UNIT I: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEMS

- Introduction to the course, Scope and Importance of Environment

- Concept of an Ecosystem
- Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers, Consumers, and
Decomposers
- Energy Flow in the Ecosystem, Ecological Succession Food Chains, Food
Webs, Ecological Pyramids
- Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure, and function of the
following ecosystem: - Forest ecosystem Grassland Ecosystem, Desert
Ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries)
- Biodiversity and its conservation
 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE
─ To encircle/ surround
─ interactions between physical, chemical, and biological systems
• Sociology

• Meteorology
Social • Political Framework

• Atmospheric Sciences
Chemistry
• Hydrology Climate modelling. GIS
• Geology Engg., Coastal
• Geomorphology Management • Soil Sciences
Earth Green credits
EIA
Life •
•
Ecology
Population dynamics
• Sedimentology Sciences Sciences • Diseases
• Hydrogeology
• Oceanography
 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
Global Environmental Problems Environmental Priorities in India
• Population Stabilization: Carrying capacity
• Over populations • Natural resource assessment and
• Pollution management
• Depletion of Resources • Strategies for environmental pollution
• Global change monitoring and control
• War • Human settlement and public health
• Environmental Laws and regulation
• Environmental Education and Awareness
• Dynamic pressure of limited resources
linking to Hazards and Disasters
• “Tragedy of Commons”- individuals promote their short terms welfare, which
conflicts with long-term environmental interest
 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
• Communities are vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change.
• Need to adapt to increase their
resilience.
• The community needs to be made
aware of the risks, acquire
knowledge about the options that
are available for a response, and be
empowered to take their own
actions
• Drivers for effective government
policies
Khatibi, F.S., Dedekorkut-Howes, A., Howes, M. et al. Can public awareness,
knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?. Discov
Sustain 2, 18 (2021)
 ECOSYSTEM
─ interaction of a variety of individual organisms with each other (same or different
species) and their physical environment.
─ Self-contained system with specific nutrients and energy flow.
─ Individual→ Population→ Ecosystem → Biome→ Biosphere
Ecosystem

Biotic Abiotic
• Producers • Climatic Conditions
• Consumers • (Temperature, rainfall, sunlight,
• Decomposers (Saprophytes) Wind, Atmospheric gases)
• Scavengers • Edaphic conditions
• Parasites • (soil, pH, mineral nutrients)
• Phagotrophs and Osmotrophs Representation of the Structure of the Ecosystem
 ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
─ Homeostasis
─ Tendency of the body to seek and maintain balance within its internal
environment even when it is undergoing external change: RESILIENCE
─ Limiting Factor
─ Limiting factors determine the productivity of organisms, populations, or
communities
─ Law of thermodynamics
─ First law: Law of conversation of energy
─ Second Law: Disorder is constantly increasing, and during energy conversion,
energy is converted into a less organized and useful form.
─ “Energy transfer from along the food chain in less than 10 %

Are the activities of the biotic component • Energy cycling

of the ecosystem constant? • Nutrient cycling
 FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
─ Food Chain: unidirectional transfer of energy through the community.
─ Grazing food chain, Detrital food chain, Supplementary (Parasitic) food
chain
─ Detrital food chain is common to all ecosystem

Primary Producers Herbivores Carnivores

─ Food web: graphical description of interconnected feeding relationships

among species in a community.
─ Mention 4 differences between the food chain and the food web
 PRODUCTIVITY
─ is the rate of formation of energy and matter, which is stored in different
species at different trophic levels.
─ Primary Productivity (dry wt. g calories/ unit area/ unit time): the rate at
which chemical energy is produced from solar energy.
─ NPP of the earth is 320 dry g. calories / m2/ year
─Secondary Productivity: Rate with which energy is stored at different levels
in consumers
─Gross Primary Productivity- is the total amount of organic matter produced
through photosynthesis
─Net Primary Productivity- the amount of energy that remains available for
plant growth
─Arrange in increasing order of NPP: Desert, Deep Ocean, Coral reef, Lakes
 MODELS FOR ENERGY FLOW
• Universal energy flow: gradual loss of
energy at each level thereby resulting
in less energy available at the next
tropic level
• Single Channel model: The flow of
energy takes place in a unidirectional
manner through a single channel of
producers to herbivores and
carnivores.
• The entire system would collapse if the
primary source of energy were cut off.
• At each tropic level, there occurs a
progressive decrease in energy due to
loss of energy as heat and utilized energy
Graphical representation of single channel model
• Double channel or Y-shape model
a common boundary, light and heat flow as well as import, export,
and storage of organic matter.
It conforms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystems
It separates the two chains i.e. grazing & detritus food chains in
both time and space.
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
• Graphical representation of these trophic levels
• Eltonoian Pyramid is of three types:
1. Pyramid of energy
2. Pyramid of Number
3. Pyramid of biomass (productivity)
 PYRAMID OF ENERGY
• The pyramid of energy is always uptight.

• Lindeman Law ( 10 % Law):

When energy is transported from one
trophic level to another, 90 % is used in
the metabolic process, and only 10 % is
transferred.
─The energy transferred from one trophic
level to another is called ecological
efficiency.
─Which has higher ecological efficiency
marine or terrestrial ecosystem
 PYRAMID OF NUMBER
A pyramid of numbers indicates the number of individuals in each trophic
level.
# of carnivores
# of herbivores
# of producers

Inverted pyramid: higher trophic level may have a larger standing crop than a
lower trophic level.
bird parasite
insects deer
tree grass
The pyramid of numbers does not give a true picture of the food chain and are not very
functional.
 PYRAMID OF PRODUCTIVITY
• A pyramid of standing crop/ productivity indicates how much biomass
is present in each trophic level at any one time.

# of carnivores
# of herbivores
# of producers
• The size and growth of individuals may vary widely, the pyramids of
numbers and productivity say little or nothing about the amount of
energy moving through the ecosystem.

How is the pyramid of energy biomass and productivity for the pond ecosystem?
 NUTRIENT CYCLING
• Biogeochemical cycle
• The major difference between energy and nutrient flow is that nutrient flow
is cyclic while energy flow is unidirectional.
• Cycling of nutrients can be in terrestrial {nitrogen cycle} and aquatic
{carbon cycle} .
• Cycling of nutrients can be:
• Biological cycle- respiration, assimilation, excretion, decomposition,
photosynthesis processes.
• Geological cycle- includes weathering, sedimentation, erosion,
fossilization, and combustion processes.
CARBON CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
SULFUR CYCLE
 TYPES Ecosystem
OF ECOSYSTEM
• Natural
• Artificial
Terrestrial Aquatic
• Forest ecosystem • Ponds (lentic)
• Freshwater
• Deserts ecosystem • River (lotic)
• Grassland • Lakes (lentic)
ecosystem • Oceans
• Deep water • Marine
• Estuaries
• Coral reefs
• Wetlands/ Salt
Marsh
 LENTIC/ LOTIC ECOSYSTEM
• Based on solar irradiation
• Euphotic Zone: Presence of Sufficient
light for photosynthesis.
• Profundal zone: lack of sufficient
sunlight and oxygen. Mostly occupied by
consumers.
• Benthic Zone: No sunlight and oxygen.
• Based on distance from land
• Littoral: a shallow zone near the shore.
Rooted plants, phytoplankton
• Limnetic Zone: well-lit zone in open sea,
running water, Species found are
Zooplanktons and nektons
• Based on productivity/ nutrient
content
• Oligotrophic: less productive lake.
Usually deep and step side with
narrow littoral zone
• Eutrophic: High productive lake, rich
in organic matter and nutrient
• Mesotrophic: intermediate level of
productivity, medium-level nutrients,
usually clear water with submerged
aquatic plants.
 MARINE ECOSYSTEM

• Oceans
• Deep water
• Estuaries
• Coral reefs
• Wetlands/ Salt Marsh

letstalkscience.ca
• Based on the light
• Photic, Euphotic, Disphotic,
Aphotic
• Based on distance
• Intertidal Zone, Continental
Self, Continental slope,
Continental Rise, Open Ocean
(Pelgaic), Basin (Abyssal)
• Based on depth in Pelagic
• Epipelagic, Mesopelagic
• Bathypelagic, Abyssopelagic
• Based on nutrients in Pelagic:
• Neritic and Oceanic letstalkscience.ca
 WETLANDS
• “A wetland can be defined as an area of marsh, fen, peatland or water,
natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water static, flowing,
fresh, brackish, salt, including area of marine water and depth less than 6m
at the time of low tide (Ramsar Convention)

Function:
1. Biodiversity,
2. Groundwater replenishment, Water filtration, S
3. Sediment retention, Erosion control,
4. Tourism, Retention of nutrients,
5. Mitigation against climate change,
6. Natural transport infrastructure
• Marshes: shallow water that is
mostly grassland. Can be fresh
and saltwater
• Swamps: slow-moving
streams, rivers, deeper than
marshes. Have wood shrubs www.environment.gov.scot
rather than grass Pichavaram Mangroves

• Bog and Fens: freshwater

wetlands formed by glacial
lakes. Low nutrients
• Estuaries: Enclosed bodies
where freshwater meets salt
water, high biodiversity, with https://i.pinimg.com/originals/11/95/6d/11956d
0d8a036eac25a4b72da86206c1.jpg
brackish water https://south-asia.wetlands.org/
 CORAL REEF
• diverse underwater (0- 60 m) ecosystem
held by calcium carbonate secreted by
corals.
• Individual coral is called a polyp,
• Shallow water corals feed on
Zooxanthellae (algae)-
• Zooxanthellae provide colors to corals
• Temp range for survival- 20-21 degrees
https://phys.org
C, Salinity 27-30 %
• Fringing Reefs: Attached to the margins of continents & form in areas with low
rainfall runoff.
• Barrier Reefs: A lagoon separates them from land. They either form around
islands or as lines parallel to the continental shore.
• Atolls: It is a ring-shaped island made up of coral reefs along with coral debris.
 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
Taiga
• Cold-climate forests, northern latitudes. World’s largest terrestrial ecosystem
• Biotics: Coniferous trees, such as pines, some deciduous trees, herbivores- moose, elk,
and bison, omnivores- bears
• Abiotic: little direct sunlight for much of the year. Taigas are home to large. Sub-arctic
climate with extremely cold winters and mild summers.
Tundra
• Found primarily north of the Arctic Circle.
• Biotic: short vegetation and essentially no trees. Caribou, polar bears, and musk ox are
some of the notable species
• Abiotic: The soil is frozen and covered with permafrost for a large portion of the year.
Temperate Forests
• Seasonal variation in climate
• Annual rainfall is about 750- 2000 mm and soil is rich in organic matter.
• Deciduous trees (oaks, maples, etc.) and coniferous trees (pines). These forests contain
abundant micro-organisms, and mammals (hares, deer, fares, coyotes).
Tropical Rain Forests
• Densely packed tall trees
• Prevents the growth of smaller plants.
• Temperature remains almost the same throughout the year.
Grasslands
• Dominated by grasses.
• Occur in both tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support
the growth of trees.
Deserts
• hot and low rain areas suffering from water shortage and high wind velocity.
Prominent desert animals are reptiles, and burrowing rodent insects.
 Ponds Assignment 1
Abiotic Heat, light, pH of water, CO2, oxygen,
Components: calcium, nitrogen, phosphates 1. Write about the biotic, abiotic, ecological,
commercial, and anthropogenic effects of
Biotic Algae, Macrophytes like Hydrilla, Trapha,
Components Typha (producers), Rotifers, protozoans, any of the five ecosystems below
zooplanktons (Primary Consumers), • Ponds
insects and fish, (secondary consumers), • Estuaries
game fish, turtles, (tertiary consumers), • Marshes
bacteria, & fungi • Tropical Rainforest
• Tropical scrub forest
Ecological Biodiversity, Water Filtration and • Temperate Rain forest
Services Purification, Flood Mitigation, Groundwater • Temperate Deciduous forest
Recharge, Moderating local temperatures
• Evergreen coniferous/ Boreal
and humidity level
• Tropical: Savannas
Commercial Water supply, hydropower, tourism, • Temperate Grassland forest
Services Aquaculture and Fisheries
• Polar / Arctic Tundra
Anthropogenic Chemical Runoff, Eutrophication, • Tropical Desert
effect Groundwater Depletion, Introduction of • Temperate Desert
Invasive Species, Habitat degradation,
Urban Sprawl, Waste Disposal
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• Directional and sequential change of plant or community or ecosystem
over time in an orderly sequence and later stabilized to form the climax
• progressive transformation until a stable community is formed.

• Succession may be initiated by:

• formation of a new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow)
• disturbance of an existing community (e.g., fire, invasive).

• Primary succession: begins in areas where there is no soil initially,

whereas succession that begins in areas where soil is already present is
called Secondary succession.
• Process of Succession:
• Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site.
• Invasion: arrival of propagules and establishment and initial
growth of vegetation
• Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and
spread, various species began to compete for space, light, and
nutrients.
• Reaction: During this phase, autogenic changes affect the habitat
resulting in the replacement of one plant community by another.
• Stabilisation: The reaction phase leads to the development of a
climax community
• Species: Pioneer, Middle, and Climax
How do above species vary during ecological succession?
 AEOLIAN ZONE: dry sediment
8000 (PARA BIOSPHERIC ZONE)-
Dormant life
6000
ALPINE ZONE
4000

2000 Forest,
meters

Sea level Grasslands

EUPHOTIC ZONE Continental Shelf, Estuaries
2000

4000 DYSPHOTIC
ZONE DEPTH
ABYSSAL
6000

8000 ─ How do material and energy flow in these systems?

10000
 BIODIVERSITY
• Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as: variability among
living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine,
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of
ecosystems.

• Level of Biodiversity
1. Genetic Diversity
• It refers to the variation of genes within species. This variation
can exist between different populations of the same species as
well as between individuals within a population.
• Adv: provides organisms and ecosystems with the capacity to
recuperate after the change has occurred.
Species Diversity
• Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological
community.
• Incorporates both species richness (the number of species in a
community) and species abundance.
• Species diversity is not evenly distributed across the globe.
Ecosystem Diversity
• refers to the presence of different types of ecosystems. For
instance, tropical south India with rich species diversity will have an
altogether different structure compared to the desert ecosystem
Functional Diversity
• refers to the diversity of ecological processes that maintain and are
dependent upon the other components of diversity. E.g.
competition, predation, parasitism.
• Measures of Biodiversity

1. Alpha Diversity - refers to the average species diversity in a

habitat or specific area. Alpha diversity is a local measure.
2. Beta Diversity - refers to the ratio between local or alpha diversity
and regional diversity. This is the diversity of species between two
habitats or regions
3. Gamma Diversity - is the total diversity of a landscape and is a
combination of both alpha and beta diversity.
 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Value categories Level of operation
Commodity value Utilization value of organisms to Population and species
humans as food, medicine diversity
Amenity value The value of human visiting and Species and ecosystem
viewing or learning diversity
Ecological the importance of maintaining all Functional diversity
integrity value functionally critical aspects of
the ecosystem
Ethical value Moral obligation on human not to Species and ecosystem
drive other species to extinction diversity
Option value The future evolutionary potential Genetic and population
of species which can latter be diversity
used or commodity value
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
• Are areas that support natural ecosystems that are largely intact &
where native species and communities associated with this
ecosystem are well represented
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot,
• at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics —a high percentage of
plant life found nowhere else on the planet.
• A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
• It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. It must
be threatened.
• Endemic Species
 THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY
• Loss of species, ecosystem, genes, and extinction
• Can cause: • Reasons:
• Reduce the productivity of the • Habitat destruction
ecosystem, affecting energy and • Poaching
nutrient transport • Exotic species
• Affects restoration and resilience • Shifting cultivation
• Human-caused stress: Climate • Natural calamities and disaster
change • Outbreak of diseases
• Natural disaster • Pollution
• Extinction
 EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
• Mass Extinction, Natural Extinction, Anthropogenic Extinction
• IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1948)
• Red Data List, 1964
i. Extinct: the last individual has died or is nontrackable: Ex. Indian Cheetah
ii. Extinct in the Wild: Species survive only in captivity
iii. Critically Endangered: high risk of extinction; population declined by 80-90 % over
the decade
iv. Endangered: Very high risk of extinction as the population has declined by 50 -70%
in a decade. Current population size (250)
v. Vulnerable: High risk of endangerment in the wild
vi. Near Threatened: Close to becoming threatened or may meet the criteria for
threatened status.
vii. Least Concern
i. Data Deficient
ii. Not Evaluated
 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION METHODS
• CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:
• Objective:
• Maintain essential ecological processes
• Preserve diversity of species
• Make sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem
• METHODS OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
• IN-SITU EX-SITU
• National Park, • Gene Bank
• Biosphere Reserves, • Seed Bank
• Wildlife Sanctuaries, • Botanical garden
• Wetlands
• Zoological Garden
• Biodiversity Hotspots
• Sacred Trees and Lakes
• Natural Gene pool
 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION METHODS
• IN-SITU
1. Aims to protect total ecosystem
2. Create protected areas
3. Promote sustainable management
4. Protect and restore of degraded land
5. Integrate of conversation and biodiversity
6. Create natural corridors

• EX-SITU
1. Relocate endangered species from their
natural habitat corridors
 BIODIVERSITY PROTECTED AREA
Objective Features Zone Activities
Conservation of No person resides in Core Developmental activities like
National Park

species of a habitat the park other than forestry, poaching, hunting,

with minimal or very public servants on and grazing on cultivation are
low intensity of duty and persons not permitted. National Park
human activity permitted by the are declared by the Central
chief wildlife warden. Government resolution
Conservation of No person resides in Core, Harvesting of timber, collecting
species and habitats the park other than Buffer, minor forest products and
by manipulative public servants on and private ownership rights are
Wildlife Sanctuary

management duty and persons Restorati allowed. Boundaries of

permitted by the on sanctuaries are not well defined
chief wildlife and controlled biotic
warden. interference is permitted. . The
State Government may, by
notification.
 Objective Features Zone Activities
Conservation of the Both natural and Core, National governments and remain
natural resource and human-influenced Buffer, under sovereign jurisdiction
the improvement of ecosystem; Restoration,
Biosphere
Reserve

the relationship substantial human Transition

between humans and settlement
the environment

Criteria for designation of Biosphere Reserves

• A site must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core
area.
• The core area should be typical of a biogeographical unit and large enough
to sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
• Involvement/cooperation of local communities to bring experiences to link
biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes.
 STRUCTURE OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES
CORE ZONE:
• habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including Core Zone
higher order predators, and may contain centers of endemism.
• Conserve the wild relatives of economic species Buffer zone
• Represent genetic reservoirs.
Transition zone
• Free from human pressures external to the system.
BUFFER ZONE:
• protection of the core zone in its natural condition.
• Restoration sites, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing,
etc.
• Research and educational activities are to be encouraged.
TRANSITION ZONE:
• This includes settlements, croplands, managed forests and areas
for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics
of the region.
 ECO-SENSITIVE ZONES
• National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016)
• Land within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries is to be notified as eco-fragile zones or Eco-Sensitive Zones
(ESZ).
• Areas beyond 10 km can also be notified by the Union government as ESZs if
they hold larger ecologically important “sensitive corridors”.

• What is the Significance of ESZs?

• Minimize the Impact of Development Activities
• In-situ Conservation
• Minimize the Negative Impact on Fragile Ecosystems: 'Shock Absorber’

What are the Challenges and Threats to Eco-Sensitive Zones?

What can be the Way Forward?
 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species in Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITIES)
• Aim to ensure international trade in the specimen doesn’t threaten their survival
• Reduce economic incentive to poach endangered species and destroy their
habitat
• Convention on Convention of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
• Green Peace: opposing environmental abuse, saving endangered species, and
increasing public awareness
• United Nation Environment Program
• World Wide Fund for Nature
• TRAFFIC: The wildlife trade monitoring network is a strategic alliance between
IUCN and WWF to ensure trade of wild plants and animals is not a threat to nature.
 NATIONAL CONVENTION, ORGANISATION, &
PROJECT OR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 • Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
• National Tiger Conservation Act • Salim Ali Centre of Ornithology and natural
• The Biodiversity Act, 20222 History
• Zoological Survey of India • Wildlife Institute of India
• Botanical Survey of India
• Gene Campaign

• Project Tiger
• Project Snow Leopard
• Project Elephant
• SAVE (Saving Asia’ s Vulture from Extinction
• Rhinoceros Conservation
• Ganges River Dolphin Conservation