Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer

Chapter 2: F. Incropera, D. Dewitt, T. Bergman, A.

Lavine, 7th Edition

INTRODUCTION TO CONDUCTION

[ME421] Heat Transfer Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction

 Recall from “Chapter 1” that conduction:

 Refers to the transport of energy in a medium (solid or stationary
fluid) due to a temperature gradient.
 The physical mechanism is random atomic or molecular activity.
 Governed by Fourier’s law and that use of the law to determine
the heat flux depends on knowledge of the matter in which
temperature varies within the medium.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction

 In this chapter we will learn

 The conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law).
 The thermal properties of matter.
 How to obtain the temperature distribution using the heat
diffusion equation.
 How to apply the boundary and initial conditions.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 3 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction

 Objectives
 1st objective: to develop a deeper understanding of
Fourier’s law.
 What are its origins?

 What form does it take for different geometries?

 How does it proportionality constant (the thermal

conductivity) depends on the physical nature of the
medium?

 2nd objective: to developed, from the basic principle, the

general equation, termed the heat equation, which governs
the temperature distribution in a medium.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation

 2.1 The Conduction Rate

Equation
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

[ME421] Heat Transfer 5 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Fourier’s Law: What are its origins?
 Fourier's law is phenomenological; that is, it is developed
from observed phenomena rather than being derived from first
principles.
 Rate of heat transfer (W):
T T
qx  A qx  kA
x x
T1 > T2
As x0,
dT
Figure 2.1 Steady-state heat conduction experiment.
qx  kA (2.1)
dx
 Remember: Heat transfer is in the  Heat flux (W/m2)
direction of decreasing temperature such
that dT/dx is always negative  the minus q dT
sign in the rate equation provides a positive q"x  x  k (2.2)
”
qx or q x. A dx
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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Fourier’s Law: What form does it take for
different geometries?
"
 Fourier's law is a directional quantity; the direction of q x is
normal to the cross-sectional area A.
 In general, the direction of heat flow will always be normal to a
surface of constant temperature, called an isothermal
surface. The lines of constant T are called isotherms.

Isotherm

Figure 2.2 The relationship between

coordinate system., heat flow direction, and
temperature gradient in one dimension.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 7 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Fourier’s Law: What form does it take for
different geometries?
 The heat flux is a vector quantity; more general
representation of the Fourier's law in a
multidimensional conduction is:
T ˆ T ˆ T
q  kT  k (iˆ j k ) (2.3)
x y z
T(x,y,z): scalar temperature field.
: Three-dimensional del operator.
 ˆ ˆ
  (iˆ  j k ) Figure 2.3 The heat flux vector
x y z normal to an isotherm in a two-
dimensional coordinate system.
 It is implicit in Equation 2.3 that the medium in which the conduction occurs is isotropic
medium  values of thermal conductivity is independent of the coordinate direction.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 Fourier’s Law: What form does it take for
different geometries?
T
 The heat flux in direction n* is expressed as: qn"  k (2.4)
n
 Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components;

q"  (iq ˆ ")

ˆ "x  ˆjq"x  kq (2.5)
x
T
q"x  k (2.6a)
x
T
q"y  k (2.6b)
y
T
q"z  k (2.6c) Figure 2.3 The heat flux vector
z normal to an isotherm in a two-
* n is normal to the isotherm dimensional coordinate system.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 9 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction

 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation

 Heat Flux Components
 Cartesian Coordinates: T(x, y, z)
T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
q  kT  k i k j k k (2.5+6)
x y z
qx qy qz

 Cylindrical Coordinates: T(r, , z)

T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
q  kT  k ir k j k k (2.24+25)
r r z
qr q qz

 Spherical Coordinates: T(r, , )

T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
q  kT  k ir k j k k (2.27+28)
r r r sin 
qr q q

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation

 2.2 The Thermal Properties of

Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

[ME421] Heat Transfer 11 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter

 Fourier’s Law: How does it’s proportionality

constant depends on the physical nature of the
medium?
 To use Fourier’s law, the thermal conductivity of the
material must be known.
 The thermal conductivity, k (W/mK), is a transport
property:
(a) Provides an indication of the rate at which energy is
transferred by the diffusion process.
(b) It depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and
molecular, which is related to the state of the matter.
(c) Usually assumed to be isotropic (independent of the
direction of transfer): kx = ky =kz = k (go back to slide 8).

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
 Fourier’s Law: How does it’s proportionality
constant depends on the physical nature of the
medium?
 Is thermal conductivity different between gases,
liquids and solids?
 In general, ksolid > kliquid > kgas.
 ksolid may be more than four
orders of magnitude larger than
kgas This trend is due largely to
the differences in intermolecular
spacing for the two states.

Figure 2.4 Range of thermal conductivity for various

states of matter at normal temperatures and pressure,

[ME421] Heat Transfer 13 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
A. The Solid State
 Solid comprised of free electrons and atoms bound in lattice.
 Thermal energy transported through:
 Migration of free electrons, ke
 Lattice vibrational waves, kph
1
k  ke  k ph (2.8) ke 
electrical resistivity, (e )
 Kinetic theory yields the following expression for the thermal
conductivity:
C : electron specific heat per unit volume
1 c : mean electron velocity
k  C c λ mfp (2.7)  : electron mean free path (average
3 distance traveled before a collision)

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
A. The Solid State
 The temperature dependence
of k is shown in Figure 2.5 for
representative metallic and
nonmetallic solids.
 Values of k in Appendix:
 Tables A.1: Metallic solids
 Table A.2 and A.3:
Nonmetallic solids.

Figure 2.5 The temperature dependence of

the thermal conductivity of selected solids.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 15 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
B. The Fluid State
 The fluid state includes both liquids and gases.
 Intermolecular spacing is much larger and
molecular motion is more random for the fluid state
than for solid state.
 Thermal energy transport less effective than in
solids.
 The thermal conductivity of fluids is lower
than that of solids.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
B.1 The Gas State
 Kinetic theory of gases: relates the effect of
temperature, pressure, and chemical species on the
thermal conductivity of a gas.
1
k gas  cv  c λ mfp cv : specific heat per unit volume
3 c : mean molecular speed
(2.10)  : mean free path (average distance
traveled before a collision)

 Values of k are presented in Appendix A, Tables A.4.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 17 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
B.1 The Gas State
1
k gas  cv  c λ mfp (2.10)
3 k  nc 

What are the effects of

temperature, molecular
weight and pressure on the
thermal conductivity?????

Figure 2.8 The temperature dependence of the

thermal conductivity of selected gases at normal
pressure. Molecular weights (M ) of the gases are
also shown.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
B.2 The Liquid State
 Physical mechanisms controlling
thermal conductivity not well
understood in the liquid state.
 Generally k decreases with
increasing temperature (exceptions
are water, engine oil and glycerine).
 k decreases with increasing
molecular weight (M).
 Values tabulated as function of
temperature. See Tables A.5 and
Tables A.6.
Figure 2.9 The temperature dependence
of the thermal conductivity of selected
nonmetallic liquids under saturated
conditions.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 19 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
C. Insulation Systems
 Thermal insulations are
comprised of low thermal
conductivity materials combined
to achieve an even lower system
thermal conductivity (Table A.3).

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity
C. Insulation Systems
 In fiber-, powder-, and fake-type insulations, the solid
material is finely dispersed throughout an air space.
 Such systems are characterized by an effective thermal
conductivity, which depends on:
 The thermal conductivity and surface radiative properties of the
solid material
 The nature and volumetric fraction of the air or void space.
 Examples are foamed systems
(made of plastic and glass
materials) and reflective
insulations (sheets or foils of
high reflectively)
 Several modes of heat transfer
through insulation systems may
include conduction, convection,
and radiation.

[ME421]
Figure: Heat Transfer
Cement-bonded wood fiber thermal insulation Dr. Alia H. Marafie
21 panel.

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties
 In our analysis of heat transfer problems, several properties of
matter will be used. These properties referred to as
thermophysical properties of matter.
 Thermophysical properties of matter are:
1. Transport properties: includes the diffusion rate coefficients such
as,
 k, the thermal conductivity (for heat transfer),
 , kinematic viscosity (for momentum transfer),
 D, diffusion coefficient (for mass transfer).
2. Thermodynamic properties: relating to equilibrium state of a
system. (i.e. density, , specific heat cp).
  cp (J/m3·K), The volumetric heat capacity, measures the ability of
a material to store thermal energy.
 Many solids and liquids are very good energy storage media ( cp > 1
MJ/m3·K).
 Gases have very low energy storage ( cp  1 kJ/m3·K).
 Densities and specific heats are provided in tables of Appendix A.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties
 Thermal diffusivity (, m2/s) is a measure of a material’s ability
to respond to changes in its thermal environment and defined as the
ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat capacity:
k

c p
 Also the thermal diffusivity measures of the ability of a material
to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal
energy:
 Large  : material will respond quickly to change in their
environment.
 Small  : material will take longer time to reach a new
equilibrium condition.
 The accuracy of engineering calculations depends on the accuracy
with which the thermophysical properties are know.

Resolve Example 2.1 in the textbook.

[ME421] Heat Transfer 23 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter

 2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 A major objective is a conduction analysis is to determine the
temperature filed in a medium resulting from conditions
imposed on its boundaries.
 That is, we wish to know the temperature distribution,
which represents how temperature varies with position in the
medium.
 Recall from Chapter 1:

 Heat rate in the dT

x-direction qx  kA
dx
 Heat flux in the q dT
x-direction q"x   k
A dx
Figure 1.3 One-dimensional heat transfer
by conduction (diffusion of energy).

[ME421] Heat Transfer 25 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 How to determine the temperature
distribution?
1. APPLY the conservation of energy to a differential
control volume.
2. IDENTFY the relevant energy transfer process (conduction in
this case) and introduce the appropriate rate equation.
3. RESULT a differential equation whose solution provides the
temperature distribution in a stationary medium named the
heat diffusion equation.

Figure 2.11 Differential control volume, dx, dy, dz, for

conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
dEst 
1. Energy conservation equation: E in  E g  E out   Est
dt (1.11a)
2. Energy transfer process and rate equations:
2.1 The rate of energy inflow and outflow of the CV:
Ein  qx  qy  qz (2.a) Eout  qx dx  qy dy  qz dz (2.b)

 The conduction rate equations may

be evaluated from Fourier’s law,
T T
qx  kAx   k (dydz )
x x (2.18a)
Homogenous medium T T
with no bulk motion q y  kAy  k (dxdz )
y y (2.18b)
T T
Figure 2.11 Differential control qz  kAz  k (dxdy )
volume, dx, dy, dz, for conduction
[ME421] Heat coordinates.
Transfer 27
z Dr. AliaH.
z Marafie
(2.18c)
analysis in Cartesian

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
The conduction heat rates at the opposite surface can be expressed as a
Taylor series expansion (neglecting the higher order terms),
qx
qx  dx  qx  dx (2.13a)
x
q
q y  dy  q y  y dy (2.13b)
y
q
qz  dz  qz  z dz (2.13c)
z

Figure 2.11 Differential control

volume, dx, dy, dz, for conduction
[ME421]
analysis Heat coordinates.
in Cartesian Transfer 28 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

2.2 The rate of thermal energy generation: E g  q dV  q (dx dy dz )

q : rate of energy generation / volume (W/m3)
(2.14)
 Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated
 Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed.
 T 
2.3 The rate of thermal energy storage: E st  c p (dx dy dz )
 t   
(2.15)
 c p T t : time rate of change
of the sensible (thermal) energy of
the medium / volume (W/m3).

Figure 2.11 Differential control

volume, dx, dy, dz, for conduction
[ME421]
analysis Heat coordinates.
in Cartesian Transfer 29 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 Substituting Equations 2.a-b, 2.1315 and 2.18 in Equation 1.11a
and dividing out the dimensions of the control volume (dx, dy, dz),
we obtain “General form of the Heat Diffusion equation in
Cartesian coordinates”
 T  T  T T
(k )  (k )  ( k )  q   cp (2.19)
x x y y z z Thermal
t
Net transfer of thermal energy into the control volume energy Change in thermal
(inflow-outflow) generation energy storage

 The net conduction heat flux into the control volume for the x-
coordinate direction is
 T
(k )  qx"  qx"  dx (2.20)
x x
 Equation 2.19 states that at any point in the medium, the net rate of
energy transfer by conduction into a unit volume plus the volumetric
rate of thermal energy generation must equal the rate of change of
thermal energy stored within the volume.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
 Other forms of the heat diffusion equation
 Constant thermal conductivity (k),

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
    (2.21)
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
 Steady-state conditions,
  T    T    T 
k   k    k   q  0 (2.22)
x  x  y  y  y  z 
 For steady-state conditions, one-dimensional transfer in x-
direction and no energy generation

d  dT  dq"x
 k   0 (2.23) or 0  Heat flux is constant in the
dx  dx  " dx direction of transfer
qx
[ME421] Heat Transfer 31 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

Cylindrical Coordinates:
1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr  2  k   k   q  c p
r r  r  r     z  z  t
(2.26)

Figure 2.12 Differential control volume,

dr · rd · dz, for conduction analysis in
cylindrical coordinates (r, , z ).

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

Spherical Coordinates:
1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
2 r 
kr  2 2  k   2  k sin    q  c p
r  r  r sin      r sin      t

Resolve Example 2.3 in the textbook. (2.29)

Figure 2.13 Differential control volume,

dr · r sin  d · r d, for conduction
analysis in spherical coordinates (r, ,  ).

[ME421] Heat Transfer 33 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Summary of Heat Diffusion Equations

Coordinate Heat Diffusion Equations

Cartesian  T  T  T T
(x, y, z) (k )  (k )  ( k )  q   c p (2.19)
x x y y z z t
Cylindrical
1   T  1   T    T  T
(r, , z )  kr  2  k   k   q  c p
r r  r  r     z  z  t
(2.26)
Spherical (r, ,  )
1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
2 r 
kr  2 2  k   2  k sin    q  c p
r  r  r sin      r sin      (2.29) t

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation
 2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter
 2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

 2.4 Boundary and Initial

Conditions

[ME421] Heat Transfer 35 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 To determine the temperature distribution in a
medium, ones need to:
1st: Formulate the appropriate heat equation
(done in section 2-3).
2nd: Solve the heat equation based on:
 The physical conditions existing at the boundaries of the
medium, the boundary conditions.
 If time dependent, on conditions existing in the medium
at some initial time, the initial conditions.

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

 T  T  T T
(k )  (k )  ( k )  q   c p (2.17)
x x y y z z t
 The heat equation is:
 First order in time; only one initial condition must be
specified.
 Second order in spatial coordinate; two boundary
conditions must be expressed for each coordinate needed to
describe the system.
 For transient conduction, an initial temperature distribution
is expressed as:
T  x, t t 0  T  x,0 

[ME421] Heat Transfer 37 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions
Boundary conditions for the heat diffusion equation at
the surface (x=0)
1. Constant Surface Temperature: 3. Convection

T  0, t   Ts
T
k |x 0  h T  T  0, t   (2.31)
(2.29) x
2. Constant Heat Flux:
(a) Applied Flux (b) Insulated Surface

T T
k |x 0  qs (0) | x 0  0 (2.31)
x (2.30) x
[ME421] Heat Transfer Resolve Example38
2.4 in the textbook. Dr. Alia H. Marafie

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 2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions


[ME421] Heat Transfer 39 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

2. Introduction to Conduction
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 Problem 2.34: One-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform
internal energy generation occurs in a plane wall with a thickness of 40 mm
and a constant thermal conductivity of 5 W/m·K. for these conditions, the
temperature distribution has the uniform, T(x) = a +bx +cx2. The surface at
x = 0 has a temperature of T(0)  To = 130C and experiences convection
with a fluid from which T = 30C and h = 500 W/m2 · K. The surface at x =
L is well insulated.
(a) Applying an over all energy balance to the wall, calculate the internal
energy generation rate,
q
(b) Determine the coefficients a, b, and c by applying the boundary conditions
to the prescribed temperature distribution. Use the results to calculate and plot
the temperature distribution.
(c) Consider conditions for which the convection coefficient is halved, but the
internal energy generation rate remains unchanged. Determine the new
values of a, b, and c, and use the results to plot the temperature distribution.
Hint: recognize that T(0) is no longer 120C.
(d) See the textbook and work it out at home.
Solution:
[ME421] Heat Transfer 40 Dr. Alia H. Marafie

20
 End of Chapter 2:
Introduction to
Conduction

After carefully reading Chapter 2 in the

textbook, make sure to read the summary at
the end of chapter and resolve all the
chapter’s examples.

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