UPDA Questions

ACTUAL UPDA QUESTIONS FROM OTHER SOURCES

1 Bending moment calculation‐ simple supported beam with point load
2 Bending moment calculation‐ simple supported beam with distributed load
3 Vertical displacement over a cantilever with point load at the edge
4 Calculation of super elevation
5 Calculation of length of curvature on a road
6 Resource leveling (Project Management)
7 Which document is issued to change the scope of work before award of contract
8 Velocity pulse test on concrete
9 Sieve analysis is carried out to find what
10 Highway design parameters
11 Whether clay can be used as sub base
12 Torsion effect on flat slabs
13 Variation in bending moment in a rectangular section
14 Black brick composition
15 Whether clay can be used as sub base
16 Role of Engineer
17 Network diagram
18 Standard penetration test is carried out to find what
19 Purpose of slump test
20 If 10 mm dia rebars placed at 100mm c/c. To replace it wih 12mm dia how much spacing reqd.
21 Which apparatus used to check soundness of cement
22 Project management, CPM, PERT, Float etc.
23 Caluclate super elevation based on vehicle speed & radius
24 Calculate lateral soil pressure based on given cohesion , soil density & depth
25 SFD & BMD
26 Asphalt temp.
27 full form of BS, BS EN, …. AASMO…….. ALL INTERNATIONAL CODES
28 full form of QCS, MMAA….. OTHER MINISTRIES AND DEPARTMENTS
29 maximum layer thickness of backfilling
30 Max Dry density on site
31 Time activity ‐ different types of floats
32 Third party inspections (TPI)
33 Piling questions
34 Piling types depends on type of soil

UPDA QUESTIONS‐ SINGLE QUESTION PAPER ‐ DATED 24‐2‐2014

1 Strenght of concrete depends on ‐ w/c ratio, aggregate gradation, vibration…..
2 what is finalized in scope management ‐
3 reaction time for the application of bracks as per AASHTO
4 numeral on the same
5 full form of ABET
6 numeral on frame analysis ‐ deflection
DEFLECTION OF THE TOP POINT

7 numeral on frame analysis ‐ horizontal movement (FOR THE SAME DIAGRAM ABOVE)
8 numeral on angle of deflection of cantilever
9 Total float ‐ definition
10 miosture content of timber for frame works
11 sub base compaction acceptable percentage
12 10 mm rebars spaced at 100 mm c‐c, to be replaced by 12 mm ‐ new spacing‐?
13 Bleeding of Asphalt
14 Flakiness index definition
15 mostly used minimum grade of reinforcement
16 what is a work package
17 what is rock‐quality designation (RQD) of 100 means
18 What is thegenerally the "N" value of undisturbed dense sand.
19 Prestressed continuous Beam‐ special condition of use of different cable for tentioning
20 Stress in the concrete‐plastic shrinkage etc
21 what is hydration of cement
22 what is a hammock
23 why Liquid LI is important
24 kilowatt‐ hour represents ‐ electrical energy/electrical power/electrical load/…..
25 purpose of CRP test.
 UPDA Questions dated 24/02/14
1. Highway design is governed by
a. design speed
b. traffic volume
c. Overall seeing of the terrain
d. road length

2. Curvature of road is defined as

a. central angle subtended by 100ft. curve
b. central angle subtended by 10ft. curve
c. curve length to angle subtended at center
d. d…………………………………..

3. Concrete at given age and standard condition depends on

a. inversely proportional to water cement ratio
b. proportional to compaction
c. both a and b
d. ……………………………………………..

4. Drying shrinkage of concrete depend on

a. Cement content
b. Moisture content of concrete
c. Admixture used
d. Compaction

5. -2
A B

Which of the following is correct?

a. Activity B has to complete 2 days before activity A is started
b. Activity is A is to start 2 days before activity B is finished
c. Activity A shall be begin 2 days before activity B is completed
d. Activity B shouldn’t start before activity A is completed

6. Program activity break down structure is drawn for

a. To diagrammatically represent all the activity in order.
b. To carry out planning from top to bottom structure
c. To carry out planning from bottom to top structure
d. d………………………………

7. In the fig. given below what is the angle at centre point

 a. Zero
b. 2000/EI
c. 1500/EI
d. 3500/EI

8. Which of the following network lane is laid at bottom during construction?

a) Telephone cables
b) Electric Cables
c) water supply pipe
d) drainage pipe

9. Contractor to visit the site before commencement of work to ensure

a) site access facilities like roads
b) actual site conditions like existence of trees, electric post Etc.
c) to have a better idea of soil and site conditions
d) All of the above

10. Which one of the following is not a direct cost?

a) excavation carried out to find the underground facilities
b) concrete during site facilities
c) Safety measurements during the execution of work.
d) formwork prices

11. During last stage of work you found some works are not carried out not per specification.
What you will do?
a) You will keep quite.
b) You will inform your boss about it.
c) You will inform and coordinate with client how to correct the problem
d) You will try to correct it by yourself.

12. A tee beam spanning over many supports can be considered at supports during design
a) rectangular section
b) Flange Section
c) simply supported structure
d) A precast structure
13. The load in a concrete column is increased from zero to a maximum. Then its ultimate
flexure strength will
a) increases
b) decreases
c) remains constant
d) First increases reach maximum ten decreases

14. Reinforced concrete is used in concrete structures due to

a) high compressive strength
b) high flexibility
c) high tensile strength
d) both a & b

15. Which is the following is correct?

a) clay is a excellent material that it can used for roads
b) is a additive mixture to road construction
c) it is a bad material so it cannot used for road construction
d) ………………………………….

16. In slump test slump cone is filled in

a) a.1 Layer
b) b.3 Layer
c) c. 4 Layer
d) d. 5 Layers

17. Admixture is added to concrete which one is correct

A. to lower heat of hydration
B. to increase workability
C. to increase setting time
D. to increase workability
a) A only
b) both A & B
c) both C & D
d) Both B & D
18. The total duration of the project is not affected by delaying which of these
a) successor activity
b) total float
c) free float
d) preceding activity
19. Slope of cost time curve gives
20. in the figure given below what is the pressure at point A? Take specific gravity of water as
9810. Mercury 13.55 and oil .9

21. What is PFT?

22. In the given figure all the sections have same area of cross section and moment of inertia find
the horizontal displacement of point B

Moment of inertia 35 Gpa

Area of cross section 250 mm2
a. 6661.67m.m
b. 6.661 m.m
c. 3.8766m.m
d. zero
23. Same question but options are different
a. 10000/AE
b. 20000/AE
c. 33317/AE
d. Zero
24. A. rich concrete mix gives more strength as it contains more cement content
B. strength of concrete is inversely proportional to w/c ratio
C. creep is decreases as time increases.
D. admixture added to concrete decreases heat of hydration
Which statement is correct?
a. A Only
b. Both A & B
c. Both C& D
d. Both B & D
LECTURE 23 and 24

Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram:

Preamble:

The advantage of plotting a variation of shear force F and bending moment M in a beam as a function of ‘x' measured
from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the maximum absolute value of shear force and
bending moment.

Further, the determination of value of M as a function of ‘x' becomes of paramount importance so as to determine the
value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading.

Construction of shear force and bending moment diagrams:

A shear force diagram can be constructed from the loading diagram of the beam. In order to draw this, first the
reactions must be determined always. Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed
from the left end of the beam to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a section is simply
equal to the sum of all the vertical forces to the left of the section.

When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with the previously calculated
shear (reaction at right end of the beam. No shear force acts through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or
reaction. If the shear force diagram closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical
calculations.

The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of beam from the left hand end
and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams giving due regard to sign. The process of obtaining the moment
diagram from the shear force diagram by summation is exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from
load diagram.

It may also be observed that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment, resulting in
straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain portion of a beam, then it indicates that
there is no change in moment takes place. It may also further observe that dm/dx= F therefore, from the fundamental
theorem of calculus the maximum or minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero. In order to check the validity of
the bending moment diagram, the terminal conditions for the moment must be satisfied. If the end is free or pinned,
the computed sum must be equal to zero. If the end is built in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal
to the one calculated initially for the reaction. These conditions must always be satisfied.

Illustrative problems:

In the following sections some illustrative problems have been discussed so as to illustrate the procedure for drawing
the shear force and bending moment diagrams

1. A cantilever of length carries a concentrated load ‘W' at its free end.

Draw shear force and bending moment.

Solution:

At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to the left, then F = -W (for all values of x) -ve sign means the
shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward direction and therefore negative

Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left of the section)

M = -Wx (-ve sign means that the moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the anticlockwise direction and is
therefore taken as –ve according to the sign convention)
so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. M = -W l

From equilibrium consideration, the fixing moment applied at the fixed end is Wl and the reaction is W. the shear force
and bending moment are shown as,

2. Simply supported beam subjected to a central load (i.e. load acting at the mid-way)

By symmetry the reactions at the two supports would be W/2 and W/2. now consider any section X-X from the left end
then, the beam is under the action of following forces.

.So the shear force at any X-section would be = W/2 [Which is constant upto x < l/2]

If we consider another section Y-Y which is beyond l/2 then

for all values greater = l/2

Hence S.F diagram can be plotted as,

.For B.M diagram:

If we just take the moments to the left of the cross-section,

Which when plotted will give a straight relation i.e.

It may be observed that at the point of application of load there is an abrupt change in the shear force, at this point the
B.M is maximum.
3. A cantilever beam subjected to U.d.L, draw S.F and B.M diagram.

Here the cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load whose intensity is given w / length.

Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end. If we just take the resultant of all the forces
on the left of the X-section, then

S.Fxx = -Wx for all values of ‘x'. ---------- (1)

S.Fxx = 0

S.Fxx at x=1 = -Wl

So if we just plot the equation No. (1), then it will give a straight line relation. Bending Moment at X-X is obtained by
treating the load to the left of X-X as a concentrated load of the same value acting through the centre of gravity.

Therefore, the bending moment at any cross-section X-X is

The above equation is a quadratic in x, when B.M is plotted against x this will produces a parabolic variation.

The extreme values of this would be at x = 0 and x = l

Hence S.F and B.M diagram can be plotted as follows:

4. Simply supported beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load [U.D.L].

The total load carried by the span would be

= intensity of loading x length

=wxl

By symmetry the reactions at the end supports are each wl/2

If x is the distance of the section considered from the left hand end of the beam.

S.F at any X-section X-X is

Giving a straight relation, having a slope equal to the rate of loading or intensity of the loading.

The bending moment at the section x is found by treating the distributed load as acting at its centre of gravity, which at
a distance of x/2 from the section
So the equation (2) when plotted against x gives rise to a parabolic curve and the shear force and bending moment can
be drawn in the following way will appear as follows:

5. Couple.

When the beam is subjected to couple, the shear force and Bending moment diagrams may be drawn exactly in the
same fashion as discussed earlier.

6. Eccentric loads.

When the beam is subjected to an eccentric loads, the eccentric load are to be changed into a couple/ force as the case
may be, In the illustrative example given below, the 20 kN load acting at a distance of 0.2m may be converted to an
equivalent of 20 kN force and a couple of 2 kN.m. similarly a 10 kN force which is acting at an angle of 30 0 may be
resolved into horizontal and vertical components.The rest of the procedure for drawing the shear force and Bending
moment remains the same.

6. Loading changes or there is an abrupt change of loading:

When there is an aabrupt change of loading or loads changes, the problem may be tackled in a systematic way.consider
a cantilever beam of 3 meters length. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m and a concentrated loads of 2kN
at the free end and 4kN at 2 meters from fixed end.The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are required to
be drawn and state the maximum values of the shearing force and bending moment.

Solution

Consider any cross section x-x, at a distance x from the free end

Shear Force at x-x = -2 -2x 0<x<1

S.F at x = 0 i.e. at A = -2 kN

S.F at x = 1 = -2-2 = - 4kN

S.F at C (x = 1) = -2 -2x - 4 Concentrated load

= - 2 - 4 -2x1 kN

= - 8 kN

Again consider any cross-section YY, located at a distance x from the free end
S.F at Y-Y = -2 - 2x - 4 1< x < 3

This equation again gives S.F at point C equal to -8kN

S.F at x = 3 m = -2 -4 -2x3

= -12 kN

Hence the shear force diagram can be drawn as below:

For bending moment diagrams – Again write down the equations for the respective cross sections, as consider above

Bending Moment at xx = -2x - 2x.x/2 valid upto AC

B.M at x = 0 = 0

B.M at x =1m = -3 kN.m

For the portion CB, the bending moment equation can be written for the x-section at Y-Y .

B.M at YY = -2x - 2x.x/2 - 4( x -1)

This equation again gives,

B.M at point C = - 2.1 - 1 - 0 i.e. at x = 1

= -3 kN.m

B.M at point B i.e. at x = 3 m

=-6-9-8

= - 23 kN-m

The variation of the bending moment diagrams would obviously be a parabolic curve
Hence the bending moment diagram would be

7. Illustrative Example :

In this there is an abrupt change of loading beyond a certain point thus, we shall have to be careful at the jumps and
the discontinuities.

For the given problem, the values of reactions can be determined as

R2 = 3800N and R1 = 5400N

The shear force and bending moment diagrams can be drawn by considering the X-sections at the suitable locations.
8. Illustrative Problem :

The simply supported beam shown below carries a vertical load that increases uniformly from zero at the one end to
the maximum value of 6kN/m of length at the other end .Draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.

Solution

Determination of Reactions

For the purpose of determining the reactions R1 and R2 , the entire distributed load may be replaced by its resultant
which will act through the centroid of the triangular loading diagram.

So the total resultant load can be found like this-

Average intensity of loading = (0 + 6)/2

= 3 kN/m

Total Load = 3 x 12

= 36 kN

Since the centroid of the triangle is at a 2/3 distance from the one end, hence 2/3 x 3 = 8 m from the left end support.

Now taking moments or applying conditions of equilibrium

36 x 8 = R2 x 12

R1 = 12 kN

R2 = 24 kN

Note: however, this resultant can not be used for the purpose of drawing the shear force and bending moment
diagrams. We must consider the distributed load and determine the shear and moment at a section x from the left
hand end.
Consider any X-section X-X at a distance x, as the intensity of loading at this X-section, is unknown let us find out the
resultant load which is acting on the L.H.S of the X-section X-X, hence

So consider the similar triangles

OAB & OCD

In order to find out the total resultant load on the left hand side of the X-section

Find the average load intensity

Now these loads will act through the centroid of the triangle OAB. i.e. at a distance 2/3 x from the left hand end.
Therefore, the shear force and bending momemt equations may be written as
9. Illustrative problem :

In the same way, the shear force and bending moment diagrams may be attempted for the given problem
10. Illustrative problem :

For the uniformly varying loads, the problem may be framed in a variety of ways, observe the shear force and bending
moment diagrams

11. Illustrative problem :

In the problem given below, the intensity of loading varies from q1 kN/m at one end to the q2 kN/m at the other
end.This problem can be treated by considering a U.d.i of intensity q1 kN/m over the entire span and a uniformly
varying load of 0 to ( q2- q1)kN/m over the entire span and then super impose teh two loadings.
Point of Contraflexure:

Consider the loaded beam a shown below along with the shear force and Bending moment diagrams for It may be
observed that this case, the bending moment diagram is completely positive so that the curvature of the beam varies
along its length, but it is always concave upwards or sagging.However if we consider a again a loaded beam as shown
below along with the S.F and B.M diagrams, then
It may be noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case,

The bending moment diagram is partly positive and partly negative.If we plot the deflected shape of the beam just
below the bending moment

This diagram shows that L.H.S of the beam ‘sags' while the R.H.S of the beam ‘hogs'

The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of contraflexure.

OR

It corresponds to a point where the bending moment changes the sign, hence in order to find the point of
contraflexures obviously the B.M would change its sign when it cuts the X-axis therefore to get the points of
contraflexure equate the bending moment equation equal to zero.The fibre stress is zero at such sections

Note: there can be more than one point of contraflexure.

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UPDA EXAMS

CONTENTS:

A. BMD AND SFD

B. QCS
C. ASHGHAL
D. LAB TESTS ON MATERIALS
E. PRJT MNGT
F. STRUCTURAL
G. HIGHWAY
H. ASHPHALT
I. CONCRETING
J. PILING
K. ROLE OF ENGINEER – GENERAL CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT
L. CONTRACT -
M. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT
N. TYPES OF INSURANCES
O. SAFETY MANUAL
P. ONLINE TEST

1. QATAR CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATION - 2010

SUPERSEDES QCS - 2007
1 General
2 Building Demolition
3 Ground Investigation
4 Pilling
5 Concrete
6 Road works
7 Green Constructions
8 Sewerage
9 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
10 Instruction, Control and Automation
11 Health and Safety
12 Earthworks Related to Buildings
13 Masonry
14 Roofing
15 Thermal Insulation of Building
16 Structural Steelworks
17 Metalwork
18 Carpentry, Joinery and Ironmongery
19 Plumbing Work
20 Drainage Works for Buildings
21 Electrical Works
22 Air Conditioning, Refrigeration and Ventilation
23 Fire Fighting and Fire Fighting System
24 Finishes to Building
25 Glass and Glazing
26 Painting and Decorating
 27 External Works
28 Landscaping

(a) The General Conditions of Contract prepared by the former Ministry of Public Works.

(b) The Qatar Construction Specification (QCS) issued by the Qatar Standards,

Laboratories and Standardization Affairs, Ministry of Environment, 2010 and all revisions and addenda issued by the
same ministry prior to the date of the announcement inviting tenderer.

The Qatar Survey Manual prepared by the Survey Section of the former Ministry of Industry & Public Works.

The Qatar Traffic Manual prepared by the former Ministry of Public Works and the Qatar Highway Design Manual
prepared by MMAA, 1997.

The Traffic Control at Road Works Manual issued by the former Ministry of Industry & Public Works.

Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (QGEWC).

Ministry of Culture, Arts and Heritage

Ministry of Defence

Ministry of Economy and Commerce

Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs

Ministry of Energy and Industry

Ministry of Environment

Ministry of Finance

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Ministry of Interior

Ministry of Justice

Ministry of Labor

Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning

Ministry of Social Affairs

Audit Bureau

Civil Aviation Authority

Family Consulting Center

General Directorate of Customs

General Retirement and Social Insurance Authority

General Secretariat for Development Planning

General Secretariat of the Council of Ministers

Institute of Administrative Development (IAD)

National Human Rights Committee

Public Prosecution

Public Works Authority

Qatar Central Bank

Qatar Chamber

Qatar Financial Markets Authority

Qatar Foundation for Combating Human Trafficking

Qatar Investment Authority

Qatar Media Corporation

Qatar Museums Authority

Qatar Orphan Foundation

Qatar Ports Management Company

Qatar Tourism Authority

Social Rehabilitation Center (Al Aween)

Statistics Authority

Supreme Council for Family Affairs

Supreme Council of Health

Supreme Council of Information and Communication Technology

Supreme Education Council

Supreme Judiciary Council

ABET

MMUP

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

ACI American Concrete Institute

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing & Materials

AWS American Welding Society

AWWA American Water Works Association

BS British Standard
BSI British Standard Institution

C & CA Cement and Concrete Association

CEE Commission of approval of Electrical Equipment

CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIRIA Concrete Industry Research and Information Association

CRSI Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

CS Concrete Society

DIN Deutsches Institute fur Normung (German Institute for Standardization)

EIA Electronic Industries Association

EN European Standards (Euro-Norm)

FHWA Federal Highway Authority

FM Factory Mutual Engineering Division

GS Gulf Standards

ICE Institution of Civil Engineers

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEE Institution of Electrical Engineers

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LPC Loss Prevention Council

LPCB Loss Prevention Certification Board

MMAA Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association

NFPA National Fire Protection Agency

PCI Prestressed Concrete Institute

PWA Public Works Authority

QCS Qatar Construction Specification

QGEWC Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation

QS Qatar Standards (Laboratories and Standardisation Affairs, Ministry of Environment)

Q-TEL Qatar Telecom

SIS Swedish Standards Institute

UK DOT United Kingdom Department of Transport

UPDA Urban Planning and Development Authority

VDE Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker (Association for Electrical, Electronic and Information Technologies)

2. ASHGHAL
The Public Works Authority 'Ashghal' was established in 2004 to be responsible for the planning, design,
procurement, construction, delivery, and asset management of all infrastructure projects and public buildings in
Qatar. Ashghal’s key responsibilities include governing the design, construction, and management of major
projects including roads, drainage and buildings such as public buildings, schools and hospitals.

Nasser Bin Ali Al Mawlawi

President of Ashghal

3. TESTS
5.3.1 Tests in accordance with BS 1377
1 The following in-situ tests shall be carried out and reported in accordance with BS 1377:
(a) in-situ density by
(i) Small pouring cylinder method.
(ii) Large pouring cylinder method.
(iii) Water replacement method.
(iv) Core cutter method.
(v) Nuclear method.

(b) Static cone penetration test (CPT), capacity to suit scheduled depths unless otherwise designated
(c) Dynamic probing (DPH or DPSH).
(d) Standard penetration test (SPT).
(e) Plate loading test.
(f) Shallow pad maintained load test.
(g) California bearing ratio (CBR).
(h) Vane shear strength.
(i) Apparent resistivity of soil.
(j) Redox potential.
5.3.2 Tests in accordance with BS 5930
1 The following in-situ tests shall be carried out and reported in accordance with BS 5930:
Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume
(a) Constant head permeability test. constant head permeability test is done for the coarse grained soil.
(b) Variable head permeability test. For fine grained soil Falling head permeability test is done
(c) Packer permeability test. - Packer tests are carried out to assess the variability of a borehole as it intersects
various hydrogeological units. Open hole water levels and pumping tests can give misleading results in such
environments. Therefore, packer testing is often utilized to help understand the detailed hydrogeological
properties of the various horizons

TESTS ON GGBS:

(a) moisture content

(b) loss of ignition
(c) specific gravity
(d) fineness
(e) SO3 content
(f) MgO content
 ON PFA AND SILICA FUME:

(a) moisture content

(b) loss of ignition
(c) specific gravity
(d) fineness

CBR TEST – MOST IMPORTANT – PENETRATION TEST DEVELOPED FOR EVALUATING THE STABILITY OF SOIL

TESTS ON AGGREGATES:

QCS requirement

Grading (dry)
Material finer than 75micronsb
Clay lumps and friable particles
Lightweight pieces
Organic impurities
Water absorption (saturated surface dried)
Specific gravity (apparent)
Shell content
Particle shape:
Flakiness Index
Elongation Index
Acid soluble chlorides

Acid soluble sulfates

Soundness (loss by magnesium sulfate 5 cycles)
Mechanical strength:
10% fines value (dry condition)
Aggregate Impact value
Loss by Los Angeles abrasion
Aggregate crushing value
Drying shrinkage
Potential reactivity of aggregates:
Alkali –silica reaction
Alkali-carbonation reaction Of cement-aggregate combination

Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures:

Penetration resistance or Windsor probe test, used to measure the surface hardness and hence the strength of
the surface and near surface layers of the concrete.

The following methods, with some typical applications, have been used for the NDT of
concrete:
Visual inspection, which is an essential precursor to any intended non-destructive test. An experienced civil or
structural engineer may be able to establish the possible cause(s) of damage to a concrete structure and
 hence identify which of the various NDT methods available could be most useful for any further
investigation of the problem.
Half-cell electrical potential method, used to detect the corrosion potential of reinforcing bars in concrete.
Schmidt/rebound hammer test, used to evaluate the surface hardness of concrete. – HIGHER REBOUND –
HIGHER STRENGTH.
Carbonation depth measurement test, used to determine whether moisture has reached the depth of the
reinforcing bars and hence corrosion may be occurring.
Permeability test, used to measure the flow of water through the concrete.

concrete and also possibly to measure the diameter of the reinforcing bars.
Radiographic testing, used to detect voids in the concrete and the position of stressing ducts.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of the concrete and hence the
compressive strength of the concrete.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) testing of concrete is based on the pulse velocity method to provide information
on the uniformity of concrete, cavities, cracks and defects.

ULTRASONIC PULSE MEASUREMENTS- HIGHER VELOSITY – STRONGER CONCRETE

Sonic methods using an instrumented hammer providing both sonic echo and transmission methods.
Tomographic modelling, which uses the data from ultrasonic transmission tests in two or more directions to
detect voids in concrete.
Impact echo testing, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies in concrete.
Ground penetrating radar or impulse radar testing, used to detect the position of reinforcing bars or stressing
ducts.
Infrared thermography, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies in concrete and also detect
water entry points in buildings.

Slump tests
Slump test assesses the consistency or workability of concrete

Compression test
Compression test determines the strength of concrete under standard conditions

Moisture measurements in concrete

There are a number of techniques available for measuring the moisture content in concrete.
electrical conductivity measurement
capacitance meter
microwave meter
radar
neutron gauge
gamma backscatter.

The maximum temperature of concrete at the point of placing shall not be more than 32 °C.
Concrete shall not be placed if the shade temperature exceeds 40ºC.
During the hot weather, the Contractor shall plan concreting operations such that no concreting takes place
between the hours of 10:00 hours and 17:00 hours
Freshly mixed concrete maybe cooled by the injection of liquid nitrogen.
 Discharge of the concrete shall be completed within 90 min, or before the drum has revolved 300 revolutions,
whichever comes first, after the introduction of the mixing water to the cement and aggregates or the
introduction of the cement to the aggregates.

Temperature of water for concrete shall not be less than 5 °C and not more than 40°C
PH OF WATER – 6.5 TO 9.0

RADIOGRAPHY OF CONCRETE- Gamma rays and high energy X-rays, which illustrate by radiographs the concrete
defects

Chloride testing of concrete

Sulphate testing of concrete

SLUMP – 25-50 LOW WORKABILITY

50 – 100 MEDIUM
100 – 150 HIGH

FIELD AND LABORATORY TESTING DETAILS

1.0 CONCRETE
a) Compressive Strength of moulded cubes including weight ,size & density- Cube Testing
The cubes are generally tested at 7 & 28 days unless specific early tests are required, for example to remove a
concrete shutter safely prior to 7 days
b) Compressive strength of precast concrete blocks including weight and dimension.
c) Concrete Mix Design and Laboratory Trial Mix.
d) Making Cubes & Compressive Test
e) Slump Test and Temperature
f) Sampling and Testing of Concrete cubes 150mm size
g) Measurement of Tensile Splitting Strength and Water Absorption of Paving Blocks

2.0 SOIL-SUB GRADE / SUB BASE

a) Moisture Content
b) Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-grained soil, such as its shrinkage
limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume
reduction
The plastic limit is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface, If
the soil is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter, A soil is considered non-plastic
if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture.
The liquid limit (LL) is often conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil
changes from plastic to liquid (instrument used – casagrande cup)

PI = LL-PL,
LI = (W-PL)/(LL-PL)

c) Sieve Analysis
d) Dry Density and Moisture content Relationship.
e) California Bearing Ration (CBR)
f) Particle Density & Water absorption
3.0 AGGREGATES
a) Moisture Content
 b) Sieve Analysis
c) Material Finer than 0.075mm
d) Clay, Silt and Dust content in fine and coarse aggregates
e) Flakiness Index
f) Elongation Index
g) Bulk density (Unit weight)
h) Particle Density & Water Absorption
i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value
j) Soundness of Aggregate
4.0 REINFORCEMENT
a) Tensile Yield & Elongation
5.0 BITUMINOUS MIXTURES
a) Drilling of Bituminous Core
b) Density & Thickness of drilled bituminous core
c) Bitumen Extraction and Aggregate grading
d) Marshall Characteristics
e) Penetration of Bitumen
f) Softening Points of Bitumen
6.0 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
a) Sulphate & Chloride Contents – Soil
b) PH value of Soil
c) Oragnic Content – Aggregate & Soil
d) Chemical Analysis of water for construction purposes
e) Chemical Analysis of Water for portability
7.0 FIELD TESTING
a) I-Site Density Test by Nuclear Density Gauge
b) Plate Load Test

The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on
the geotechnical engineering properties of soil.

The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter of 50 mm and an inside diameter of 35 mm, and a
length of around 650 mm. This is driven into the ground at the bottom of aborehole by blows from a slide hammer with
a weight of 63.5 kg (140 lb) falling through a distance of 760 mm (30 in). The sample tube is driven 150 mm into the
ground and then the number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of 450 mm
(18 in) is recorded. The sum of the number of blows required for the second and third 6 in. of penetration is termed the
"standard penetration resistance" or the "N-value". In cases where 50 blows are insufficient to advance it through a
150 mm (6 in) interval the penetration after 50 blows is recorded. The blow count provides an indication of
the density of the ground, and it is used in many empirical geotechnical engineering formulae.

The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular deposits, such
as sands and gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples. The great merit of the test, and
the main reason for its widespread use is that it is simple and inexpensive.

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly used in civil engineering) to assess
the particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular material.
WATER ABSORPTION
This test helps to determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates The average water absorption by the aggregate
for all courses shall not exceed 1.5% except for base course where it shall not exceed 2.0%

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

This test is done to determine the toughness of aggregate of coarse aggregates

AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

This test helps to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates, Aggregates vary in their resistance to fracturing
under impact (toughness) and breaking down into smaller pieces from abrasive action (hardness). The acceptable limits
are set by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test in the test method shall be a maximum of 25% for wearing course aggregate
and 30% for intermediate and base courses aggregate.

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. This
test helps to determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates shall be a maximum of 20% for the wearing
course aggregate and a maximum of 25% for the intermediate and base courses aggregate.

The soundness test determines an aggregate’s resistance to disintegration by weathering and, in particular, freeze-thaw
cycles - The durability of aggregates or their resistance to the forces of weathering is undoubtedly one of the most
important considerations in the selection of a material

The loss by magnesium sulphate soundness test, as determined by ASTM C88, shall be a maximum of 10% for aggregate
used in wearing and intermediate courses and a maximum of 15% for aggregate used in base course

Flakiness Index is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least dimension (i.e. thickness) is less than three-
fifths of its mean dimension.
Elongation Index is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose largest dimension (i.e. length) is greater than one
and four-fifths times its mean dimension
flaky and elongated particles tend to lower the workability of concrete mix which may impair the long-term durability.
For bituminous mix, flaky particles are liable to break up and disintegrate during the pavement rolling process

CEMENT
FINENESS
the fineness of cement is determined by dry sieving

SOUNDNESS
Soundness of cement is determined by Le-Chatelier method
It is very essential that the cement after setting shall not undergo any appreciable change in volume, because change in
volume after setting of cement causes
 cracks,
 undue expansion,and as a result
 disintegration of concrete.
CONSISTENCY
The basic aim is to find out the water content required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency
Apparatus – Vicat apparatus

INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME

Apparatus – Vicat apparatus

Loss on Ignition is a test used in inorganic analytical chemistry, particularly in the analysis of minerals. It consists of
strongly heating ("igniting") a sample of the material at a specified temperature, allowing volatile substances to escape,
until its mass ceases to change
The Loss on Ignition Test is designed to measure the amount of moisture or impurities lost when the sample is ignited
under the conditions specified in the individual monograph.

BITUMEN
The bitumen specified for use in the asphalt mixes shall be 60/70 penetration grade
The prime coat shall be cutback bitumen consisting of a 60/70 penetration grade bitumen and kerosene

BITUMEN CONTENT
This test is done to determine the bitumen content as per ASTM 2172. The apparatus needed to determine bitumen
content are -
i) Centrifuge extractor
ii) Miscellaneous – bowl, filter paper, balance and commercial benzene.

Determining the Ductility Of Bitumen - This test is done to determine the ductility of distillation residue of cutback
bitumen
Determining - This test is done to determine the penetration of bitumen
Determining Specific Gravity of Bitumen
Determining Softening Point Of Bitumen
Determining Flash And Fire Point Of Bitumen
Determining The Marshall Stability of Bituminous Mixture - To measure the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical
specimens of a bituminous paving mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of the Marshall Apparatus

The liquid bitumen distributor truck shall be of the pressure type with insulated tanks. The use of gravity distributors will
not be permitted

Production and spreading of asphaltic Concrete mix shall not be permitted when the ambient temperature is less than 8
°C, nor during rain, fog, dust-storms or other unsuitable weather

The 60/70 penetration grade bitumen shall be heated to a temperature of between 150 to 165 degrees centigrade

Bitumen shall not be used if foaming occurs or shall it be heated above 177 °C at any time

Mineral aggregate materials shall be thoroughly dried and heated so that their temperature is 165 to 180 degrees
centigrade.

TEMPRATURE OF ASPHALT – SUPPLY 135, LAYING 120 – LESS THAN THIS WILL BE REJECTED

Use of diesel or other solvents to spray in the truck bed is prohibited.

The asphaltic mixture shall be fed to the paver by end tipping of the truck or by means of a windrow elevator.
 MINIMUM 3 ROLLERS ON SITE – 1 WHEELED or tandem AND 2 STEEL DRUM

Recommended Compacted Layer Thickness

Base Course Intermediate Asphaltic Concrete Wearing Course Dense Bitumen
(BC-TYPE 1) Course (SC-TYPE 1) Macadam
(IC-TYPE 1) Wearing Course
(SC-TYPE 2)*
80 mm to 100 mm 60 mm to 80 mm 40 mm to 50 mm 45 mm to 50 mm

TRANSVERSE JOINT OVERLAP MIN – 2M

LONGITUDINAL – MIN 300 MM

24 HOURS NO TRAFFIC.

TEST ON PILES:
Integrity-testing of piles is designed to give information about the physical dimensions, continuity and consistency
of materials used in piles, and not to give direct information about the performance of piles under the conditions
of loading. The methods available are normally applied to preformed concrete piles made in a single length, to
steel piles and to cast-in-place concrete piles.
integrity tests shall not be carried out until 7 d or more have elapsed after pile-casting
Dynamic pile-testing is normally used to evaluate the pile capacity, soil resistance distribution, immediate
settlement characteristics, hammer transfer energy (efficiency), and pile stresses during driving. The results
obtained relate directly to dynamic loading conditions.
Dynamic pile-testing involves monitoring the response of a pile to a heavy impact applied at the pile head. The
impact is often provided by the pile-driving hammer and response is normally measured in terms of force and
acceleration or displacement close to the pile head.

Concrete to be used in the formation of a pile shall produce a mix which is suitable for pumping. It shall have a
3
minimum slump of 150 mm unless otherwise approved and a minimum cement content of 340 kg/m
3
The cement content in any mix for piling work shall be not less than 300 kg/m . The cement content shall be not
3
less than 380 kg/m where concrete is to be placed under water or drilling mud by tremie nor less than 400
3
kg/m where the pile will be exposed to sea water
SLUMP FOR PILE CONCRETING
75-150-Placed into water-free unlined or permanently lined bore of 600 mm diameter or over, or where
concrete is placed below temporary casing, and where reinforcement is widely spaced leaving ample room for
free movement of concrete between bars.
100-200 -Where reinforcement is not spaced widely, where concrete is placed within temporary casings, where
pile bore is water-free, and the diameter less than 600 mm
150 or more Where concrete is to be placed by tremie under water or drilling mud, or by pumping
A caliper log is a well logging tool that provides a continuous measurement of the size and shape of
a borehole along its depth[1] and is commonly used in hydrocarbon exploration when drilling well
Placing Concrete in Dry Borings
1 Approved measures shall be taken to ensure that the structural strength of the concrete placed in all piles is not
impaired through grout loss, segregation or bleeding.
2 Concrete shall be placed by “elephant trunk”, and the free fall shall not exceed 1.2 m.

Placing Concrete under Water or Drilling Fluid

1 Before placing concrete, measures shall be taken in accordance with Clause 2.4.3 to ensure that there is no
accumulation of silt or other material at the base of the boring, and the Contractor shall ensure that heavily
contaminated bentonite suspension, which could impair the free flow of concrete from the tremie pipe, has not
accumulated in the bottom of the hole.
2 Concrete to be placed under water or drilling fluid shall be placed by tremie and shall not be discharged freely into the
water or drilling fluid. Pumping of concrete may be approved where appropriate.
3 A sample of the bentonite suspension shall be taken from the base of the boring using an approved sampling device. If
the specific gravity of the suspension exceeds 1.20 the placing of concrete shall not proceed. In this event the Contractor
shall modify or replace the bentonite as approved to meet the specification.
4 The concrete shall be a rich, coherent mix and highly workable, and cement content shall be as discussed above.
5 The concrete shall be placed in such a manner that segregation does not occur.
6 The hopper and pipe of the tremie shall be clean and watertight throughout. The pipe shall extend to the base of the
bore and a sliding plug or barrier shall be placed in the pipe to prevent direct contact between the first charge of
concrete in the tremie and the water or drilling fluid. The pipe shall at all times penetrate the concrete which has
previously been placed and shall be withdrawn at a rate such that there shall be a minimum concrete cover of 2 m over
the end of the tremie pipe, until completion of concreting. A sufficient quantity of concrete shall be maintained within
the pipe to ensure that the pressure from it exceeds that from the water or drilling fluid. The internal diameter of the
tremie pipe shall be not less than 150 mm, and the maximum sized aggregate shall be 20 mm. It shall be so designed
that external projections are minimised, allowing the tremie to pass within reinforcing cages without causing damage.
The internal face of the pipe of the tremie shall be free from projections.

Constant rate of penetration (CRP) test: a test in which the pile is made to penetrate the soil at a constant controlled
speed, while the loads applied at the top of the pile in order to maintain the constant rate of penetration are
continuously measured. The purpose of the test is to derive the ultimate bearing capacity of a pile and not its
load settlement characteristics.
4 Constant rate of uplift (CRU) test: the same in principle as the CRP test, but the pile is subject to tension rather than
compression. The purpose of the test is to determine the 'pull-out' capacity of a pile.
5 Design verification load (DVL): a test load, in lieu of a specified working load, applied to a single pile at the time of
testing to determine that site conditions conform to design assumptions. This load will be peculiar to each
preliminary (test) pile and should equal the maximum specified working load for a pile of the same dimensions
and material, plus allowances for soil-induced forces and any other particular conditions of the test.
6 Kentledge: ballast used in a loading test.
7 Maintained load test: a loading test in which each increment of load is held constant either for a defined period of time
or until the rate of settlement falls to a specified value.

MEASURING PILE HEAD MOVEMENT

Maintained Load Test
CRP and CRU Tests
Reference Beams and Dial Gauges
Optical Levelling Method
 Reference Wires and Scales

MORTOR:
The mortar will have the following properties when tested in accordance with the relevant provisions of PD 6678:
(a) compressive strength : minimum 20 N/mm², using 50 x 50 x 50 mm cubes
(b) tensile strength : minimum 4 N/mm², using the 25 x 25 x 25 mm briquettes
(c) flexural strength : minimum 6 N/mm², using flexural bar
(d) brick bond strength : minimum 3 N/mm², using crossed brick.
Mortar for setting stone flooring, steps and treads shall be Class M7 mortar
Mortar for setting all other stone shall be Class M3 mortar.
Pointing mortar: shall be Class M5 mortar with a mineral colouring admixture as required to match the stone

BLOCKS:
Compressive Strength Minimum Compressive Uses for which Blocks Class of Mortar
Classification Strength (N/mm2) are Suitable
Classes Average of 10 Blocks Lowest Individual Block
1 7.0 5.6 External non-load M6
bearing walls
2 10.4 8.3 Load bearing walls M6
3 17.4 14 Load bearing walls M12
below ground
4 14.0 11.2 Soakaways and M12
manholes
5 4.0 3.6 Internal non-load M6
bearing walls
5 4.0 3.6 Roof Block M4
5 4.0 3.6 Protective skins to M6
foundations

REINFORCEMENT:
All main steel reinforcement bars shall comply with the requirements of QS ISO 6935 or BS 4449 with minimum grades
of B500 MPa . Plain reinforcement bars shall comply with the requirements of QS ISO 6935-1 with minimum grades of
B300 MPa.
Tensile tests providing information on following will be required from each delivery of reinforcement:
(a) elastic limit
(b) ultimate strength
(c) stress/strain curve
(d) cross-sectional area
(e) deformation/bond characteristics of deformed bars.
Welding shall not be used unless authorized by the Engineer and recommended by the reinforcement manufacturer.
Where welding is approved it shall be executed under controlled conditions in a factory or workshop.
Electrolytic Action(Electrolytic action is where different metal types, such as aluminium and copper or ferrous and non
ferrous metals, act like a battery in the acidic liquid that is present in some central heating systems resulting in rust. This
happens because they trade electrons )- Reinforcement shall not be fixed or placed in contact with non-ferrous metals

Minimum Cover to Reinforcement Structural Minimum Cover (mm) for Placing of Reinforcement for Exposure
Member Condition
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3
Pad footings and Pile Caps - 65 75
Strip footings - 50 65
Bored or Cast Piles - 50 75
Columns of all types 30 40 75
Walls, including retaining walls 25 30 75
Beams 30 40 65
Slabs, including concrete joist and 25 30 65
hollow block construction
Cover to embedded pipes 25 30 65
Reinforcement adjacent to blocks in 10 - -
hollow block slab construction which
are integral with the structure

Tie Wire:
Tie wire shall conform to the requirements of BS 4482. 1.6 mm. black annealed mild steel shall be used for tie wire. No
wires smaller than size D-4 shall be used.

Difference between fire brick & regular brick

Fire bricks and masonary bricks are manufactured with different ingredients.
Firebricks are blocks of refractory ceramic materials used to line fireplaces, fire boxes and furnaces. They are different
from regular masonry bricks because of their ability to withstand temperatures up to 982 degrees Celsius. The chemical
composition of dense firebricks is different from that of regular bricks. The colour, shape and thermal conductivity of
firebricks and regular bricks are also different.
Temperatures
Firebricks contain refractory properties. They are also known as fireplace bricks. They are used in building cooking
chambers in wood-fired ovens, fire boxes and for creating fireplaces. They are also used to line small or large industrial
furnaces. They are heavy and have low porosity. Regular, or masonry, bricks, on the other hand, are more porous.
Ordinary bricks begin to decompose at 0-11.111 degrees Celsius.

Composition
The chemical composition of a firebrick includes 23 per cent alumina and 73 per cent silica. Ferric oxide, titanium and
other metallic oxides form the remaining portion. The major chemical composition of regular brick is silica, alumina,
magnesia, lime, iron oxide and alkalies. If more or less than the required amount of any of these constituents exist, it
may cause serious damage to the brick. The composition is lightly bonded in the case of regular bricks, whereas
firebricks are much more dense.

Colour and Shape

The firebrick is naturally white. Stains are mixed into the slurry to tint the brick during the manufacturing process. Some
of the more popular colours include espresso, mossy green, red and jet black. The colour allows the bricks to match the
surrounding applications in the same way regular bricks are manufactured in different colours. The colour of regular
bricks varies according to the type of soil used. Firebricks are uniformly rectangular, while regular bricks may be
unevenly shaped.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity of regular bricks is much higher than with fire bricks. Firebricks can withstand high temperature
because the ceramic, ferric oxide and other chemical additives absorb, and do not transfer, high temperatures. The low
thermal conductivity offers greater energy efficiency and insulating value. Dense firebricks are therefore used in
environments with extreme mechanical or thermal stress. A wood-fired kiln or a furnace are some of the applications
that require firebricks. The denser properties also give the brick greater resistance to damage from abrasion. Regular
bricks are not suited for these applications.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT:

SCHEDULE NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES:

 CRITICAL PATH METHOD – network analysis
 SCHEDULE COMPRESSION
Fast tracing – doing critical activities in parallel, usually increases risk and rework.
Crashing – adding extra resources to critical path, usually results in increased costs.
When you crash the project, it means that you add resources to it,
Reduce scope
Cut quality
 WHAT IF SCNERIO -
Monte Carlo analysis – uses computer

 RESOURCE LEVELLING
As things change in your project, you need to make sure that resources are covering all of the activities
in your plan. That means you need to distribute resources so that the work that needs to get done
always has a resource to available to do it.
It is usually applied after CP method analysis.

 CRITICAL CHAIN METHOD

Critical chain method is a technique that’s part of Develop Schedule that lets you figure out how to
handle the problems that come with having limited resources. You use it to shuffle both activities and
 resources on your critical path. One important aspect of the critical chain method is that you can use it
to add buffers to the schedule to reduce the risk of certain activities.

The critical path is the longest duration path on a network diagram and determines the shortest time to
complete the project.
The Critical Path is the string of activities that will delay the whole project if any one of them is delayed.
It usually starts with the first activity in the network and usually ends with the last one.
The Total float for any activity on the critical path is ZERO
Negative float means you are behind

ES EF
ACTIVITY
LS LF

Types of floats/slacks:
 Total floats/slacks
 Free float/slack
 Project float/slack

LEAD- ACCELERATION OF THE SUCCESSOR ACTIVITY

LAG – DELAY OF THE SUCCESSOR ACTIVITY

PERT – OPTIMISTIC, PESSIMISTIC, MOST LIKELY

COSTING

Benefit cost ratio (BCR)

This is the amount of money a project is going to make versus how much it will cost to build it. Generally, if the
benefit is higher than the cost, the project is a good investment.

Net present value (NPV)

This is the actual value at a given time of the project minus all of the costs associated with it. This includes the
time it takes to build it and labor as well as materials. People calculate this number to see if it’s worth doing a
project.

Opportunity cost

When an organization has to choose between two projects, they are always giving up the money they would
have made on the one they don’t do. That’s called opportunity cost. It’s the money you don’t get because you
chose not to do a project.

Internal rate of return

This is the amount of money the project will return to the company that is funding it. It’s how much money a
project is making for the company. It’s usually expressed as a percentage of the funding that has been allocated
to it.

Depreciation

This is the rate at which your project loses value over time. So, if you are building a project that will only be
marketable at a high price for a short period of time, the product loses value as time goes on.
 exam questions asking you to use BCR or NPV to compare two projects. The higher these numbers are, the
better! budget numbers

Lifecycle costing

Before you get started on a project, it’s really useful to figure out how much you expect it to cost—not just to
develop, but to support the product once it’s in place and being used by the customer.

RISK

POSITIVE RISK – EXPLOIT/SHARE

NEGATIVE RISK – AVOID/TRANSFER/MITIGATE/ACCEPT

Notes on structural

the maximum stress that a column can resist without failing by buckling depends on the column's
___________ and ___________ .

unbraced length
radius of gyration

slenderness ratio = l / r

Where is the bending moment in a simply supported beam maximum?

At the point of zero shear

flexural stress (f) in a beam is a function of ___________ and ___________ .

flexural stress (f) in a beam is a function of bending moment and section modulus.

f=M/S
f = flexural stress
M = bending moment
S = section modulus of the beam

The shear stress in a beam is

A. Maximum at the neutral axis

B. Uniform over the beam's cross-section
C. Maximum where the moment is zero
D. Maximum at the midspan

A. Maximum at the neutral axis

The point where the bending moment in a beam changes sign is called the:

A. Neutral Surface
B. End support
C. Centroid
D. Point of inflection

D. Point of inflection
A simple beam supporting a uniformly distributed load over a 20-foot span deflects 1/2 inch. If a beam with the
same cross section were to span 25' supporting the same uniform load per foot, how much would it deflect?

The deflection equation is

Delta=5wL^4/384EI

For the 20' span Delta=.50"

For the 25' span all the terms in the formula remain the same, except the length L. Deflection varies only with
L^4. (25)^4/(20)^4=2.44

.50 *2.44 = 1.2207"

Select the correct statements about a continuous beam having two equal spans supporting a uniformly
distributed load over both spans
I. The moment over the middle support is negative
II. The point of inflection occurs over the middle support
III. The beam is statically indeterminate
IV. The moment at the end supports is zero
V. The moment diagram for the two spans is comprised of parabolic curves

I, III, IV, V are correct

The flexural stress in a beam

I. Varies parabolically over the beam's cross-section

II Is uniform over the beam's cross-section
III. Is maximum at the neutral axis
IV is maximum at the extreme fibers
V. Is a function of the beam's section

IV and V are correct

Uniformly Distributed Load on a Simple Beam

total uniform load = wl

R = V = wl/2

max deflection (Δ) simple beam - uniformly distributed load

deflection (Δ) simple beam - uniformly distributed load

Δ max = (5 wL4) / ( 384 E I )

w = uniform load (lbs/ft)

L = length of beam (ft)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi)
I = moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about the neutral axis (in4)
shear stress in a beam is maximum at the ___________ .

shear stress in a beam is maximum at the neutral axis.

Max moment (M), uniformly distributed load, simple beam

M=wL2/8
where w = uniform load, L = length

max deflection (Δ) simple beam - concentrated load at center

Δ max = (PL2) / 48 E I

P = load (lbs)
L = length of beam (ft)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi)
I = moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about the neutral axis (in4)

max moment - point load at center of simply supported beam

MMAX = PL / 4

P = load (lbs)
L = length of simply supported beam (ft)

Max moment for a simple beam with a point load at the center

M(max) = Pl/4

The flexure formula involves 3 terms: f (flexural stress), M (bending moment) and I/c or( S )
Section modulus. The flexure formula can be expressed in several different ways.
F=Mc/ I M=fI/c
M=fI/c I/c=M/f
I/c=M/f F=M/s
M= fs S=M/f

centroid
where 3 medians meet *center of gravity

Find Moment of Inertia of a Beam with a Rectangular Cross Section

I = Base (b) x depth (d)³/ 12

I = bd³ / 12

section modulus

S=I/c or S=M/f

I=moment of inertia
c=distance from extreme fiber to neutral axis

M=bending moment
f=allowable fiber stress in bending

flexural stress

flexural stress = M c / I

M = bending moment (in lbs)

c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fibers (in)
I = moment of inertia of the beam cross-section about the neutral axis (in4)

FORM WORK
Stripping of the formwork shall be within the time limits listed below
Table 9.1, Sec 5, Part 9, QCS 2010

Type Of Formwork Minimum Period Before Stripping

am Beam sides, walls and column 1d

Soffits of slabs (props left under) 4d

Soffits of beams, joists and girders (props
10 d
left under)
Props to slabs 11 d

Props to beams 15 d

Highway design parameters

Critical design elements and provides values for different classifications of highways and roads:

Design Speed Superelevation Level of Service

Lane Width Stopping Sight Distance Control of Access

Shoulder Width Vertical Clearance Pedestrian Accommodation

 Bridge Roadway Width Travel Lane Cross Slope Median Width

Grade Rollover Horizontal Clearance

Horizontal Curvature Structural Capacity

SUPERELEVATION:

Counteract the effect of centrifugal force

Normally outer edge is raised.

e+f = V2/ (127 R), V in km/h, normally f=0.15

e=V2/(225R), neglecting f, and 75% deign speed

max 7%

same formula for curvature

AAHTO – recommendations for reaction time of braking and numeral on that.

Camber calculations…

Other things to study:

Highway design parameters

Timber moisture content used for joineries etc

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT ESPECIALLY – ROLE OF ENGINEER, PERFORMANCE BOND, INSURANCE, PENALTY
CLAUSE, EOT AND VARIATION

Purpose of prime coat and tack coat in Ashphalting.

 BS 4449 -1997

Grade Yield Strength N/mm2 Identification

250 250 plain bars

Bars shall have two or more series of parallel

460A 460
transverse ribs with the same angle of inclination &
the same direction for each series

Bars shall have two or more parallel tranverse ribs.

460B 460 For bar with two or three rib series , one of the
series shall be at contrary angles to the other, &
the bars with four rib series , two of the series shall
be at contrary angle to other.

Selection Of Test Specimen

The specimen shall be either long 60cm or 20 times dia. Which ever is greater.
Testing Frequency
a) For a cast of 100t three tensile & one rebound test.
b) For a cast greater than 100t three tensile & one rebound test for first 100t and an additional tensile & rebound test for each full (or part over) 30t remaining

ASTM A 615M

GRADE Mpa

Grade 40 (40000 Psi) 300 Mpa

Grade 60 (60000 Psi) 420 Mpa

Grade 75 (75000 Psi) 520 Mpa

REINFORCEMENT DETAILING OF RCC SLABS

pport conditions. Slab may be supported on walls or beams or columns. Slab supported directly by columns are called flat slab.

ly is called One Way Slab. On the other hand, when slab is supported on all four sides and bending take place in two directions are said to be Two Way Slab.

ne way slab main reinforcement is parallel to shorter direction and the reinforcement parallel to longer direction is called distribution steel. In two way slab main reinforcement is provided along both direction.

e held down by restraints or may be allowed to lift up. Additional torsion reinforcement is required at corners when it is restrained against uplifting as shown in Fig.1.

Thickness of the slab is decided based on span to depth ratio specified in IS456-2000. Min reinforcement is 0.12% for HYSD bars and 0.15% for mild steel bars.

The diameter of bar generally used in slabs are: 6 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm.

The maximum diameter of bar used in slab should not exceed 1/8 of the total thickness of slab. Maximum spacing of main bar is restricted to 3 times effective depth or
300 mm whichever is less. For distribution bars the maximum spacing is specified as 5 times the effective depth or 450 mm whichever is less.

Minimum clear cover to reinforcements in slab depends on the durability criteria and this is specified in IS 456-200. Generally 15 mm to 20 mm cover is provided for
the main reinforcements. Alternate main bars can be cranked near support or could be bent at 1800 at the edge and then extended at the top inside the slab as shown in
Fig.1. Curtailment and cranking of bars and is shown in Fig. 2.

Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is simply supported on both edges meeting at that corner and is prevented from lifting unless the consequences of cracking are
negligible. It shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement, each with layer of bars placed parallel to the sides of the slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance of one fifth of the shorter span.
The area of reinforcement per unit width in each of these four layers shall be three quarters of the area required for the maximum mid-span moment per unit width in the slab. Torsion reinforcement equal to
half that described above shall be provided at a corner contained by edges over only one of which the slab is continuous. Torsion reinforcement to be provided is shown in Fig. 3 below.

Fig.5: Slab spanning in two-directions (two-way slab)

Fig.4: Slab spanning in one direction (One-way slab)

The drawing showing the detailing of reinforcement has a plan showing typical reinforcement in both direction and sectional elevations. Typical detailing
of slab is shown in Fig.4 and 5.