OXIDATION

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase

in oxidation state by a molecule, atom or ion
during a reaction.

Oxidation can also be said to be the donation of

electrons to other substances.

Elements which easily lose electrons are said to

be easily oxidized, e.g. are: sodium, magnessium
and iron

Elements that are more reluctant to lose electrons are

not easily oxidized, they hold on to their electrons very
tightly, e.g are: nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine
 Oxidation Process
When an atom or compound is oxidized, its properties
change

An oxidized iron changes from its strong, structurally sound

metal to a brittle, reddish powder.

Oxidation of Iron: Pure unoxidized iron has three electrons

that can be easily removed

.
Fe .
.
 Oxidation Process

When Iron undergoes oxidation, it loses the three electrons

that are easy to remove

.
Fe .
.
 Oxidation Process
After iron has undergone oxidation, it has lost three
electrons. The oxidized form of iron is represented
with a number and a charge (3+).
Fe3+

Oxidation of fruit: When the soft inside of a fruit is

exposed to oxygen in the air, they become oxidized
causing them to break down and turn brown and
make it unappealing to eat.
 Oxidation


Formation of rust on metal surface
Rust free metals
Oxidized Apple
 Other Examples of Oxidation
Electrochemical Reactions:
When a copper wire is placed into a solution
that contains silver ions, electr ons ar e
transferred from the copper metal to the
silver ions.
The copper metal is oxidized, silver metal
whiskers grow onto the copper wire, while
copper ions are released into the solution.
Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) Cu 2+ (aq) +
2Ag(s)
 Other Examples of Oxidation
• Reaction between magnesium metal and
oxygen:
An element combines with oxygen to form
magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

 Reduction
Reduction is the gain in electrons or a decrease in
oxidation state by a molecule, atom or iron.

Reduction can also be defined as a chemical reaction

in which a reactant is reduced, meaning that its
oxidation number decreased.
For e. g.
Zn + 2H + Zn + H
2+ 2

It is reduced because it’s oxidation number changes

from +1 to 0.
 Reduction
• Extraction of iron ore:
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
The iron oxide undergoes reduction (loses
oxygen) to form iron, while the carbon
monoxide is oxidized (gains oxygen) to form
carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent
which removes oxygen from a chemical
species.
 Oxidation reduction
An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction
in
which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom or iron
changes by gaining or losing electrons.

Reduction:
Oxidant + e- Product
(Electrons gained, oxidation number decreases)

Oxidation:
Reductant Product + e-
(Electrons lost, oxidation number increases)
Oxidation and Reduction
 Oxidation and Reduction
Another example of a redox reaction is the
formation of hydrogen f lu oride. This can
be broken down to analyze the oxidation
and reduction of reactants. Hydrogen is
oxidized and loses two electrons, so each
hydrogen becomes positive.

The two electrons are gained by f lu orine,

which is reduced. This makes two
f lu orines negativ e. The oxidation of
hydrogen and reduction of fluorine creates
two ions with opposite charges of +1 and
-1. Opposite charges attract, so they
combine and form hydrogen fluoride
 Oxidation and Reduction
H2 + F 2 2HF
H2 2H+ +2e-
F2 + 2e- 2F-
H2 + F 2 2H+ + 2F- 2HF

The formation of hydrogen fluoride is an

example of a redox reaction
 Oxidation reduction
 Oxidizing agent: (Oxidizes) accepts electrons from other
substances
 Reducing agents (reducer): donates electrons to other
substances.

Electrons do not f low around by themselves, but they must

be
provided by some sources. In soils, the main source of
electrons is carbon atoms of organic matter.

Other common sources of electrons are nitrogen and sulfur

atoms.

Soil microbes often serve as catalysts for the release of

 Oxidation reduction

An example of a redox reaction is rusting. When

rusting happens, oxygen accepts electrons from
iron,
oxygen gets reduced while iron gets oxidized.
The result is a compound called iron oxide or rust.

Fe + O2 Fe2O3
 Oxidation reduction
Other examples of oxidation reduction are:
Cellular respiration: The food we eat is
converted into energy by redox reactions.
During the process of respiration, the carbon
-dioxide is reduced whereas the water is
oxidized
Combustion: During combustion process,
the oxygen present in the atmosphere
bonds with carbon and hydrogen present in
the compound being burned.
During this process, the oxygen present in
the atmosphere is being reduced whereas
the compound which is being burned is
undergoing oxidation
Oxidation reduction

Cellular respiration
Oxidation reduction

Combustion
 Electron Acceptors (Oxidizers) In Soils
Oxygen is the strongest common electron acceptor
and
therefore yields the most energy from it’s reaction
(reduction process).

Oxygen is also the only electrons acceptor that plant

roots can utilize.

When oxygen is available (aerobic condition), it

accepts electrons by the following half reaction:
O + 4 +4H
2 e- + 2HO
2

Here, oxygen is being reduced to water or water

is being oxidized to oxygen
 Electron Acceptors (Oxidizers) In Soils
Fe and Mn: When oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic
conditions), the prominent electron acceptors in soils
and their half reactions may include:
FeOOH (Geothite) + e +3H - Fe + 2H O
+ 2+ 2

Fe O (Hematite) + 2e +6H
2 3
- + 2Fe +3H O or
2+ 2

MnO +2e +4H

2
- + Mn + 2H O
2+ 2

In theory, these reactions will not occur until all

oxygen is consumed from the system. That is the
system must be anaerobic such as in flooded soils.
 Electron Acceptors (Oxidizers) In Soils
When soils are subjected to seasonal flooding,
minerals such as FeOOH and MnO become
2

more soluble and some Fe and Mn may be

2+ 2+

removed by leaching.

Order in which electron acceptor are reduced:

1. O2

2. NO 3
-

3. MnO 2

4. Fe O 2 3

5. CO 2
 Electron Acceptors (Oxidizers) In Soils
SO42- and NO3-:
In the absence of oxygen, SO42- and NO3- can
serve as electron acceptors
SO42- +8e- +10H+ H2S + 4H2O
Smelly gas
This reaction occurs in swampy areas and
H2S
is the main cause for the stinky odour often
associated with swamps.
2NO3- +10e- +12H+ N2gas + 6H2O
 Electron Acceptors (Oxidizers) In Soils
Iron – reduction:
Fe O + 4e +6H
2 3
- + 2Fe + 3H O
2+
2

Iron oxide (red solid) Reduced iron

(colourless in solution)
These reactions yield products that are
unfavourable to agriculture and aquaculture.
Their reduced species are often more toxic
than
the oxidized species.
For example, nitrite (NO ) is more toxic than
2
-

NO , H S is more toxic than SO and Fe ,

3
-
2 4
2- 2+

Mn can cause phytotoxicity in rice paddy.

2+
 Electron donors (reducers) in Soils
Organic matter: The major electron donor in soils
are freshly fallen plant matter and soil organic
matter. If organic matter and plant material are
presented in the most simple way (CHO)n which is
2

the general formula of carbohydrate, then the half

reaction of oxidation is:
CHO2 C + HO +4e ……….eqn. 1
++ 2 -

The other half reaction that completes reaction 1 is

the
electron acceptance by O : 2

O + 4e
2 - 2O 2-

Overall reaction is:

CHO +O
2 2 CO + HO + Energy
2 2
 Electron donors (reducers) in Soils
Inorganic matter: Other electron donors in
soils besides organic matter are: NH3, H2S
and
Fe2+
Fe2+ = Fe3+ + e-
NH3 = N3+ +3H+ = 6e-
H2S = S6+ +2H+ + 8e-
 Buffering Capacity
Buffer capacity (β) is defined as the quantitative measure of the
resistance of a buffer solution to pH change on addition of either
acidic or basic ions or the moles of an acid or base necessary to
change the pH of a solution by 1, divided by the pH change and
the volume of buffer in liters. It is a unitless number.

A buffer resists changes in pH due to the addition of an acid or

base
through consumption of the buffer.

A buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of mixture of

a
weak acid and its conjugate base or vice versa.

The pH of a buffer solution changes very little when a small

amount of strong acid or base is added to it.
 Buffering Capacity
If a strong acid or strong base is added to water, the pH will
change dramatically. Adding a strong acid such as HCl to
water results in the following reaction:
HCl + H O
2 H O+ + Cl-
3

The proton (H+) from the acid binds to neutral water to form
H O+, this raises the concentration of H+ making the solution
3

more acidic with a dramatic drop in pH.

When NaOH is added to water, this leads to extra OH- ions in

the water: NaOH OH- + Na+. The resulting large
concentration of OH- makes the solution more basic which
leads to a dramatic increase in pH.
 Buffering Capacity
A buffer solution consists of a weak acid (HA) with it’s
conjugate base (A-). They do not undergo any reaction that
significantly alter their concentrations.
The acid and conjugate base may react with one another:
HA + A - A + HA
-

When they do, they simply trade places and the

concentrations do not change. HA and A only rarely reacts
-

with water.

However, if a strong base is added to a buffer, the weak

acid will give up it’s H in order to transform the base (OH )
+ -

into water (H O) and the conjugate base:

2

HA + OH - A + HO
-
2

Since the added OH- is consumed by this reaction, the pH

will
change only slightly.
 Buffering Capacity
On the other hand, if a strong acid is added
to
a buffer, the weak base will react with the H+
from the strong acid to form the weak acid
HA:
H + + A- HA
The H+ gets absorbed by the A- instead of
reacting with water to form H3O+ (H+), so
the pH changes only slightly.
 Buffering Capacity
What determines the buffer capacity?
The more A and HA molecule availability, the less of an effect
-

addition of a strong acid or base will have on the pH system. With

the addition of a strong acid such as HCl, initially, the HCl donates
it’s protons to the weak base (A) through the reaction;
-

A + HCl
- HA +Cl -

This changes the pH by lowering the ratio [A/HA], but as long as

-

there is still a lot of A present, the change in pH will be small.

-

But if one keeps adding HCl, the weak base A will eventually run
-

out. Once the A is gone, any additional HCl will donate its proton
-

to water.
HCl + H O
2 H O+ + Cl.
3
-

This will dramatically increase the concentration (H+) and so pH

Will decrease.
Buffering Capacity
 Buffering Capacity
Similarly, a buffer will break when the amount of
strong base added is too large it consumes all the weak
acid.
A solution with more weak acid (HA) has a higher
buffer capacity for addition of strong base.

The ability of buffer to absorb strong acid or base is

determined by the individual concentration of A-and
-

HA.

Maximum buffer capacity is the amount of acid or base

that can be added to a system before the pH changes
beyond that of what the system can tolerate.
 Uses of Buffer Solutions
• B ic arb on at e b u fferin g syst em u sed t o
regulate the pH of blood.
• Ne c e ssar y t o k e e p t h e c o r r e c t p H fo r
enzymes in many organisms to work.
• Many enzymes work only under precise
conditions
• If the pH moves outside of a narrow range,
the enzymes slow or stop working.
• Buffer solutions are used in fermentation
processes an d in settin g th e correct
conditions for dyes used in colouring fabrics.
• Buffer solutions are used in chemical analysis
and calibration of pH meters.
 Saline Soil
Saline soil can be def in ed as a non-sodic
soil
c on tai n i n g s u f fic i en t s ol u bl e s al ts to
adversely
affect the growth of most crops.

The lower limit of electrical conductivity in

the saturation extract of such soils is 4dS m -1

(deci Siemens per meter).

Though sensitive plants are affected at

about
half this salinity and highly tolerant ones at
 Saline Soil
In field conditions saline soils can be
recognized by spotty growth of crops and
presence of white salt crusts on the surface.
Causes of Salinization
Salinization is the process of increasing the
salt
content of a soil.
 Salts occur naturally in the soil and water
 Salinization can be caused by natural
processes such as mineral weathering
 By gradual withdrawal of an ocean
 Irrigation
Saline Soil
 Saline Soil
Soluble salts commonly present in saline soils
are :
 The chlorides and sulphates of sodium,
calcium and magnessium
 Nitrates may be present in appropriate
quantities only rarely
 Sodium and chloride are by far the most
dominant ions, particularly in highly saline
soils
 Many saline soils contain appreciable
quantities of gypsum in the profile
 Saline Soil
Dry land salinity: This can occur when the water
table
is between two and three meters from the surface of
the soil.
The salts from ground water are raised by capillary
action to the surface of the soil.
This occurs when:
• Ground water is saline
• When more rainwater is allowed to enter the
aquifer than it could accommodate
• Trees are cleared for agriculture, deep rooting of
trees is replaced by shallow rooting of annual
crops
• Salts may accumulate leading to naturally saline
soils
 Saline Soil
Salinity due to Irrigation: Salinity from irrigation can
occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since almost
all
water including rainfall contains some dissolved salts.

When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in
the soil and eventually begin to accumulate.

Salinity makes it difficult for plants to absorb moisture

These salts must be leached out of the plant root zone by

applying additional water in excess of plant use

Water in excess of plant use is known as leaching

fraction
 Saline Soil
Salinization through weathering: As soil
minerals weather and release salts over
long
periods of time, these salts are flushed or
leached out of the soil by drainage water in
areas with sufficient precipitation.

In addition to mineral weathering, salts are

also deposited via dust and precipitation.
 Saline Soil
Consequences of Salinity:
 Detrimental effects on plant growth and
yield
 Damage to infrastructure (road, bricks,
corrosion of pipes and cables)
 Reduction of water quality for users,
sedimentation
 Soil erosion
 Salinity and Plant growth
• Excess soil salinity causes poor and spotty
stands of crops, uneven and stunted growth
and poor yields. The extent depends on salinity.
• The primary effect of excess salinity is that it
renders less water available to plants, although
some is made available to the root zone.
• This is because the osmotic pressure of the
soil solution increases as the salt
concentration increases
• Excess concentration and individual ions may
prove toxic to the plants and/or may retard the
absorption of other essential nutrients.
 Crop Tolerance of Soil Salinity
Yields of most crops are not significantly
affected where salt levels are 0 to 2 dS/m.

A level of 2 to 4 dS/m affects some crops.

Levels of 4 to 5 dS/m affects many crops.

Above 8 dS/m affect all except the very

tolerant crops
 Treatment of Saline Soils
Saline soils can only be reclaimed by removing
salts from the plant root zone. In some cases,
selecting salt tolerance crops may be needed
in addition to managing soils.
There are three ways to manage Saline soil:
 Leaching requirement: Moving salts below
the root zone by applying more water than
the plant needs
 C omb in at ion of leac h in g requ iremen t
meth od w ith ar tif ic ial drain age: Wh ere
shallow water tables limit the use of leaching.
Artif icial drainage may be needed. Drainage
ditches may be constructed below the water
level to channel away drainage water and
allow the salts to leach out.
 Treatment of Saline Soils
 Managed accumulation: Movement of
salts away from the root zone to locations
in the soil, other than below the root zone
where they are not harmful.

Salt Toleran t Crops : Crops wh ich can

tolerate salinity are called Halophytes.
Examples are: Sunflower, Tomatoes, Brocolli,
Apple, Sweet corn, Potatoes, Cabbage
 Alkaline Soils
Alkaline soils are clay soils with high pH (>8.5
), a
poor soil structure and a low inf il tration
capacity.

They often have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5

to 1 meter depth.

Alkaline soils owe their unfavorable physico

chemical properties mainly to the dominating
presence of sodium carbonate, which causes
the soil to swell and difficult to settle.
 Alkaline Soils
Because alkaline soil is less soluble than
acidic
or neutral soil, availability of many plant
nutrients in soil such as iron, zinc, copper
and
manganese is reduced, because of this,
stunted
growth and nutrient deficiency are common.

Iron chlorosis in plants caused by

inadequate
iron, is a common problem in alkaline soils.
 Causes of Soil Alkalinity
• Over liming acidic soils

• Using alkaline irrigation water

• Alkaline soils are primarily caused by a

calcium carbonate rich parent material
weathering (developing) in an arid or dry
environment
 Treatment of Alkaline Soils
 Fertilizers can be added to soil to increase
concentrations of plant nutrients, however,
addition of phosphate fertilizer alone will
further reduce the availability of other
nutrients.
 Lowering of the pH of alkaline soils or
acidifying the soil: Elemental sulfur can be
added to soil as it forms sulfuric acid
when it reacts with water and oxygen in
the presence of sulfur – oxidizing bacteria.
 Iron and aluminium compounds can be
added to soil, as they cause the release of
hydrogen when they react with water
 Treatment of Alkaline Soils
 Addition of appreciable amount of organic
matter will help to acidify the soil as microbes
decompose the material releasing CO2 which
then forms carbonic acid. Organic acids are
also released during humus decomposition.
 Application of acidifying fertilizers, such as
ammonium sulfate, can help lower soil pH.
Ammonium is nitrif ie d by soil bacteria into
nitrate and hydrogen ions.
 Choosing plants that tolerate alkalinity:
Ve g e t ab le p lan t s su c h as c ab b ag e ,
caulif lo wer, carrots, lettuce, spinach grow
well in soils between pH 7 and 8.
 Sodic Soils
Sodic soils are soils containing an exchageable sodium
percentage (ESP) greater than 15%.

Sodic soils are characterized by a disproportionately high

concentration of sodium (Na) in their cation exchange
complex.

They exhibit poor physical and chemical properties which

impede water infiltiration, water availability and ultimately
plant growth.

Sodic soils lack appreciable quantities of neutral salts, but

contains appreciable quantities of salts capable of alkaline
hydrolysis e. g. sodium carbonate.
 Sodic Soils
Under field conditions, after an irrigation or rainfall,
sodic soils typically have convex surfaces.

The soil a few centimeters below the surface may be

saturated with water while at the same time, the
surface is dry and hard.

Upon dehydration, cracks 1-2 cm across and several

centimeters deep form and close when wetted.

The cracks generally appear at the same place on the

surface each time the soil dries unless it has been
disturbed mechanically.
 Sodic Soils and Plant Growth
Plant growth is adversely affected in sodic soils
due to one or more of the following factors:
i. excess exchangeable sodium in sodic soils
has a marked inf luence on the physical soil
properties. As the proportion of
exchangeable sodium increases, the soil
tends to become more dispersed which
results in the breakdown of soil aggregates
and lowers the permeability of the soil to air
and water.
Dispersion also results in the formation of
dense, impermeable surface crusts that
hinder the emergence of seedlings.
 Sodic Soils and Plant Growth
ii. A second effect of sodic soil on plant
growth is through it’s effect on soil pH. High
pH of sodic soils frequently results in
lowering the availability of some essential
plant nutrients e. g. Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Mn, Zn.
iii. Accumulation of certain elements in plants
at toxic levels may result in plant injury or
reduced growth and even death. Elements
more commonly toxic in sodic soils include
sodium, molybdenum and boron.
 Management of Sodic Soils
Reclamation or management of sodic soils
require the removal of part or most of the
exchangeable sodium and it’s replacement by
calcium ions in the root zone. This can be
achieved by:
1. Application of Gypsum or calcium chloride
which directly supply soluble calcium for the
replacement of exchangeable sodium, or
other substances, such as sulphuric acid
and sulphur that indirectly through chemical
or biological action, make the relatively
insoluble calcium carbonate commonly
found in sodic soils, available for
replacement of sodium.
 Management of Sodic Soils
2. Application of Organic Materials: The
decomposition of organic matter and plant
root action help dissolve the calcium
compounds found in most soils.
3. Planting of Sodic Soil Tolerant Crops:
Examples of such crops are: rice, wheat,
barley, tomatoes

SUNNYWISE