
The feasibility of all-electric operation for other vessels is typically limited either by
the size of the required battery system or its cost. Unsurprisingly, the same limitations
apply to many other uses of battery systems as well. Further research and development
is needed urgently to achieve significant improvements to this technology.
Commercially available battery chemicals on the market today utilize largely
similar elements. Anodes have historically been carbon or graphite based, while
electrolytes predominantly consist of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate,
dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate and ethyl methyl carbonate. Some of the most
promising developments for lithium-ion battery safety, energy density, and longevity
may come from advancements in these areas. Component quality and manufacturing
process will have a substantial effect on performance, longevity, consistency, and
safety. Other key factors are the anode chemistry and material properties, the electrode
active material coating thickness and porosity, the electrolyte, the separator, the current
collectors and the cell construction. However, the chemical composition of the positive
electrode (cathode) is one of the most defining aspects of a given battery’s performance

74 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

characteristics. This is the name that is commonly referred to in describing different

battery technologies (LiFePO, NCM). This material composition is important for
such factors as power and energy characteristics, lifetime, safety thresholds, voltage
as well as cost. A few of the most common cathode chemicals are listed below. Cell
compositions also utilize a mixture of these different chemicals on the cathode more
and more now.
¾ Lithium cobalt oxide, LiCoO2 (LCO) - The main advantage of LiCoO2 is its
relatively high energy density. However, it typically displays lower power
(rate) capabilities and shorter life cycle. Impedance increase over time is also a
significant concern with LiCoO2 based cells. Cobalt oxide suffers from safety
concerns due to the exothermic release of oxygen at elevated temperatures
– producing a self-heating fire resulting in thermal runaway concerns. LCO
type cells are very common in consumer electronics rechargeable batteries
where a three-year life span of a few hundred cycles to 80% of its original
capacity is often sufficient.
¾ Lithium manganese oxide spinel, LiMn2O4 (LMO) - LMO is a somewhat
unique cathode chemical, being a spinel structure, which provides a significant
benefit in terms of power capabilities. The compound has additional safety
benefits due to high thermal stability. However, it has significantly lower
energy capacity compared to cobalt based compounds, and is known to have
a shorter life cycle characteristics, especially at higher temperatures. Several
material modification possibilities exist in order to improve the life cycle of
LMO compounds.
¾ Nickel manganese cobalt oxide, LiNi1-x-yMnxCoyO2 (NCM or NMC)
- NCM is one of the most recent cathode developments and is the present
market leader for large format applications. NCM is starting to replace
LCO as the dominant chemical for consumer electronics. Its strength is the
combination of attributes of its constituents - nickel (with a high specific
energy), cobalt (high specific energy) and manganese (doped in the layered
structure to stabilize it). The relative composition can be tweaked to produce
different properties with regard to power density, energy density cost and
safety, as well as to customize the cells to certain applications or groups of
applications. NCM can also be mechanically mixed with LCO or LMO in the
cathode in order to produce yet another customization of properties.
¾ Lithium iron phosphate. LiFePO4 (LFP) - Like LMO, LFP differs significantly
from most other cathode chemicals in terms of its structure, which is
phosphorous-olivine rather than a layered metal oxide. A dominant benefit of
this is the lack of an oxygen source at the cathode, thus posing a potentially
reduced risk magnitude during thermal runaway. These cells are additionally
more resilient to temperature fluctuations. The specific energy of LiFePO4 is
relatively low, and the electrochemical potential (voltage) is lower, reducing
the cell’s driving force. Power capabilities of a LiFePO4 based battery cell are

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 75

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

inherently low; however, doping the LiFePO4 material with small amounts
of other materials, conductive coatings and nanostructured active material
particles have enabled typically high power battery cells using LiFePO4.
Another important characteristic of the different chemicals is the voltage level at
which they operate. With some chemicals, it is possible to obtain a higher voltage when
fully charged, but with a rapidly decreasing profile as the SOC reduces.
Batteries present many opportunities for benefits and increased system
performance. However, the risks inherent to battery systems with regard to safety are
different than those of traditional power system components, and thus require particular
attention. These risks are manageable and it is feasible to ensure a safe battery system,
but the risks and challenges need to be identified and appropriately taken into account
with respect to battery system selection and integration. The main goal is to have the
safety and reliability of a vessel with a large lithium battery installation at least at the
same level as with a conventional vessel.
The technology of electric propulsion systems using batteries is possible in the
operation of ships on short lines with the possibility of charging the batteries at both
points. The problem that is not technologically solvable is the time required for battery
recovery, which would cause longer waits on high-frequency lines during the tourist
season. The use of hydrogen fuel cells would create the conditions for unlimited use
of the vessel.
Fuel cells
Fuel cells offer high electrical efficiencies of up to 60 %, as well as lower noise
and vibration emissions than conventional engines. The main components of a fuel cell
power system are the fuel cells, which convert the chemical energy stored in the fuel
directly into electrical and thermal energy by electrochemical oxidation. This direct
conversion enables electrical efficiencies of up to 60 %, depending on the fuel cell type
and the fuel used. There are several different fuel cell technologies, including alkaline
fuel cells (AFC), proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), high-temperature
PEMFCs (HT-PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells
(PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). The
three most promising fuel cell technologies for maritime use are SOFC, PEMFC and
HT-PEMFC.
¾ Price - Mass production, which is expected to occur in 2022, should allow
production costs to reach a competitive level. Development projects are
underway, and the most promising project for maritime fuel cells, e4ships, is
aiming for a market launch in 2022. With increased production, the impact of
material costs will become a dominant factor in fuel cell prices.
¾ Infrastructure - Currently, relevant services are provided by the fuel cell
manufacturers. With the exception of fuel cell systems for military submarines,
all present fuel cell systems in shipping are non-commercial prototype
installations. The most advanced projects regarding future commercial

76 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

application are those of the e4ships lighthouse project. Commercialization

will include a guarantee and lifetime technical support. A service network
similar to that for diesel engines has yet to be established.
¾ Regulations - The international rule base for the design and construction of
maritime fuel cell applications is currently under development at the IMO as
part of the International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other Low-
flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code). Existing class rules form the basis of special
permits. The current international regulatory framework is geared towards
combustion engines. Apart from some class rules, there is no binding
international regulatory framework for maritime fuel cell applications.
¾ Availability - Fuel cell systems are currently available in small quantities
from several manufacturers.
¾ Environmental impact - The fuels typically used in fuel cells reduce NOX,
SOX and particulate matter (PM) emissions nearly to zero. Due to the high
efficiency of fuel cells, a reduction of CO2 emissions by 30 % is possible.
¾ Technology - Only small maritime fuel cell applications with an electrical
power output of up to 100 kW are currently in operation. Current research
and development aims to make maritime fuel cell systems marketable and
scalable from 2022. It should be noted that the life span of fuel cell systems
and reformer units has not yet shown satisfactory results. Since 2016, a
methanol fuel cell system has been in operation on board the passenger ferry
MS Mariella, operated by Viking Line between Helsinki and Stockholm.
Another methanol fuel cell system is installed on board MS Innogy, an
inland passenger vessel operated by the White Fleet Baldeneysee and Innogy.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) technology in particular has reached a
development level comparable with the dimension of automotive engines and
capable of handling ship load changes well.
The fuel cell projects vary from assessments of potential for fuel cell use,
regulatory development and feasibility studies and concept design, to testing of fuel
cells in various vessels [8] .

3.2. Hybrid propulsions

Electrified vessels do not have to be exclusively powered by batteries, but there are
different levels of hybrid drives, from standard plug-in (parallel) hybrids, in which the
engine provides mechanical propulsion, to extended-range hybrids (series), in which the
propulsion is exclusively electric - it only produces electricity, to hybrid fuel cells. All
of these types of hybrid vessels use some type of fuel that burns in internal combustion
engines, with the exception of fuel cell hybrids. The latter vessels use hydrogen (or
some other hydrogen-rich fuel, such as alcohol or ammonia) that does not burn, but
goes through another process that usually involves catalysis through a proton alternating

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 77

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

membrane (PEM) that produces electricity, water or water and CO2, when the fuel
molecule also contains carbon atoms [9]. Although hybrid systems tend to duplicate
systems, which could be a disadvantage in terms of cost and maintenance needs, this
could provide a positive change in the short and medium term as it allows minimizing
the main current constraints of electric mobility: energy storage cost, density, reliability
and charging time. Although some of these limitations are no longer critical for small
ships on short lines, they are still critical for some driving modes (strong winds, sea
currents) as well as for long voyages, which would require huge, expensive energy
storage systems that need long charging or very high power fast charging stations that
also have their challenges.
The type of power to propel a vessel varies greatly between the types of ships and
the purpose and area of navigation. When the propulsion system is based on an electrical
architecture, power systems can be combined to meet the overall power requirement
(e.g. hybrid architectures of accumulators and combustion engines, or batteries and
fuel cells, or combustion engines with fuel cell and battery, etc.). As shown in the
following table, the power requirements range from approximately 150 kW to almost
100 MW - a scale factor greater than 500.

Table 1 – Power Requirement [9]

Power Requirement,
Vessel Category / Application
Approximate, MW
Ferries
Small Ferries 0.24 – 1.0
Large Ferries, Inland Waters 2 - 12
Large Ferries, Open Seas & High Speed 20 -44
Freight Vessels
Inland Freight Vessels, USA, Towed & Pushed Barges 0.13 – 1.0
Inland / River Vessels, Europe,
Class 1 – Vb (Self-Propelled) & Push-Tow Barges 0.2 – 4.5

River Cruise Vessel, Class Vlb <2

Tugs, Europe, Class 1 10
Inland Container Vessel, Mississippi River (proposed,
11.5
235m, up to 2960 TEU)
Cold Ironing (ports)
Container Ships (5-13k TEU) 0.2 – 0.9
Cold Ironing; Tankers Up to 3MW

78 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

Cruise Ships
Cruise Ship, Hotel Load 3 - 10
Cruise Ship, Manoeuvring in Port 20
Cruise Ship, Emergency Power 2-4
Cruise Ship, Propulsion 25 - 97

4. Which fuels are the alternatives?

According to DNV-GL forecasts [10], decarbonisation pathways will depend on

the level of growth of maritime trade. They use a scenario-based framework with three
unknowns: regulatory policy measures, fuel prices and maritime trade. The Greenhouse
Gas (GHG) model is used to develop a scenario that describes the path leading to the
quantification of future fleet composition, CO2 emissions, energy consumption, fuel
measurement and costs.
The first scenario (scenario 1) follows the IMO ambitions pathway with design
and operational requirements, low renewable electricity prices, and high seaborne-trade
growth. During the decade to 2030, we see growing LNG use in newbuilds, and some
retrofit to scrubbers. In the 2030s, there is significant growth in LNG, but still only on
newbuilds. Regulations start to have effect with some retrofits from DF LNG ICE to
DF ammonia ICE. After 2040, we see most newbuilds being built with an ammonia-
fuelled propulsion system.

Figure 1 – Scenario 1. [10]

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 79

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

Figure 2 – Scenario 2. [10]

The second scenario (scenario 2) follows the Decarbonisation by 2040 pathway

using design and operational requirements, low biomass prices, and low growth; and we
see an entirely different technology path. The development between 2020 and 2030 is
very similar to scenario 1, with retrofitting of scrubbers and growth in the use of LNG on
newbuilds. After 2030, with new regulations coming into place, and with use of biofuels
being the most economically feasible way to decarbonize, we see a quick transition
to bio-methanol in 2040, including a high share of retrofits from LNG. LNG as a fuel
is almost phased out, while we see some use of bio-MGO in part of the fleet in 2050.
Regulatory policies and primary energy prices are key drivers for uptake of carbon-
neutral fuels and the future fuel mix. Fossil VLSFO/MGO and LNG are in rapid decline
by mid-century, or even phased out in the most ambitious decarbonisation models. The
uptake of carbon-neutral fuel picks up in the late 2030s or mid-2040s, reaching between
60% and 100% of the fuel mix in 2050.
◊ It is hard to identify clear winners among the many different fuel options across all
scenarios, but e-ammonia, blue ammonia and bio-methanol are the most promising
carbon-neutral fuels in the long run in the path to decarbonisation.
◊ Fossil LNG gains a significant share until regulations tighten in 2030 or 2040
depending on the decarbonisation pathway, when we see bio-MGO, e-MGO, bio-
LNG and e-LNG used as drop-in fuels for existing ships, and bio-methanol, blue
ammonia or e-ammonia for newbuilds and some retrofits.
◊ Although ammonia and methanol dominate the fuel mix in 2050, we also see
that bio-LNG, e-LNG, bio-MGO and e-MGO have a limited but stable share for
newbuilds, indicating that these fuels are not only transitional fuels, but a viable
alternative for some ships.

80 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

4.1. Other possible fuels

Ammonia (NH3) is primarily used in fertilizer production and there are over 150
million tons produced annually. Its production is very energy intensive (it uses about
2% of the total energy consumed in the world) and produces approximately 1% of CO2
emissions in the world. In general, the production of one molecule of NH3 results in
the emission of a molecule of CO2. In nature, ammonia is produced in the process of
decomposition (rot) of plant and animal waste by bacteria. It can also be obtained during
the pyrolysis of coal, as a by-product of the production of coke and coal gas. In these
cases, ammonia appears as ammonium hydroxide, a liquid commonly used as a cleaning
agent commonly known as “ammonia.” Ammonia is also used in absorption cycle
refrigeration systems. Anhydrous ammonia (without added water) can be a substitute
for petrol in petrol or diesel engines, and the main interest is to use it as an “energy
carrier”, to replace electricity (or hydrogen) as a means of transporting energy from
the place where it is produced (wind farm or nuclear power plant) to the place where it
will be used, for example for ship propulsion. As there is no carbon in its molecule, it
does not produce CO2, CO or HC. Comparing it to hydrogen (another energy carrier),
one litre of liquid ammonia (at 10 bar and 25 C) has 30% more hydrogen than 1 L of
liquid hydrogen (-253 0C). Therefore, it makes much more sense to use ammonia as
an energy carrier than hydrogen.
It can burn in engines when mixed with diesel, but it would be useful to mix it
with biodiesel or Dimethyl ether because these fuels have a higher cetane number.
Ammonia in small quantities causes irritation, and in higher concentrations, it can be
lethal. However, its distinctive and strong odour and the fact that it is lighter than air
reduces the risks. Ammonia has special devices and processes for production, storage
and delivery, so it has been extensively tested worldwide. Also, unlike gasoline, it is
not carcinogenic, its combustion does not produce smoke and is much less prone to
explosions. Currently, ammonia is produced from natural gas (70%) and from coal
(30%) by the Haber-Bosch process where hydrogen and nitrogen react (3H2 + N2 →
2NH3) in an iron oxide catalyst at temperatures ranging from 380 to 500 0C. When
ammonia burns in the engine it reaches an efficiency of 40% which shows that the
production and use of ammonia is not yet energetically or economically viable and will
require the development of more efficient processes. However, the use of ammonia in
fuel cells that generally need pure hydrogen is interesting.
Until recently, glycerol (C3H8O3) was used as a substrate in the cosmetics industry
(glycerine), in order to generate significant amounts of glycerol, which is not of
interest, during intensive biodiesel production. Namely, for each part of the generated
biodiesel, 10% glycerol is obtained by the transesterification process. Glycerol can
burn in the atmosphere, but at temperatures below 300 0C it can form toxic compounds
such as aldehyde acrolein. Acrolein is produced by the dehydration of glycerol and
it is a black and sticky substance that forms during exposure to vegetable oils at high

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 81

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

temperatures, such as deposits on pans and is responsible for their pungent odour. It is
also carcinogenic and should be avoided [11].
As a fuel, glycerol burns heavily in the engine. It solidifies at 18 0C, so it has a
high viscosity and must be injected hot (~ 100 0C) to allow sufficient spraying. Its auto-
ignition temperature is 390 0C, so it is too high for direct use in compression-ignition
engines. When mixed with diesel up to 20% then the intake air should be heated to 100
0
C to maintain stable combustion. Power is slightly reduced and efficiency is slightly
increased, while NOx and PM production is reduced, mostly at high power. One of the
observed problems is the difficulty in producing and maintaining stable mixtures of
hydrocarbons and glycerol. Nevertheless, experimental glycerol engines continue to be
developed that use heated intake air (200 0C) as well as fuel (100 0C) so that glycerol
burns cleanly and efficiently [12].
Aquafuel (Aquafuel 2020) has developed a generator for charging car batteries in
Formula E races that use electric cars whose batteries must be charged in the pits. These
generators are modified diesel engines (Cummins KTA50, 50 L, V16, turbocharger,
power over 1 MW) that run on glycerol, because it is a pure biofuel. Each generator can
produce 850 kWe, enough to charge 40 car batteries in 50 minutes. These generators
are also used by biodiesel manufacturers, which allows them to use the by-product
glycerol to produce electricity in their plants.

4.2. Hydrogen as the main fuel for marine engines - solution or utopia

The technology that is being developed with the aim of using hydrogen as the
main fuel in transport (road and sea) is based on: 1) hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) and
2) combustion of hydrogen in engines (H2ICE). The advantages of hydrogen FCVs
are high efficiency, lack of harmful emissions (water vapour is the only emission that
is harmless compared to emissions created by burning fossil fuels such as nitrous
oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide), they work quietly and
are modular [13] . FCVs use electrochemical reactions to produce electricity from
hydrogen and oxygen. Alternatively, the benefits of H2ICE rely on a mature industry
with a number of manufacturing infrastructures, capable of using “flexible fuel” in
transition that could help deploy hydrogen infrastructures, lower hydrogen requirements
compared to HFCs, ultra-low emissions, elevated peak and part of the load efficiency
compared to conventional fuel and, most importantly, ICE does not depend on rare
materials. Namely, FCV and battery vehicles (BEV) use rare materials which could
limit the spread of these devices. FC require platinum, which is expensive anyway and
will become more expensive as demand increases. BEVs use rare z elements that will
be difficult to produce in large quantities.
Compared to ICE based on fossil fuels, the use of H2 ICE achieves 20-25%
efficiency. FC motors can achieve efficiencies of up to 60%, while the rest is lost
as heat. The main challenge in promoting the use of hydrogen is on-board storage

82 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

and the inaccessibility of refuelling stations. Significant progress must be made to

adequately address the storage problem. Both infrastructure and financial resources
must be allocated to the development of the hydrogen economy, which will require
strong political support.

5. Conclusion

The transition to alternative fuels is a necessity that goes beyond the economic
logic of maritime business. Awareness of the need for decarbonisation caused by
maritime transport has prompted almost all European maritime states to find solutions,
primarily in their own territory and for their own needs and then for commercial use.
The models that will be applied are left to the market, which in turn expects an optimal
solution from science, technology and logistics in order to start the production or
modification of propulsion machines and ships.
The shipping industry is under increasing pressure to act upon the Paris Agreement
and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The substantial emission reductions
which must be achieved over the next decades are expected to drive technology
development and, in particular, the introduction of low-carbon fuels. Marine fuel
currently contributes approximately 3 % to global man-made CO2 emissions. Most
seagoing ships are still using heavy fuel oil (HFO) or marine gas oil (MGO), with a
maximum sulphur limit of 3.5 % (mass) in force for HFO and 0.1 % (mass) for low-
sulphur MGO. Looking at the future with the IMO 2020 [14] low-sulphur standards and
upcoming CO2 emission regulation regime in mind, the share of conventional oil-based
ship fuels will drop and the share of alternative fuels will grow.
It is assumed that a hybrid energy system architecture consisting of fuel cells and
batteries will be adopted for ferries and other vessels. The ratio between fuel cell and
battery power will depend on the vessel, route and schedule. Hybrid systems can be
designed so that the fuel cells operate in a steady state and the batteries are dimensioned
for temporary power needs. The fuel cell can recharge batteries over time on low-power
ships, for example while a ferry is loading or unloading vehicles and passengers at the
dock. Maximum power can be delivered by batteries and fuel cells working together,
and power in navigation can be delivered by fuel cells.
A ship’s power system must have the ability to deliver maximum rated power, but
ships rarely operate at maximum power. The power supply system should be optimized
for efficiency at a typical or average operating speed. Redundant energy systems are
required for propulsion. These points are important when considering possible zero-
emission energy systems. The power needs for ferries and cruise ships vary greatly
depending on whether the ship is moored or sailing. Regardless, the power supply
system should be selected to operate efficiently over a wide power range.
Using very strict design requirements for newbuilds without corresponding
operational requirements for all ships could severely disadvantage new ships, as they

Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84 83

David Sopta, Tomislav Bukša, Juraj Bukša, Ivan Peronja Alternative Fuels and Technologies...

are forced to use a much more expensive fuel. This could again lead to older and less-
efficient ships being kept in operation longer.
The speed of transition to carbon-neutral fuels will have major implications for
the shipbuilding value chain and the land-based fuel supply chain. In practical terms,
we need to start developing supply of carbon-neutral fuels in major ports, as well as
developing the on-board solutions and corresponding regulations.
Starting with the current decade, it will be necessary to develop new-generation,
carbon-neutral ships. This will require accelerated technology development for short sea
shipping vessels, and safety standards development. These are needed to overcome key
barriers including technical maturity, cost of the required machinery and fuel-storage
systems on vessels, fuel price, fuel availability and widespread/global bunkering
infrastructure. Safety is also a primary concern for some fuels. To further encourage
development, use of fuel-flexible or fuel-ready solutions on board could help reduce
the ship owners’ investment risk.

References
1. Bukša, J. (2005). The Meaning of the Short Sea Shipping and the Short Sea Shipping Project
Joining Modalities. Pomorski zbornik, 43(1), pp. 131-140.
2. DNV GL – Maritime. (2020). Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies. Hamburg:
DNV GL and the Horizon Graphic. Available at: www.dnvgl.com/maritime [Accessed 25 October
2020].
3. DNV-GL. (2020). Maritime forecast to 2050. Energy Transition Outlook 2020, pp. 1-106. Available
at: www.dnvgl.com/maritime [Accessed 25 October 2020].
4. EC. (2020). Powering a climate neutral economy: an EU strategy for Energy System Integration,
COM(2020)299. Brussel: EC.
5. Europien Commission. (2020). Hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe. Bruxelles.
Available at: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/5602f358-c136-11ea-b3a4-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en [Accessed 12 December 2020].
6. Hosseini, S. E., & Butler, B. (2019). An overview of development and challenges in hydrogen
powered vehicles. International Journal of Green Energy, pp. 1-26. Available at: https://doi.org/
10.1080/15435075.2019.1685999 [Accessed 12 December 2020].
7. IMO. (2020). Fourth IMO GHG Study 2020 – Final report. Washington, D.C. Available at: https://
theicct.org/news/fourth-imo-ghg-study-finalreport-pr-20200804 [Accessed 7 December 2020].
8. Martins, J., & Brito, F. P. (2020). Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines. Energies,
13(4086), pp. 1-33..
9. McNeil, P., Day, P., & Sirovsy, F. (2012). Glycerine from biodiesel: The perfect diesel fuel. Process
Safety and Environmental Protection, pp. 180-188.
10. NMA. (2017). Breaking new ground in hydrogen ferry project. Bergen: Norwegian Mariteme
Authority. Avaiable at: https://www.sdir.no/en/news/news-from-the-nma/breaking-new-ground-
in-hydrogen-ferry-project/ [Accessed 12 December 2020].
11. Peters, D. e. (2020). Gas Decarbonisation Pathways 2020–2050. Utrecht: Gas for Climate.
12. Shusheng, X., Qiujie, S., Baosheng, G., & Encong, Z. (2020). Research and development of
on-board hydrogen-producing fuel cell vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
4. Avaiable at: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/international-journal-of-hydrogen-energy
[Accessed 7 December 2020].
13. Tireli, E. (2005). Goriva i njihova primjena na brodu. Rijeka: Pomorski fakultet Sveučilišta u
Rijeci.
14. Tronstad, T., Høgmoen Åstrand, H., Haugom, G. P., & Langfeldt, L. (2017). Study on the use of
fuel cells in shipping. Hamburg: EMSA European Maritime Safety Agency.

84 Pomorski zbornik 59 (2020), 61-84