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Rocks

How did it get there?

sections
The giant rocky peak of El Capitan towers
1 The Rock Cycle
majestically in Yosemite National Park.
2 Igneous Rocks Surrounded by flat landscape, it seems out
Lab Igneous Rock Clues
of place. How did this expanse of granite
3 Metamorphic Rocks rock come to be?
4 Sedimentary Rocks Science Journal Are you a rock collector? If so, write
Lab Sedimentary Rocks two sentences about your favorite rock. If not, describe the
Virtual Lab How are rocks rocks you see in the photo in enough detail that a nonsighted
classified? person could visualize them.

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Start-Up Activities
Major Rock Types Make the
following Foldable to help you
organize facts about types of
Observe and Describe Rocks rocks.
Some rocks are made of small mineral grains
STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half length-
that lock together, like pieces of a puzzle. wise. Make the back edge about 5 cm
Others are grains of sand tightly held together longer than the front edge.
or solidified lava that once flowed from a vol-
cano. If you examine rocks closely, you some-
times can tell what they are made of.
STEP 2 Turn the paper so the
fold is on the bottom.
Then fold it into thirds.
1. Collect three different rock samples near
your home or school. STEP 3 Unfold and cut only the top layer
along both folds to make three tabs.
2. Draw a picture of the details you see
in each rock.
3. Use a magnifying lens to look for different
types of materials within the same rock.
4. Describe the characteristics of each rock.
Compare your drawings and descrip- STEP 4 Label the Foldable as shown.
tions with photos, drawings, and Rock Types

descriptions in a rocks and minerals Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary

field guide.
5. Use the field guide to try to identify each
Make an Organizational Study Fold As you
rock. read the chapter, write and illustrate what you
6. Think Critically Decide whether you learn about the three main types of rocks in your
think your rocks are mixtures. If so, infer study fold.
or suggest what these mixtures might
contain. Write your explanations in your
Science Journal. Preview this chapter’s content
and activities at
earth.msscience.com

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The Rock Cycle

What is a rock?
Imagine you and some friends are exploring a creek. Your
eye catches a glint from a piece of rock at the edge of the water.
■ Distinguish between a rock and
As you wander over to pick up the rock, you notice that it is
a mineral. made of different-colored materials. Some of the colors reflect
■ Describe the rock cycle and some light, while others are dull. You put the rock in your pocket for
changes that a rock could closer inspection in science lab.
undergo.
Common Rocks The next time you walk past a large build-
ing or monument, stop and take a close look at it. Chances are
Rocks exist everywhere, from under
deep oceans and in high mountain that it is made out of common rock. In fact, most rock used for
ranges, to the landscape beneath building stone contains one or more common minerals, called
your feet. rock-forming minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, mica, or cal-
cite. When you look closely, the sparkles you see are individual
Review Vocabulary crystals of minerals. A rock is a mixture of such minerals, rock
mineral: a naturally occurring, fragments, volcanic glass, organic matter, or other natural
inorganic solid with a definite
chemical composition and an materials. Figure 1 shows minerals mixed together to form the
orderly arrangement of atoms rock granite. You might even find granite near your home.
New Vocabulary
•• rock
rock cycle Feldspar

Quartz

Mica

Hornblende

Figure 1 Mount Rushmore, in

South Dakota, is made of granite.
Granite is a mixture of feldspar,
quartz, mica, hornblende, and
other minerals.

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Figure 2 This model of the rock Magma

cycle shows how rocks can change
from one form to another.

The Rock Cycle

To show how rocks slowly change through time, scientists
Modeling Rock
have created a model called the rock cycle, shown in Figure 2. It
illustrates the processes that create and change rocks. The rock Procedure
1. Mix about 10 mL of white
cycle shows the three types of rock—igneous, metamorphic, glue with about 7 g of
and sedimentary—and the processes that form them. dirt or sand in a small
Look at the rock cycle and notice that rocks change by many paper cup.
processes. For example, a sedimentary rock can change by heat 2. Stir the mixture and then
and pressure to form a metamorphic rock. The metamorphic allow it to harden overnight.
3. Tear away the paper cup
rock then can melt and later cool to form an igneous rock. The
carefully from your mixture.
igneous rock then could be broken into fragments by weather-
ing and erode away. The fragments might later compact and Analysis
1. Which rock type is similar
cement together to form another sedimentary rock. Any given to your hardened mixture?
rock can change into any of the three major rock types. A rock 2. Which part of the rock
even can transform into another rock of the same type. cycle did you
model?
What is illustrated by the rock cycle?

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VISUALIZING THE ROCK CYCLE

Figure 3

R
ocks continuously form and
transform in a process that
geologists call the rock cycle.
For example, molten rock—from
volcanoes such as Washington’s
Mount Rainier, background—cools
and solidifies to form igneous rock.
It slowly breaks down when
exposed to air and water to form
sediments. These sediments are
compacted or cemented into
sedimentary rock. Heat and pres-
sure might transform sedimentary
rock into metamorphic rock. When
metamorphic rock melts and hard- ▼
ens, igneous rock forms again. There The black sand beach of this
is no distinct beginning, nor is there Polynesian island is sediment weathered
an end, to the rock cycle. and eroded from the igneous rock of a
volcano nearby.

▼ ▼ ▼
This alluvial fan on the edge Layers of shale and chalk Heat and pressure deep
of Death Valley, California, was form Kansas’s Monument below Earth’s surface can change
formed when gravel, sand, and Rocks. They are remnants rock into metamorphic rock, like
finer sediments were deposited of sediments deposited on this banded gneiss.
by a stream emerging from a the floor of the ancient sea
mountain canyon. that once covered much of
this region.
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Matter and the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle, illustrated in Figure 3,
shows how rock can be weathered to small rock and min-
eral grains. This material then can be eroded and carried
away by wind, water, or ice. When you think of erosion, it
might seem that the material is somehow destroyed and lost
from the cycle. This is not the case. The chemical elements
that make up minerals and rocks are not destroyed. This
fact illustrates the principle of conservation of matter. The
changes that take place in the rock cycle never destroy or
create matter. The elements are just redistributed in other forms. Figure 4 The rock formations at
Siccar Point, Scotland, show that
What is the principle of conservation of matter? rocks undergo constant change.

Discovering the Rock Cycle James Hutton, a Scottish

physician and naturalist, first recognized in 1788 that rocks
undergo profound changes. Hutton noticed, among other
things, that some layers of solid rock in Siccar Point, shown in
Figure 4, had been altered since they formed. Instead of show-
ing a continuous pattern of horizontal layering, some of the
rock layers at Siccar Point are tilted and partly eroded. However,
the younger rocks above them are nearly horizontal.
Hutton published these and other observations, which
proved that rocks are subject to constant change. Hutton’s early
recognition of the rock cycle continues to influence geologists.

Summary Self Check

What is a rock? 1. Explain how rocks differ from minerals.
• Rocks are mixtures of minerals, rock frag-
ments, organic matter, volcanic glass, and
2. Compare and contrast igneous and metamorphic rock
formation.
other materials found in nature. 3. Describe the major processes of the rock cycle.
The Rock Cycle 4. Explain one way that the rock cycle can illustrate the
• The three major types of rock are igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary.
principle of conservation of matter.
5. Think Critically How would you define magma based
• Rock cycle processes do not create or destroy
matter.
on the illustration in Figure 2? How would you define
sediment and sedimentary rock?

• Processes that are part of the rock cycle

change rocks slowly over time.

• In the late eighteenth century, James Hutton

recognized some rock cycle processes by
6. Communicate Review the model of the rock cycle in
Figure 2. In your Science Journal, write a story or
observing rocks in the field.
poem that explains what can happen to a sedimentary
• Some of Hutton’s ideas continue to influence
geologic thinking today.
rock as it changes throughout the rock cycle.

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Igneous Rocks
Formation of Igneous Rocks
Perhaps you’ve heard of recent volcanic eruptions in the
news. When some volcanoes erupt, they eject a flow of molten
■ Recognize magma and lava as
rock material, as shown in Figure 5. Molten rock material,
the materials that cool to form called magma, flows when it is hot and becomes solid when it
igneous rocks. cools. When hot magma cools and hardens, it forms igneous
■ Contrast the formation of intru- (IHG nee us) rock. Why do volcanoes erupt, and where does
sive and extrusive igneous rocks. the molten material come from?
■ Contrast granitic and basaltic
igneous rocks.
Magma In certain places within Earth, the temperature and
pressure are just right for rocks to melt and form magma. Most
Igneous rocks are the most abun- magmas come from deep below Earth’s surface. Magma is
dant kind of rock in Earth’s crust. located at depths ranging from near the surface to about 150 km
They contain many valuable below the surface. Temperatures of magmas range from about
resources.
650°C to 1,200°C, depending on their chemical compositions
and pressures exerted on them.
Review Vocabulary
element: substance made of one The heat that melts rocks comes from sources within Earth’s
type of atom that cannot be bro- interior. One source is the decay of radioactive elements within
ken down by ordinary chemical or Earth. Some heat is left over from the formation of the planet,
physical means which originally was molten. Radioactive decay of elements con-
New Vocabulary tained in rocks balances some heat loss as Earth continues to cool.
•• igneous
lava
rock
•
•
extrusive
basaltic
Because magma is less dense than surrounding solid rock,
it is forced upward toward the surface, as shown in Figure 6.
• intrusive
• granitic When magma reaches Earth’s surface and flows from volcanoes,
it is called lava.

Figure 5 Some lava is highly

fluid and free-flowing, as shown by
this spectacular lava fall in Volcano
National Park, East Rift, Kilauea,
Hawaii.

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Figure 6 Intrusive rocks form

from magma trapped below Earth’s
surface. Extrusive rocks form from
Extrusive rock lava flowing at the surface.
forms here. Lava flow

Magma

Intrusive rock
forms here.

Intrusive Rocks Magma is melted rock material composed

of common elements and fluids. As magma cools, atoms and
compounds in the liquid rearrange themselves into new crystals
called mineral grains. Rocks form as these mineral grains grow
together. Rocks that form from magma below the surface, as
illustrated in Figure 6, are called intrusive igneous rocks.
Intrusive rocks are found at the surface only after the layers of
rock and soil that once covered them have been removed by ero-
sion. Erosion occurs when the rocks are pushed up by forces
within Earth. Because intrusive rocks form at depth and they are
surrounded by other rocks, it takes a long time for them to cool.
Slowly cooled magma produces individual mineral grains that
are large enough to be observed with the unaided eye.

Extrusive Rocks Extrusive igneous rocks are formed as lava

cools on the surface of Earth. When lava flows on the surface, as
illustrated in Figure 6, it is exposed to air and water. Lava, such
as the basaltic lava shown in Figure 5, cools quickly under these
conditions. The quick cooling rate keeps mineral grains from
growing large, because the atoms in the liquid don’t have the
time to arrange into large crystals. Therefore, extrusive igneous
rocks are fine grained.

What controls the grain size of an igneous rock?

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Table 1 Common Igneous Rocks

Magma
Basaltic Andesitic Granitic
Type
Intrusive Gabbro Granite

Diorite

Extrusive Basalt Rhyolite Obsidian

Andesite
Scoria Pumice

Volcanic Glass Pumice, obsidian, and scoria are examples of

volcanic glass. These rocks cooled so quickly that few or no min-
eral grains formed. Most of the atoms in these rocks are not
arranged in orderly patterns, and few crystals are present.
In the case of pumice and scoria, gases become trapped in
Topic: Rock Formation the gooey molten material as it cools. Some of these gases even-
Visit earth.msscience.com for Web tually escape, but holes are left behind where the rock formed
links to information about intrusive around the pockets of gas.
and extrusive rocks.
Activity List several geographic
settings where intrusive or extru-
Classifying Igneous Rocks
sive rocks are found. Select one Igneous rocks are intrusive or extrusive depending on how they
setting for intrusive rocks, and one are formed. A way to further classify these rocks is by the magma
for extrusive rocks. Describe how from which they form. As shown in Table 1, an igneous rock can
igneous rocks form in the two form from basaltic, andesitic, or granitic magma. The type of
settings, and locate an example of magma that cools to form an igneous rock determines important
each on a map.
chemical and physical properties of that rock. These include min-
eral composition, density, color, and melting temperature.

Name two ways igneous rocks are classified.

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Basaltic Rocks Basaltic (buh SAWL tihk) igneous rocks are

dense, dark-colored rocks. They form from magma that is rich
in iron and magnesium and poor in silica, which is the com-
pound SiO2. The presence of iron and magnesium in minerals
in basalt gives basalt its dark color. Basaltic lava is fluid and flows
freely from volcanoes in Hawaii, such as Kilauea. How does this
explain the black beach sand common in Hawaii?

Granitic Rocks Granitic igneous rocks are light-colored

rocks of a lower density than basaltic rocks. Granitic magma is
thick and stiff and contains lots of silica but lesser amounts of
iron and magnesium. Because granitic magma is stiff, it can Melting Rock Inside Earth,
materials contained in
build up a great deal of gas pressure, which is released explo- rocks can melt. In your
sively during violent volcanic eruptions. Science Journal, describe
what is happening to the
Andesitic Rocks Andesitic igneous rocks have mineral atoms and molecules to
compositions between those of basaltic and granitic rocks. cause this change of state.
Many volcanoes around the rim of the Pacific Ocean formed
from andesitic magmas. Like volcanoes that erupt granitic
magma, these volcanoes also can erupt violently.
Take another look at Table 1. Basalt forms at the surface of
Earth because it is an extrusive rock. Granite forms below
Earth’s surface from magma with a high concentration of silica.
When you identify an igneous rock, you can infer how it formed
and the type of magma that it formed from.

Summary Self Check

Formation of Igneous Rocks 1. Explain why some types of magma form igneous rocks
• When molten rock material, called magma,
cools and hardens, igneous rock forms.
that are dark colored and dense.
2. Identify the property of magma that causes it to be
• Intrusive igneous rocks form as magma
cools and hardens slowly, beneath Earth’s
forced upward toward Earth’s surface.
3. Explain The texture of obsidian is best described as glassy.
surface. Why does obsidian contain few or no mineral grains?
• Extrusive igneous rocks form as lava cools
and hardens rapidly, at or above Earth’s
4. Think Critically Study the photos in Table 1. How are
granite and rhyolite similar? How are they different?
surface.

Classifying Igneous Rocks

• Igneous rocks are further classified according

to their mineral compositions.
5. Make and Use Graphs Four elements make up most of
the rocks in Earth’s crust. They are: oxygen—46.6 per-
cent, aluminum—8.1 percent, silicon—27.7 percent, and
• The violent nature of some volcanic erup-
tions is partly explained by the composition
iron—5.0 percent. Make a bar graph of these data. What
might you infer from the low amount of iron?
of the magma that feeds them.

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Igneous Rock Clues

You’ve learned how color often is used to esti- Procedure
mate the composition of an igneous rock. The
1. Arrange rocks according to color (light or
texture of an igneous rock describes its overall
dark). Record your observations in your
appearance, including mineral grain sizes and
Science Journal.
the presence or absence of bubble holes, for
example. In most cases, grain size relates to 2. Arrange rocks according to similar texture.
how quickly the magma Consider grain sizes and shapes, presence of
or lava cooled. Crystals holes, etc. Use your magnifying lens to see
you can see without a small features more clearly. Record your
magnifying lens indicate observations.
slower cooling. Smaller,
fine-grained crystals indi- Conclude and Apply
cate quicker cooling, pos- 1. Infer which rocks are granitic based on
sibly due to volcanic color.
activity. Rocks with glassy
2. Infer which rocks cooled quickly. What
textures cooled so quickly
observations led you to this inference?
that there was no time to
form mineral grains. 3. Identify any samples
that suggest gases
were escaping from
Real-World Question them as they cooled.
What does an igneous rock’s texture and color 4. Describe Which
indicate about its formation history? samples have a glassy
appearance? How did
Goals these rocks form?
■ Classify different samples of igneous rocks 5. Infer which samples
by color and infer their composition. are not volcanic.
■ Observe the textures of igneous rocks and Explain.
infer how they formed.

Materials
rhyolite granite
basalt obsidian
vesicular basalt gabbro Research the compositions of each of your
pumice magnifying lens samples. Did the colors of any samples lead
you to infer the wrong compositions?
Safety Precautions Communicate to your class what you
WARNING: Some rock samples might have sharp learned.
edges. Always use caution while handling samples.

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Metamorphic Rocks
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Have you ever packed your lunch in the morning and not
been able to recognize it at lunchtime? You might have packed a
sandwich, banana, and a large bottle of water. You know you ■ Describe the conditions in Earth
didn’t smash your lunch on the way to school. However, you that cause metamorphic rocks
didn’t think about how the heavy water bottle would damage to form.
your food if the bottle was allowed to rest on the food all day. ■ Classify metamorphic rocks as
foliated or nonfoliated.
The heat in your locker and the pressure from the heavy water
bottle changed your sandwich. Like your lunch, rocks can be
affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
Metamorphic rocks are useful
because of their unique properties.
Metamorphic Rocks Rocks that have changed because of
changes in temperature and pressure or the presence of hot, Review Vocabulary
watery fluids are called metamorphic rocks. Changes that occur pressure: the amount of force
can be in the form of the rock, shown in Figure 7, the composi- exerted per unit of area
tion of the rock, or both. Metamorphic rocks can form from New Vocabulary
igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks. What Earth
processes can change these rocks?
•• metamorphic
foliated
rock

• nonfoliated
! pressure

Granite Gneiss

Figure 7 The mineral grains in granite are flattened and aligned when
heat and pressure are applied to them. As a result, gneiss is formed.
Describe other conditions that can cause metamorphic rocks to form.

SECTION 3 Metamorphic Rocks 99

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Heat and Pressure Rocks beneath Earth’s surface are under

great pressure from rock layers above them. Temperature also
increases with depth in Earth. In some places, the heat and pres-
Topic: Shale sure are just right to cause rocks to melt and magma to form. In
Metamorphism other areas where melting doesn’t occur, some mineral grains
Visit earth.msscience.com for Web
can change by dissolving and recrystallizing—especially in the
links to information about the meta-
morphism of shale. Communicate to
presence of fluids. Sometimes, under these conditions, minerals
your class what you learn. exchange atoms with surrounding minerals and new, bigger
minerals form.
Activity Make a table with
headings that are major rock types
Depending upon the amount of pressure and temperature
that form from shale metamor- applied, one type of rock can change into several different
phism. Under each rock heading, metamorphic rocks, and each type of metamorphic rock can
make a list of minerals that can come from several kinds of parent rocks. For example, the sedi-
occur in the rock. mentary rock shale will change into slate. As increasing pressure
and temperature are applied, the slate can change into phyllite,
then schist, and eventually gneiss. Schist also can form when basalt
is metamorphosed, or changed, and gneiss can come from granite.

How can one type of rock change into several

different metamorphic rocks?

Hot Fluids Did you know that fluids can move through rock?
These fluids, which are mostly water with dissolved elements
and compounds, can react chemically with a rock and change its
composition, especially when the fluids are hot. That’s what
happens when rock surrounding a hot magma body reacts with
hot fluids from the magma, as shown in Figure 8. Most fluids
that transform rocks during metamorphic processes are hot and
mainly are comprised of water and carbon dioxide.

Altered rock

Magma
Figure 8 In the presence of hot,
water-rich fluids, solid rock can
change in mineral composition
without having to melt.

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Classifying
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form from
igneous, sedimentary, or other metamor-
phic rocks. Heat, pressure, and hot fluids
trigger the changes. Each resulting rock
can be classified according to its compo-
sition and texture.

Foliated Rocks When mineral grains

line up in parallel layers, the metamor-
phic rock is said to have a foliated tex-
ture. Two examples of foliated rocks are
slate and gneiss. Slate forms from the
sedimentary rock shale. The minerals in shale arrange into lay- Figure 9 Slate often is used as a
ers when they are exposed to heat and pressure. As Figure 9 building or landscaping material.
shows, slate separates easily along these foliation layers. Identify the properties that
The minerals in slate are pressed together so tightly that make slate so useful for these
water can’t pass between them easily. Because it’s watertight, purposes.
slate is ideal for paving around pools and patios. The naturally
flat nature of slate and the fact that it splits easily make it useful
for roofing and tiling many surfaces.
Gneiss (NISE), another foliated rock, forms when granite and
other rocks are changed. Foliation in gneiss shows up as alternat-
ing light and dark bands. Movement of atoms has separated the
dark minerals, such as biotite mica, from the light minerals, which
are mainly quartz and feldspar.

What type of metamorphic rock is composed of

mineral grains arranged in parallel layers?

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Nonfoliated Rocks In some metamorphic rocks,

layering does not occur. The mineral grains grow and
rearrange, but they don’t form layers. This process
produces a nonfoliated texture.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that’s often composed
mostly of quartz grains. When sandstone is heated under
a lot of pressure, the grains of quartz grow in size and
become interlocking, like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The
resulting rock is called quartzite.
Marble is another nonfoliated metamorphic rock.
Marble forms from the sedimentary rock limestone, which
Figure 10 This exhibit in
is composed of the mineral calcite. Usually, marble contains sev-
Vermont shows the beauty of
eral other minerals besides calcite. For example, hornblende and
carved marble.
serpentine give marble a black or greenish tone, whereas hematite
makes it red. As Figure 10 shows, marble is a popular material for
artists to sculpt because it is not as hard as other rocks.
So far, you’ve investigated only a portion of the rock cycle. You
still haven’t observed how sedimentary rocks are formed and how
igneous and metamorphic rocks evolve from them. The next
section will complete your investigation of the rock cycle.

Summary Self Check

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks 1. Explain what role fluids play in rock metamorphism.
• Changes in pressure, temperature, or the
presence of fluids can cause metamorphic
2. Describe how metamorphic rocks are classified. What
are the characteristics of rocks in each of these classifi-
rocks to form. cations?

• Rock, altered by metamorphic processes at

high temperatures and pressures, changes in
3. Identify Give an example of a foliated and a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock. Name one of their possible parent
the solid state without melting. rocks.

• Hot fluids that move through and react with

preexisting rock are composed mainly of
4. Think Critically Marble is a common material used to
make sculptures, but not just because it’s a beautiful
water and carbon dioxide. stone. What properties of marble make it useful for this

• One source of hot, watery fluids is magma

bodies close to the changing rock.
purpose?

• Any parent rock type—igneous, metamor-

phic, or sedimentary—can become a meta- 5. Concept Map Put the following events in an events-
morphic rock. chain concept map that explains how a metamorphic
Classifying Metamorphic Rocks rock might form from an igneous rock. Hint: Start with
”Igneous Rock Forms.” Use each event just once.
• Texture and mineral composition determine
how a metamorphic rock is classified. Events: sedimentary rock forms, weathering occurs,
heat and pressure are applied, igneous rock forms,
• Physical properties of metamorphic rocks,
such as the watertight nature of slate, make
metamorphic rock forms, erosion occurs, sediments are
formed, deposition occurs
them useful for many purposes.

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Sedimentary Rocks
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
Igneous rocks are the most common rocks on Earth, but
because most of them exist below the surface, you might not
have seen too many of them. That’s because 75 percent of the ■ Explain how sedimentary rocks
rocks exposed at the surface are sedimentary rocks. form from sediments.
Sediments are loose materials such as rock fragments, min- ■ Classify sedimentary rocks as
eral grains, and bits of shell that have been moved by wind, detrital, chemical, or organic in
origin.
water, ice, or gravity. If you look at the model of the rock cycle, ■ Summarize the rock cycle.
you will see that sediments come from already-existing rocks
that are weathered and eroded. Sedimentary rock forms when
sediments are pressed and cemented together, or when minerals Some sedimentary rocks, like coal,
form from solutions. are important sources of energy.

Stacked Rocks Sedimentary rocks often form as layers. The Review Vocabulary
older layers are on the bottom because they were deposited first. weathering: surface processes
Sedimentary rock layers are a lot like the books and papers in that work to break down rock
mechanically or chemically
your locker. Last week’s homework is on the bottom, and today’s
notes will be deposited on top of the stack. However, if you dis- New Vocabulary
turb the stack, the order in which the books and papers are
stacked will change, as shown in Figure 11. Sometimes, forces
•• sediment
sedimentary rock
within Earth overturn layers of rock, and the oldest are no •• compaction
cementation
longer on the bottom.

Figure 11 Like sedimentary rock layers,

the oldest paper is at the bottom of the
stack. If the stack is disturbed, then it is no
longer in order.

SECTION 4 Sedimentary Rocks 103

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Classifying Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be made of just about any material
found in nature. Sediments come from weathered and eroded
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Sediments also
Classifying Sediments come from the remains of some organisms. The composition of
Procedure a sedimentary rock depends upon the composition of the sedi-
WARNING: Use care when ments from which it formed.
handling sharp objects. Like igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks are
1. Collect different samples of classified by their composition and by the manner in which they
sediment.
2. Spread them on a sheet of formed. Sedimentary rocks usually are classified as detrital,
paper. chemical, or organic.
3. Use Table 2 to determine
the size range of gravel-
sized sediment.
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
4. Use tweezers or a The word detrital (dih TRI tul) comes from the Latin word
dissecting probe and a detritus, which means “to wear away.” Detrital sedimentary
magnifying lens to rocks, such as those shown in Table 2, are made from the bro-
separate the gravel-sized ken fragments of other rocks. These loose sediments are com-
sediments. pacted and cemented together to form solid rock.
5. Separate the gravel into
piles—rounded or
angular. Weathering and Erosion When rock is exposed to air,
water, or ice, it is unstable and breaks down chemically and
Analysis
1. Describe the grains in both mechanically. This process, which breaks rocks into smaller
piles. pieces, is called weathering. Table 2 shows how these pieces
2. Determine what rock could are classified by size. The movement of weathered material is
form from each type of called erosion.
sediment you have.
Compaction Erosion moves sediments to a new location,
where they then are deposited. Here, layer upon layer of sedi-
ment builds up. Pressure from the upper layers pushes down on
the lower layers. If the sediments are small, they can stick
together and form solid rock. This process, shown in Figure 12,
Figure 12 During compaction, is called compaction.
pore space between sediments
How do rocks form through compaction?
decreases, causing them to become
packed together more tightly.

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Figure 13 Sediments are

cemented together as minerals
crystallize between grains.

Cementation If sediments are large, like sand and pebbles,

pressure alone can’t make them stick together. Large sediments
have to be cemented together. As water moves through soil and
rock, it picks up materials released from minerals during weath-
ering. The resulting solution of water and dissolved materials
moves through open spaces between sediments. Cementation,
which is shown in Figure 13, occurs when minerals such as
quartz, calcite, and hematite are deposited between the pieces of
sediment. These minerals, acting as natural cements, hold the
sediment together like glue, making a detrital sedimentary rock.

Shape and Size of Sediments Detrital rocks have granu-

lar textures, much like granulated sugar. They are named
according to the shapes and sizes of the sediments that form
them. For example, conglomerate and breccia both form from
large sediments, as shown in Table 2. If the sediments are
rounded, the rock is called conglomerate. If the sediments have
sharp angles, the rock is called breccia. The roundness of sedi-
ment particles depends on how far they have been moved by
wind or water.

Table 2 Sediment Sizes and Detrital Rocks

Sediment Clay Silt Sand Gravel

Size Range !0.004 mm 0.004–0.063 mm 0.063–2 mm "2 mm

Example Shale Siltstone Sandstone Conglomerate

(shown) or Breccia

SECTION 4 Sedimentary Rocks 105

(l)Icon Images, (r)John R. Foster/Photo Researchers, (cl)Doug Martin, (cr)Andrew Martinez/Photo Researchers
504-S4-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:14 PM Page 106

Conglomerate

Figure 14 Although concrete Materials Found in Sedimentary Rocks The gravel-sized

strongly resembles conglomerate, sediments in conglomerate and breccia can consist of any type
concrete is not a rock because it of rock or mineral. Often, they are composed of chunks of the
does not occur in nature. minerals quartz and feldspar. They also can be pieces of rocks
such as gneiss, granite, or limestone. The cement that holds the
sediments together usually is made of quartz or calcite.
Have you ever looked at the concrete in sidewalks, driveways,
and stepping stones? The concrete in Figure 14 is made of gravel
and sand grains that have been cemented together. Although the
structure is similar to that of naturally occurring conglomerate,
it cannot be considered a rock.
Sandstone is formed from smaller particles than conglomer-
ates and breccias. Its sand-sized sediments can be just about any
mineral, but they are usually grains of minerals such as quartz
Sedimentary Petrology and feldspar that are resistant to weathering. Siltstone is similar
Research the work done
by sedimentary petrolo- to sandstone except it is made of smaller, silt-sized particles.
gists. Include examples of Shale is a detrital sedimentary rock that is made mainly of clay-
careers in academia and in sized particles. Clay-sized sediments are compacted together by
industry. pressure from overlying layers.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved minerals
come out of solution. You can show that salt is deposited in the
bottom of a glass or pan when saltwater solution evaporates. In
a similar way, minerals collect when seas or lakes evaporate. The
deposits of minerals that come out of solution form sediments
and rocks. For example, the sediment making up New Mexico’s
White Sands desert consists of pieces of a chemical sedimentary
rock called rock gypsum. Chemical sedimentary rocks are
different. They are not made from pieces of preexisting rocks.

How do chemical sedimentary rocks form?

106 CHAPTER 4 Rocks

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Limestone Calcium carbonate is carried in

solution in ocean water. When calcium car-
bonate (CaCO3) comes out of solution as cal-
cite and its many crystals grow together,
limestone forms. Limestone also can contain
other minerals and sediments, but it must be
at least 50 percent calcite. Limestone usually
is deposited on the bottom of lakes or shallow
seas. Large areas of the central United States
have limestone bedrock because seas covered
much of the country for millions of years. It
is hard to imagine Kansas being covered by
ocean water, but it has happened several
times throughout geological history.

Rock Salt When water that is rich in

dissolved salt evaporates, it often deposits the
mineral halite. Halite forms rock salt, shown
in Figure 15. Rock salt deposits can range in
thickness from a few meters to more than
400 m. Companies mine these deposits
because rock salt is an important resource.
It’s used in the manufacturing of glass, paper,
soap, and dairy products. The halite in rock
salt is processed and used as table salt.
Figure 15 Rock salt is extracted
from this mine in Germany. The
Organic Sedimentary Rocks same salt can be processed and
Rocks made of the remains of once-living things are called used to season your favorite foods.
organic sedimentary rocks. One of the most common organic
sedimentary rocks is fossil-rich limestone. Like chemical lime-
stone, fossil-rich limestone is made of the mineral calcite.
However, fossil-rich limestone mostly contains remains of once-
living ocean organisms instead of only calcite that formed
directly from ocean water.
Animals such as mussels, clams, corals, and snails make their
shells from CaCO3 that eventually becomes calcite. When they
die, their shells accumulate on the ocean floor. When these shells
are cemented together, fossil-rich limestone forms. If a rock
is made completely of shell fragments that you can see, the rock is
called coquina (koh KEE nuh).

Chalk Chalk is another organic sedimentary rock that is made

of microscopic shells. When you write with naturally occurring
chalk, you’re crushing and smearing the calcite-shell remains of
once-living ocean organisms.

SECTION 4 Sedimentary Rocks 107

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Coal Another useful organic sedimentary rock is coal, shown

in Figure 16. Coal forms when pieces of dead plants are buried
under other sediments in swamps. These plant materials are
chemically changed by microorganisms. The resulting sedi-
ments are compacted over millions of years to form coal, an
important source of energy. Much of the coal in North America
and Europe formed during a period of geologic time that is so
named because of this important reason. The Carboniferous
Period, which spans from approximately 360 to 286 million
years ago, was named in Europe. So much coal formed during
this interval of time that coal’s composition—primarily
carbon—was the basis for naming a geologic period.

Calculate Thickness
COAL FORMATION It took 300 million years for a layer of plant matter about 0.9 m thick to
produce a bed of bituminous coal 0.3 m thick. Estimate the thickness of plant matter
that produced a bed of coal 0.15 m thick.

Solution
This is what you know: ● original thickness of plant matter # 0.9 m
● original coal thickness # 0.3 m
● new coal thickness # 0.15 m
This is what you need to know: thickness of plant matter needed to form
0.15 m of coal
This is the equation you need to use: (thickness of plant matter)/(new coal thick-
ness) # (original thickness of plant matter)/
(original coal thickness)
Substitute the known values: (? m plant matter)/(0.15 m coal) #
(0.9 m plant matter)/(0.3 m coal)
Solve the equation: (? m plant matter) # (0.9 m plant matter)
(0.15 m coal)/(0.3 m coal) # 0.45 m plant
matter
Check your answer: Multiply your answer by the original coal
thickness. Divide by the original plant matter
thickness to get the new coal thickness.

1. Estimate the thickness of plant matter that produced a bed of coal 0.6 m thick.
2. About how much coal would have been produced from a layer of plant matter
0.50 m thick?
For more practice, visit
earth.msscience.com/
math_practice

108 CHAPTER 4 Rocks

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Figure 16 This coal layer in

Alaska is easily identified by its
jet-black color, as compared with
other sedimentary layers.

Another Look at the Rock Cycle

You have seen that the rock cycle has no beginning and no
end. Rocks change continually from one form to another.
Sediments can become so deeply buried that they eventually
become metamorphic or igneous rocks. These reformed rocks
later can be uplifted and exposed to the surface—possibly as
mountains to be worn away again by erosion.
All of the rocks that you’ve learned about in this chapter
formed through some process within the rock cycle. All of the
rocks around you, including those used to build houses and mon-
uments, are part of the rock cycle. Slowly, they are all changing,
because the rock cycle is a continuous, dynamic process.

Summary Self Check

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 1. Identify where sediments come from.
• Sedimentary rocks form as layers, with older
layers near the bottom of an undisturbed
2. Explain how compaction is important in the formation
of coal.
stack. 3. Compare and contrast detrital and chemical
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks sedimentary rock.

• To classify a sedimentary rock, determine its

composition and texture.
4. List chemical sedimentary rocks that are essential
to your health or that are used to make life more
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks convenient. How is each used?

• Rock and mineral fragments make up

detrital rocks.
5. Think Critically Explain how pieces of granite and slate
could both be found in the same conglomerate. How
would the granite and slate pieces be held together?
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

• Chemical sedimentary rocks form from solu-

tions of dissolved minerals.
6. Calculate Ratios Use information in Table 2 to esti-
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
mate how many times larger the largest grains of silt
• The remains of once-living organisms make
up organic sedimentary rocks.
and sand are compared to the largest clay grains.

earth.msscience.com/self_check_quiz SECTION 4 Sedimentary Rocks 109

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Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by compaction and cementation of sed-
Goals iment. Because sediment is found in all shapes and sizes, do you think
■ Observe sedimentary these characteristics could be used to classify detrital sedimentary
rock characteristics. rocks? Sedimentary rocks also can be classified as chemical or organic.
■ Compare and
contrast sedimentary
rock textures.
■ Classify sedimentary
Real-World Question
rocks as detrital, How are rock characteristics used to classify sedimentary rocks as
chemical, or organic. detrital, chemical, or organic?

Materials
unknown sedimentary
rock samples
Procedure
marking pen 1. Make a Sedimentary Rock Samples chart in your Science Journal
5% hydrochloric acid (HCl) similar to the one shown on the next page.
solution 2. Determine the sizes of sediments in each sample, using a magni-
dropper fying lens and a metric ruler. Using Table 2, classify any grains of
paper towels sediment in the rocks as gravel, sand, silt, or clay. In general, the
water sediment is silt if it is gritty and just barely visible, and clay if it is
magnifying lens smooth and if individual grains are not visible.
metric ruler 3. Place a few drops of 5% HCl solution on each rock sample.
Bubbling on a rock indicates the presence of calcite.
Safety Precautions
4. Examine each sample for fossils and describe any that are present.
5. Determine whether each sample has a granular or nongranular
texture.
WARNING: HCl is an acid
and can cause burns.Wear
goggles and a lab apron.
Rinse spills with water and
wash hands afterward.

110 CHAPTER 4 Rocks

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Sedimentary Rock Samples

Sample Observations Minerals or Sediment Detrital, Rock Name
Fossils Present Size Chemical,
or Organic
A
B Do not write in
C this book.
D
E

Analyze Your Data

1. Classify your samples as detrital, chemical, or organic.
2. Identify each rock sample.

Conclude and Apply

1. Explain why you tested the rocks with acid. What minerals react with acid?
2. Compare and contrast sedimentary rocks that have a granular texture with
sedimentary rocks that have a nongranular texture.

Compare your conclusions with those of

other students in your class. For more help,
refer to the Science Skill Handbook.

LAB 111
(l)Jack Sekowski, (r)Tim Courlas
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SCIENCE AND SCIENCE

Society ISSUES
THAT AFFECT
YOU!

Australia’s
controversial rock
One of the most famous rocks in the world is
causing serious problems for Australians
star
U
luru (yew LEW rew), also known as
Ayers Rock, is one of the most popular
tourist destinations in Australia. This
sandstone skyscraper is more than 8 km around,
over 300 m high, and extends as much as 4.8 km
below the surface. One writer describes it as an
iceberg in the desert. Geologists hypothesize that
the mighty Uluru rock began forming 550 mil-
lion years ago during Precambrian time. That’s
when large mountain ranges started to form in
Central Australia. Athlete Nova Benis-Kneebone had the honor
For more than 25,000 years, this geological of receiving the Olympic torch near the
wonder has played an important role in the lives sacred Uluru and carried it partway to the
of the Aboriginal peoples, the Anangu (a NA Olympic stadium.
noo). These native Australians are the original
owners of the rock and have spiritual explana- in 1985 and agreed to call it by its traditional
tions for its many caves, holes, and scars. name. The Anangu leased back the rock to the
Australian government until the year 2084, when
Tourists Take Over its management will return to the Anangu. Until
In the 1980s, some 100,000 tourists visited— then, the Anangu will collect 25 percent of the
and many climbed—Uluru. In 2000, the rock money people pay to visit the rock.
attracted about 400,000 tourists. The Anangu The Aboriginal people encourage tourists to
take offense at anyone climbing their sacred respect their beliefs. They offer a walking tour
rock. However, if climbing the rock were out- around the rock, and they show videos about
lawed, tourism would be seriously hurt. That Aboriginal traditions. The Anangu sell T-shirts
would mean less income for Australians. that say “I didn’t climb Uluru.” They hope visi-
To respect the Anangu’s wishes, the Australian tors to Uluru will wear the T-shirt with pride
government returned Ayers Rock to the Anangu and respect.

Write Research a natural landmark or large natural land or water

formation in your area. What is the geology behind it? When was it
formed? How was it formed? Write a folktale that explains its For more information, visit
formation. Share your folktale with the class. earth.msscience.com/time

(bkgd.)Y. Kawasaki/Photonica, (inset)Matt Turner/Liaison Agency

504-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:11 PM Page 113

The Rock Cycle Metamorphic Rocks

1. A rock is a mixture of one or more minerals, 1. Heat, pressure, and fluids can cause
rock fragments, organic matter, or volcanic metamorphic rocks to form.
glass. 2. Slate and gneiss are examples of foliated
2. The rock cycle includes all processes by metamorphic rocks. Quartzite and marble are
which rocks form. examples of nonfoliated metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
1. Magma and lava are molten materials that
harden to form igneous rocks. 1. Detrital sedimentary rocks form when frag-
2. Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma ments of rocks and minerals are compacted
cools slowly below Earth’s surface. Extrusive and cemented together.
igneous rocks form when lava cools rapidly 2. Chemical sedimentary rocks come out of
at the surface. solution or are left behind by evaporation.
3. The compositions of most igneous rocks 3. Organic sedimentary rocks contain the
range from granitic to andesitic to basaltic. remains of once-living organisms.

Copy and complete the following concept map on rocks. Use the following terms: organic,
metamorphic, foliated, extrusive, igneous, and chemical.

Rocks

three groups are

Sedimentary

can be can be three types are can be can be

Intrusive Detrital Nonfoliated

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12. During metamorphism of granite into

gneiss, what happens to minerals?
basaltic p. 97 lava p. 94 A) They partly melt.
cementation p. 105 metamorphic rock p. 99 B) They become new sediments.
compaction p. 104 nonfoliated p. 102 C) They grow smaller.
extrusive p. 95 rock p. 90
foliated p. 101 rock cycle p. 91
D) They align into layers.
granitic p. 97 sediment p. 103
igneous rock p. 94 sedimentary rock p. 103 13. Which rock has large mineral grains?
intrusive p. 95 A) granite C) obsidian
B) basalt D) pumice
Explain the difference between the vocabulary
words in each of the following sets. 14. Which type of rock is shown in this photo?
A) foliated
1. foliated—nonfoliated B) nonfoliated
2. cementation—compaction C) intrusive
D) extrusive
3. sediment—lava
4. extrusive—intrusive
5. rock—rock cycle
15. What do igneous rocks form from?
6. metamorphic rock—igneous rock— A) sediments C) gravel
sedimentary rock B) mud D) magma
7. sediment—sedimentary rock
16. What sedimentary rock is made of large,
8. lava—igneous rock angular pieces of sediments?
A) conglomerate C) limestone
9. rock—sediment
B) breccia D) chalk
10. basaltic—granitic
17. Which of the following is an example of a
detrital sedimentary rock?
A) limestone C) breccia
B) evaporite D) chalk
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the
question. 18. What is molten material at Earth’s
11. Why does magma tend to rise toward surface called?
Earth’s surface? A) limestone C) breccia
A) It is more dense than surrounding B) lava D) granite
rocks.
B) It is more massive than surrounding 19. Which of these is an organic
rocks. sedimentary rock?
C) It is cooler than surrounding rocks. A) coquina C) rock salt
D) It is less dense than surrounding rocks. B) sandstone D) conglomerate

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20. Infer Granite, pumice, and scoria are 26. Poster Collect a group of rocks. Make a
igneous rocks. Why doesn’t granite have poster that shows the classifications of
airholes like the other two? rocks, and glue your rocks to the poster
21. Infer why marble rarely contains fossils. under the proper headings. Describe your
rocks and explain where you found them.
22. Predict Would you expect quartzite or
sandstone to break more easily? Explain
your answer.
23. Compare and contrast basaltic and granitic 27. Grain Size Assume that the conglomerate shown
magmas. on the second page of the “Sedimentary Rocks”
24. Form Hypotheses A lab is one-half of its actual size. Determine the
average length of the gravel in the rock.
geologist was study-
ing rocks in a 28. Plant Matter Suppose that a 4-m layer of plant
matter was compacted to form a coal layer 1 m
mountain range. thick. By what percent has the thickness of
She found a layer of organic material been reduced?
sedimentary rock Use the graph below to answer questions 29 and 30.
that had formed in the ocean. Hypothesize
how this could happen. Water-rich Granite Melting
25. Concept Map Copy and complete the con-
0.7
cept map shown below. Use the following

Beginning o
terms and phrases: magma, sediments, 0.6
igneous rock, sedimentary rock, metamor- 0.5
Pressure (GPa)

phic rock. Add and label any missing 0.4

arrows. elti fm
0.3 ng
of
0.2 g ra
nite
0.1
Weathering
and erosion 400 500 600 700 800
Cooling
Temperature (°C)

29. Melting Granite Determine the melting tem-

perature of a water-rich granite at a pressure
of 0.2 GPa.
Pressure conversions:
Compaction 1 GPa, or gigapascal, ! 10,000 bars
Melting
and
cementation 1 bar ! 0.9869 atmospheres
30. Melting Pressure At about what pressure will a
Heat and water-rich granite melt at 680°C?
pressure

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Record your answers on the answer sheet 5. Which of the following rocks is a metamor-
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper. phic rock?
Use the illustration below to answer question 1. A. shale C. slate
B. granite D. pumice
6. Which rock consists mostly of pieces of
seashell?
A. sandstone C. pumice
B. coquina D. granite
Use the diagram below to answer questions 7–9.

Compaction
and cementation

Sediment Sedimentary
Weathering rock
and erosion

1. These layers of sedimentary rock were not

Weathering Weathering Heat and
disturbed after they were deposited. Which and erosion and erosion Melting pressure
layer was deposited first?
A. layer L C. layer M
B. layer Z D. layer A
Heat and
pressure
2. Who realized that rocks undergo changes Igneous rock Metamorphic
through long periods of time after observ- rock
Melting
ing rocks at Siccar Point, Scotland?
A. James Hutton C. Galileo Galilei Cooling Melting
B. Neil Armstrong D. Albert Einstein
Magma
3. During which process do minerals precipi-
tate in the spaces between sediment grains? 7. Which process in the rock cycle causes
A. compaction C. cementation magma to form?
B. weathering D. conglomerate A. melting C. weathering
4. Which rock often is sculpted to create statues? B. erosion D. cooling
A. shale C. coquina 8. What forms when rocks are weathered and
B. marble D. conglomerate eroded?
A. igneous rock C. sedimentary rock
B. sediment D. metamorphic rock
9. Which type of rock forms because of high
Careful Reading Read each question carefully for full heat and pressure without melting?
understanding. A. igneous rock C. sedimentary rock
B. intrusive rock D. metamorphic rock

116 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE

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Record your answers on the answer sheet Record your answers on a sheet of paper.
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper. Use the table below to answer questions 18 and 19.
10. What is a rock? How is a rock different
Magma
from a mineral? Basaltic Andesitic Granitic
Type
11. Explain why some igneous rocks are
coarse and others are fine. Intrusive
Do not write in this book.
12. What is foliation? How does it form?
13. How do chemical sedimentary rocks, such Extrusive
as rock salt, form?
14. Why do some rocks contain fossils?
18. Copy the table on your paper. Then, fill in
15. How is the formation of chemical sedi- the empty squares with a correct rock
mentary rocks similar to the formation of name.
cement in detrital sedimentary rocks?
Use the graph below to answer questions 16–17. 19. Explain how igneous rocks are classified.
Temperature Beneath the Continents 20. Explain how loose sediment can become
500 sedimentary rock.

21. Why does pressure increase with depth in

400 Earth? How does higher pressure affect
rocks?
300
Depth (km)

22. Why is slate sometimes used as shingles

for roofs? What other rocks are used for
200 important purposes in society?

23. How are organic sedimentary rocks differ-

100 ent from other rocks? List an example of
an organic sedimentary rock.

24. Why is the rock cycle called a cycle?

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Temperature (!C) 25. A geologist found a sequence of rocks in
16. According to the graph, about how deep which 200-million-year-old shales were on
below a continent does the temperature top of 100-million-year-old sandstones.
reach 1,000°C? Hypothesize how this could happen.
17. In general, what happens to temperature 26. Explain why coquina could be classified in
as depth below Earth’s surface increases? more than one way.

earth.msscience.com/standardized_test STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE 117