Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Review

Advanced and smart protection schemes in renewable integrated power

systems: A survey and new perspectives
Sirwan Shazdeh a, * , Hêmin Golpîra b , Hassan Bevrani a
a
SMGRC, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, P.C.: 66177-15175, Iran
b
Power Systems Modeling & Simulation Lab., Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj 66177-15175, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The reliable operation of modern power systems faces numerous challenges, including wide-area disturbances,
Wide-area disturbances protection system misoperation, complex interconnected configurations, limited stability margins, variable
Stress conditions renewable energy resources, and increasing energy demands. However, advancements in measurement devices,
Power swing
computation, and communication technologies present opportunities for constructing smart grids and imple­
Voltage instability
menting effective wide-area monitoring, protection, and control systems. To address these challenges, extensive
Out-of-step conditions
Phasor measurement units research has been conducted on utilizing wide-area information to enhance protection and monitoring systems
Wide-area measurement systems and provide a comprehensive understanding of the power system status for control centers to prevent undesirable
Wide-area monitoring and protection conditions. This paper provides a comprehensive review of existing work in the areas of wide-area monitoring
and protection, with a particular focus on balancing security and reliability in protection systems, supervising
distance protection systems, wide-area protection against out-of-step conditions, voltage profile monitoring, and
addressing issues related to integrating renewable energy resources. By examining the benefits and challenges of
wide-area monitoring and protection systems in modern power systems, this review aims to identify opportu­
nities for future research and development in this field.

stability margin, which presents significant challenges to ensuring its

1. Introduction reliable operation.
To ensure the reliable operation, protection systems play a vital role
1.1. Problem statement as the backbone of a power system [3]. Nevertheless, protection systems
often encounter operational difficulties, including mis-operation and
The increasing availability of advanced measurement devices, malfunction [4].
communication infrastructures, and computation methods has facili­ In the realm of power systems, protection systems play a crucial role
tated more efficient monitoring and management of power systems. in safeguarding the network against various faults and disturbances.
Furthermore, the integration of RESs into power systems, motivated by These systems, comprising relays such as distance, overcurrent, voltage,
environmental considerations and the opportunity for localized gener­ and frequency-based relays, operate according to predetermined pro­
ation, has necessitated changes in traditional power system dynamics. tection zones established through measurements of voltage, current,
These elements, along with the adoption of intelligent control centers, impedance, and frequency. When the measured variables fall within the
form the core elements of modern power systems [1]. specified zone, the protected area is isolated from the rest of the power
However, modern power systems face challenges stemming from system by activating the corresponding relay at a precise moment.
their complexity, the growing energy demand, economic and environ­ It is worth mentioning that protection systems function in dual ca­
mental constraints, and reduced inertia due to IBERs penetration [2]. pacities: primary and backup. In the primary role, the relay’s instanta­
Despite the emergence of advanced monitoring and computation sys­ neous action ensures the protection of the main protected area.
tems, the performance of power systems is still subjected to unprece­ Conversely, the backup operation serves to compensate for any failures
dented disturbances that have to be controlled. Furthermore, a modern in the adjacent primary protection devices, employing a coordinated
power system operates under heavy loading conditions and has a low delay time action. As a result, the backup protection is tasked with

This work was supported in part by Smart/Micro Grids Research Center (SMGRC), University of Kurdistan. website: https://smgrc.uok.ac.ir/.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Shazdeh), [email protected] (H. Golpîra), [email protected] (H. Bevrani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2024.110832
Received 19 December 2023; Received in revised form 8 June 2024; Accepted 18 June 2024
Available online 3 July 2024
0378-7796/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

Nomenclature OOS Out-of-step

PMU Phasor measurement units
RES Renewable energy sources FIDVR Fault-induced delayed voltage recovery
IBER Inverter-based energy resources STVS Short-term voltage stability
WAMPAC Wide-area monitoring, protection, and control VSA Voltage stability assessment
WAPS Wide-area protection systems TVSI Transient voltage severity index
WAMS Wide-area measurement systems VSRI Voltage stability risk index
RoCoF Rate of change of frequency TVI Trajectory violation index
SMT Synchrophasor measurement technologies CSI Contingency severity index
RTU Remote terminal units FACTS Flexible AC transmission system
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition center WAMP Wide-area monitoring and protection
WAMPAC Wide-area monitoring, protection, and control AI Artificial intelligent
GPS Global positioning system EAC Equal-area criterion

disconnecting a broader area in comparison to the primary protection. the undesired operation of backup protection systems, as they have an
Nevertheless, the reliable and secure operation of protection systems undeniable impact on the initiation and propagation of cascading out­
can be influenced by various factors, which are outlined below [5]: ages and blackouts.
In this connection, wide-area disturbances with symmetrical
intrinsic, similar to three-phase faults, are continuously exposed to the
1. Measurement errors originating from voltage and current power system, having destructive impacts on the correct operation of the
transformers. protection systems. These disturbances must be urgently identified and
2. The integration of RESs with limited current injection and FACTs, limited. Power swing, voltage stress, and load encroachment constitute
leading to over/under-reach in protection. the most significant wide-area disturbances. When there is an imbalance
3. The complex and variable configurations found in modern power between generation and demand caused by a disturbance, the rotor
systems necessitate sophisticated studies for accurate zone angle of one or more SGs begins oscillating in contrast to the rotor angles
setting. of the other SGs, as it seeks a new equilibrium operating point or returns
4. The inadequacy of conventional protection zone setting ap­ to its previous one. Consequently, the oscillation of the rotor angle re­
proaches in adapting to evolving system conditions. sults in the swing of the SG’s output active power, which propagates
5. Malfunctioning components within relays and inaccurate internal throughout the power system via the transmission system [6]. This
configurations resulting in hidden failures. phenomenon, known as power swing, leads to voltage and current de­
6. Frequent wide-area disturbances, such as power swings, voltage viations that affect the measured impedance by distance relays, often
stresses, and load encroachment, which exhibit similar charac­ resulting in undesired tripping commands.
teristics to symmetrical faults. Additionally, voltage stress refers to a condition where the voltage at
7. Human errors introduced during operation, threshold definition, one or more buses exceeds the acceptable limit. This issue has impli­
and maintenance of the protection systems. cations for impedance and voltage-based protection systems. In such
cases, voltage-stressed conditions can cause the measured impedance to
These factors exert a detrimental impact on the performance of violate predefined zones and trigger unwanted tripping commands [7].
protection systems and can give rise to undesirable situations, including Moreover, when operational transmission lines experience overload
cascading outages and blackouts. Thus, it is imperative to address these from maximum power transmission, the voltage declines inversely to the
challenges through enhanced design strategies and advanced technolo­ current. This scenario diminishes the perceived impedance measured by
gies to ensure the effective functioning of protection systems in power the relays and leads to the intrusion of distance zones, notably zone 3,
networks. identified as load encroachment [8].
In a modern power system with a low stability margin, any mistakes Each of these disturbances can cause the measured variable, involved
from the protection devices can cause the worst conditions and uncon­ in a protective relay, to enter into the predetermined protection zones
trolled cascading outages. Based on established reports, significant and result in the protection misoperation [9]. This issue challenges the
blackouts often result from the undesired operation of zone 3 in distance reliability of the protection system, including the dependability and
relays. Zone 3 of a distance relay can encompass not only the main line security, with considerable challenges. In the rest of the paper, the at­
but also one or more subsequent lines, depending on the protection tempts to deal with these phenomena and improve the performance of
zone. Consequently, when zone 3 of a distance relay is triggered, a the backup protection of the distance relay will be further discussed
substantial area becomes disconnected from the rest of the power sys­ based on the state of the art and trends in this area.
tem, resulting in an overload on the remaining adjacent lines as they Accordingly, it is imperative to focus on improving the performance
attempt to transmit maximum power. Conversely, loading the trans­ of protection systems. This improvement should encompass both local
mission line near its permissible limit causes it to approach the imped­ protection methods and those based on WAMSs.
ance measured by the distance relay, thereby reaching the boundary of In this regard, the recent advancements in WAMPAC systems have
zone 3. This issue reduces the safe operating margin and increases the enabled a broad perspective of power system performance, leading to
vulnerability of zone 3 in distance relays, thereby jeopardizing their more informed decision-making. However, while these technologies
secure operation [4]. have been widely adopted to improve the reliability and security of
Thus, all the aforementioned factors that impact the protection sys­ modern power systems, they are not capable of meeting the instanta­
tems, pose a significant threat to the reliable performance of zone 3 in neous and fast requirements of primary protection systems due to
distance relays. Consequently, as a backup protection system, zone 3 communication delays [10]. Therefore, there is a need to enhance local
must adhere to all protection requirements, including sensitivity, secu­ protection systems with advanced and suitable methods.
rity, and dependability, with utmost precision and effectiveness. Despite the WAMPAC systems benefits, existing communication
Consequently, it is imperative to present advanced methods that prevent platforms can face with the risk of packet loss, cyber-attacks, and

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communication loss, which can threaten the reliability of WAMPAC range of disturbances.
systems [11]. Additionally, errors and the sampling rate of PMUs, the The comparative analysis of the algorithms introduced in each sec­
most commonly used measurement devices in modern power systems, tion will provide a valuable reference for those seeking to design and
can impact the reliability of protection systems [12,13]. implement protection systems for power grids. Overall, this paper dis­
Therefore, it is crucial to develop and implement advanced protec­ tinguishes itself from other review papers by providing aspects as
tion methods that can supplement WAMSs and improve the reliability of follows:
power systems. These methods should leverage the latest advancements
in computation, communication, and measurement technologies and • an in-depth discussion of the applied variables for each method,
employ suitable techniques to address the challenges associated with • classification of the proposed methods in each research section,
WAMSs. • comparison and requirements of the proposed methods in each
Given these challenges, this review paper aims to discuss recent category,
advancements in local protection systems of distance relays and WAPSs • highlighting the different challenges that arise during stressed con­
during stressed conditions. The paper will consider various approaches ditions, and
and perspectives to address the problems associated with wide-area • discussion about the future trend in presence of IBERs in power
monitoring and protection systems, which are of particular interest to systems.
this review. By examining recent developments and discussing potential
solutions, this paper aims to contribute to advancements of power sys­ 2. Main and common reasons for blackouts
tem protection.
The stressed conditions have a destructive impact on protection
1.2. Existing surveys systems, including the distance, voltage, and overcurrent protection
systems. Furthermore, mis-operation of protection systems usually oc­
In some efforts in this area, authors in [14] analyze the approach of curs at the backup protection level, which protects a wider area than the
wide-area relaying protection, focusing on the fault element identifica­ primary level, leading to increased overloading in adjacent areas. This
tion principle. Authors in [15] explain the developments of protection issue multiplies the risk of cascading outages through more protection
and control strategies roadmap and the future trends for improving mis-operations in the stressed power system.
challenges and communication platforms. Additionally, the review In this context, Fig. 1 illustrates the general process of a blackout in a
paper in [16] generally pays attention to factors such as the architecture power system. However, the overall procedure of a blackout comprises
of the hierarchical protection approach, communication requirements three stages: alarm, emergency, and extreme conditions. Any contin­
and new approaches for the introduction of communication systems, gency occurrence and its consequence countermeasure can reduce the
application areas of the wide-area facilities in the protection systems, withstand capacity of the power system, leading to the so-called alarm
and updated challenges with utilizing wide-area information in pro­ state. Stress conditions following the contingency and relevant coun­
tection aims. termeasures can make the protection systems vulnerable to mis-
Authors in [17] examine the infrastructure requirements of operation and heavy loading. Any mis-operation of the protection sys­
wide-area protection systems. They discuss the computation and sensing tem or undesired/inappropriate remedial actions can lead to the power
advances that have enabled the development of these systems. In addi­ system operation entering the emergency state. Consequently, these
tion, the authors in [18] investigate the characteristics of relays, the conditions result in more risks to the unstable performance and unde­
challenges of power systems, and the application of wide-area moni­ sired operation of protection systems. In this regard, any accomplished
toring in protection systems, with a focus on monitoring the supervisory mistake and undesired/insufficient remedial action in this stage can
backup protection. multiply the acceleration of the cascading outage, leading to a blackout
Moreover, [6] provides insights into the progress of local power [21].
swing protection systems focusing on the power swing. Furthermore, the In general, endeavors to enhance and advance protection schemes
authors in [19] discuss the methods applicable for transient stability can be classified into two main categories: local protection and wide-
prediction for the accurate OOS identification. area protection.
The main idea of the discussed contents in [20] is the concepts and In general, the local approaches for enhancing the security of dis­
properties of different types of wide-area disturbances. The research in tance protection systems can be categorized into two branches: con­
[2] provides a review paper on the applications of wide-area systems in ventional and advanced methods. In the former class, key challenges
power system protection concerning RESs penetration. facing protection systems include efficacy and accuracy problems. Some
In summary, these surveys provide valuable insights into the of these challenges have been explained based on references [22-26],
knowledge regarding WAPSs. They also highlight the challenges and including:
opportunities associated with their implementation. Almost all the
aforementioned review papers deal with opportunities and challenges in • the distinction between stable and unstable power swings,
the presence of the WAMSs. Accordingly, the presented review paper • covering high-frequency power swings,
discusses the updated advanced protection methods with and without • determination of the appropriate locations for unblocking function
WAMSs and highlights the properties of existing methods. during the unstable power swing for controlled islanding,
• high-impedance fault detection during the power swing,
1.3. Contributions and objectives • requirements for overwhelming stability studies for settings
determination,
This paper aims to present updated methods for protection systems • flexibility with the configuration variations in modern power sys­
against wide-area disturbances, focusing on the protection system from tems, and
various perspectives, including OOS conditions, voltage collapse • neglecting the effects of voltage instability on the protection
detection, and advanced monitoring methods in stressed conditions. In operation.
addition, this review paper discusses the technical challenges associated
with these protection methods and provides a comparative analysis of Accordingly, advanced local methods have attracted noticeable
the algorithms introduced in each section. attention to prevent insecure protection operations. The following sub­
The methods discussed in this paper are designed to improve the section refers to the discussion about so far introduced advanced local
reliability of power systems, ensuring that they can withstand a wide schemes in detail.

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Fig. 1. Overall procedure resulting a blackout in the power system.

Advanced local methods Table 1 includes the classified aspects of the aforementioned
Extensive research has been conducted on advanced local methods advanced local methods to improve the distance protection performance
that utilize various variables and approaches, including voltage, current, against stressed conditions.
impedance, and rate of change of these variables. These advanced Regarding the mentioned subjects, local protection approaches uti­
schemes can be categorized into different branches, each targeting lize local information related to the located relay point of view. In this
specific challenges. These challenges include security against power regard, the following points can be introduced as the salient features of
swing, dependability against power swing, security against voltage the locally information-based protection approaches.
degradation, security against load encroachment, and reliability against
stress conditions.

Table 1
Classifications and aspects of the advanced local protection methods.
Objective Used variable Applied analysis consideration ref

Security against power Admittance trajectory Determines the circular center of the trajectory Needs accurate method to find out the center [27]
swing point
Current signal Uses the current signal averaged in a moving window Challenging for high-impedance faults [28]
detection
Dependability against Current signal Projects the time-series sample current into multi-dimensional Vulnerable of the current signal against the [29]
power swing space noise
Current and voltage Compares the voltage and current behavior pattern Challenging for high-impedance faults [30]
detection
Instantaneous active Applies FFT on the active power signal Challenging for high-impedance faults [31]
power detection
Security against stressed Impedance Online setting by monitoring rate of change of impedance and Needs to threshold definition [32]
voltage its direction
impedance Determines the critical relay by two supervisory zones Needs huge studies for the zones and timer [33]
definition and speed of the impedance changes thresholds determinations
Security against load Current and the measured Compares the DC component current and phase angle with Needs huge studies for thresholds [34]
encroachment impedance their relevant thresholds determinations, vulnerable against the noise
Reliability against stress Current signal Applies FFT and discrete wavelet transform to the current Vulnerable against the noise [35]
conditions signal for feature extraction
Current signal Monitors the difference between actual and estimated current Vulnerable against the noise [36]
by Matrix Pencil
ROCOV, voltage, current Compares the ratio of the current changes to the voltage Needs massive studies for threshold definition [7]
changes and ROCOV are with their thresholds
Impedance, current signal Investigates the impedance entrance into the distance zones Needs high sampling rate and challenging for [37]
and status of energy index extracted from the current high-impedance fault detection
Impedance, current signal Compares the phase angle of the impedance and features of the Needs to the threshold definition and fragile [38]
current with their thresholds against the noise
Impedance Compares the measured impedance with predicted one Needs to threshold definition [39]
Apparent power Monitors the secured region related to the apparent power Needs to define the restrain region [40]

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• the lack of need for communication to exchange information and relations in Fig. 3. The WAMSs provide a suitable path for wide-area
mitigation of the delay considerations, monitoring, protection, and control aims [46].
• the elimination of the threats of cyber-attacks through the commu­ The WAMSs provide a suitable path for wide-area monitoring, pro­
nication infrastructures and other problems corresponding to the tection, and control aims [46]. To this end, the WAMS application area,
communication, requirements, architectures, and principal challenges of the WAMSs are
• the fast speed of the computations due to dealing with the low vol­ classified as shown in Fig. 4. In addition to the mentioned WAMPAC
ume of the data and the emerging of the computation technologies aspects in modern power systems, demonstrated in Fig. 4, some other
and analysis tools with high-speed characters, and popular fields indicate wide-broad applications of these systems to
• minimization of the isolated area subjected to the fault occurrence. improve the power system operation. Disturbance detection based on
advanced methods using wide-area data to solve protection and control
Due to these advantages, the local protection approaches are yet problems constructs one of these aspects [47,48]. Moreover, status
known as the backbone of the power system. On the contrary, some determining of power systems based on various schemes are categorized
considerations, listed in the following, have made the need for a su­ in aspects of WAMSs [49]. On the other side, coordinated control and
pervisory level above the local protection systems to guarantee the protection systems using the acquired data from WAMSs have attracted
reliability of the protection requirements. the attention of researchers and industries to enhance power system
reliability [50,51]. Furthermore, optimal PMU placement to provide
• local protection systems do not have a comprehensive view of the sufficient assistance for protection and control intentions needs sub­
entire power system, stantial efforts considering the observability requirements and economic
• they are subjected to frequent measurement errors making the de­ costs [52]. Additionally, WAMS data interpretation and monitoring is
cision unreliable, placed in the class of WAMPAC systems [53].
• they cannot manage multi-functions of protection approaches, and Given the discussion, considerable real-world WAMSs projects all
• their settings can be negatively affected by the configuration changes over the world have been conducted using countries focusing on specific
in the power system. tasks based on their demand for the power system [54–58].
WAMSs employ communication infrastructure, which introduces
Fig. 2 summarizes the overall structure of advanced local distance delays during data transmission. This concern impedes the achievement
protection systems. of the primary protection objectives of wide-area protection systems,
Regarding the mentioned shortages of the local protection ap­ which require instantaneous action upon fault detection. Consequently,
proaches, a supervisory protection level, utilizing data from different wide-area protection systems are utilized as backup protection mecha­
locations of the power system, is necessary to enhance the reliability of nisms, allowing sufficient time for action in response to communication
the protection properties. system delays. In this context, wide-area backup protection systems hold
The properties of the wide-area protection systems are discussed in significant potential for enhancing the performance of conventional
detail in the rest of the paper. protection systems as supervisory systems.
The most prevalent applications of wide-area backup protection
3. WAMSs systems can be categorized into the supervision of protection systems
and the enhancement of their reliability, OOS protection, loss of field
Emerging SMT, improving communication infrastructures, and protection, and emergency control. The first category encompasses fault
advanced computation methods provide attractive and powerful op­ detection, classification, identification, and ensuring the reliable per­
portunities for using WAMSs in monitoring, protection, and control aims formance of the protection system. The reliability of protection systems
[41,42]. The WAMSs provide measured synchronized data from based on WAMSs can be achieved by striking a balance between
different locations of the power system using the GPS with high accuracy dependability and security for backup protection of distance relay,
(1 µs) [2]. One of the most commonly used measurements in the WAMS particularly in stressed conditions. Existing methods of this category are
is the PMU which estimates the phasor, frequency, and RoCoF using discussed in Section VI, with a specific focus on Table 2.
different algorithms with high reporting rates [43-45]. In general, The second category involves the detection and prediction of OOS
PMUs, communication links, communication protocols and standards, conditions based on WAMSs. The methods employed within this cate­
phasor data concentrators, control centers, and analysis tools construct gory are thoroughly examined in Section VII.
significant elements of the WAMS illustrated overall structure and The third category pertains to the protection of the synchronous

Fig. 2. General process of advanced local protection systems.

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Fig. 3. A typical structure of WAMS configuration.

Fig. 4. WAMSs Properties and requirements.

Table 2
Classification of WAPSs based on the protection objective, involved variables, and their approaches.
Objective Ap Ref Contributed Quantities (units)

B (Ω) (Var) (VA) (A) (V)

Fault discrimination from the Power swing DD [59,60,61]*, [62] [63] [66] [62] [63] [67] [63] [65] [67] [68]
stress condition MB [63,67,66,64,65], [64] [61] [62] [59] [60] [62]
Stressed DD [59,60,62] [65]
voltage MB [67,64] [65] [60]
Load DD [59,60,62]
encroach-ment MB [67,64,65,68]
Fault detection and identification concerning DD [69,70,71,72,73,74]*, [72] [77] [70] [74] [80] [81] [69] [80] [81] [70] [73]
measurement errors [75]* [76],* [77,78,79], [78] [79] [71] [72] [75] [76] [76]
MB [80,81]
* All the buses are equipped with PMU. (B): Relay status, (Ω): Impedance,
Ap: Approach (Var): Reactive power, (VA): Apparent power.
DD: Data-driven, (A): Current, (V): Voltage,
MB: Model-based.

generator’s excitation system [82], which holds promise in maintaining islanding [85], and remedial actions [86]. It is important to note that the
power system stability and preventing tie-line tripping. However, this detailed discussion of approaches within this category is not within the
category is beyond the scope of the present paper and will not be scope of this paper.
extensively discussed. It is noteworthy that the wide-area monitoring/stability evaluation
Lastly, the final category encompasses the last-resort corrective and WAPS are considered as interest of the paper in the following.
measures employed to preserve power system stability. Emergency
control systems within this category include voltage and frequency-
based load shedding [83], islanding detection [84], controlled

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4. Standards challenges have prompted protection systems to employ state estimation

procedures to fulfill observability requirements and ensure accurate
Emerging advancements in smart metering technologies and protection performance [88]. Consequently, significant research efforts
communication infrastructure have necessitated the establishment of have been dedicated to developing effective protection systems that rely
standards to ensure secure, fast, and reliable data exchange among on a reduced number of PMUs and mitigate the impacts of noise [81].
various utilities and control centers. This imperative arises from the In this context, studies have been conducted to estimate variables of
need to avoid conflicts, lack of coordination, and insecure data trans­ non-PMU buses based on PMU data from neighboring buses and trans­
portation, which can undermine the reliability and suitability of com­ mission line parameters. Notably, various variables are estimated for
putations and decision-making processes. Consequently, guidelines and protection purposes, including voltage, current, impedance, the phase
standards have been introduced to provide universal instructions for all angle difference between voltage and current, as well as active and
users of these technologies. reactive powers. Given the constraints of limited PMUs, missing data,
In this regard, the participants in the IEC 61850 standardization and the real-time estimation of line parameters, the authors in [12,13]
effort have concentrated on establishing communication protocols be­ propose intriguing approaches to enhance the performance of
tween substations and devices within transmission systems. Addition­ impedance-dependent protection systems by the estimation of the
ally, the IEEE C37.118.1–2011 standard provides a categorization of transmission line parameters in real-time. These dynamic state estima­
PMUs and offers guidelines for two classes of PMUs, namely "P" and "M" tions based on PMU information are included in the model-based
[87]. This standard also expands upon previous related standards by approach for the protection aims. Table 2 presents the diverse state
incorporating new characteristics and definitions. estimation endeavors focusing on different variables to achieve protec­
Moreover, the IEEE C37.118.2–2011 standard delves into the in­ tion objectives. By leveraging these techniques, protection systems can
structions for integrating synchrophasor measurements with communi­ achieve reliable and accurate estimations even with a reduced number
cation protocols. Addressing another facet of this domain, the IEEE of PMUs. This not only addresses the concerns surrounding PMU
C37.242–2013 standard introduces methodologies for synchronizing, installation and observability but also enhances the overall performance
calibrating, testing, and installing PMUs in power systems, serving both of protection systems in power networks. The proposed methodologies
control and protection objectives. On a related note, the IEEE contribute to the advancement of protective measures in the presence of
C37.244–2013 standard focuses on the principles and requirements of limited PMUs and demonstrate promising outcomes for the field of
communication for PDCs in the realms of protection, control, and power system protection. These approaches are generally included in
monitoring. model-based methods for the protection systems to overcome the
In this context, a working group within the IEEE has developed a mentioned limitation and enhance the protection reliability.
valuable guideline on the requirements and functions of PDCs. This In the model-based category, the study area is selected based on
guideline encompasses testing procedures and characteristics such as information like topology, line parameters, loads, and determined
latency, data transportation, and error handling. Additionally, the joint vulnerable relays obtained from PMU data processing. The supervisory
working group of the IEC and IEEE has issued the IEC/IEEE protection method is implemented regarding the study area and the
60,255–118–1:2018 standard, which focuses on the principles of PMUs PMU data related to that area. Fig. 5 demonstrates the overall flowchart
in the presence of harmonics and noise. This standard also includes of the model-based supervisory distance protection systems.
details regarding PMUs, testing instructions, and timing principles.
By adhering to these established guidelines and standards, the 5.2.1. Data-driven-based approaches
deployment and utilization of advanced smart metering technologies With the widespread implementation of advanced measurement
and communication infrastructure can be facilitated effectively and technologies in modern power systems, there has been an exponential
efficiently. This ultimately leads to enhanced reliability, security, and growth in the volume of data generated. This surge in data, coupled with
decision-making capabilities within the domain of power systems. the demand for fast real-time decision-making, has necessitated the
development of computational methods and analysis approaches to
5. Supervision of protection systems and enhancing their ensure reliable and efficient protection and control actions. One prom­
reliability ising avenue of research is the application of data-mining approaches,
which aim to extract valuable insights from large datasets [89].
5.1. Discussion on the recent achievements Data-mining approaches in protections system can generally be
categorized into feature-extraction approaches [90], artificial
WAMSs have found significant application in the area of supervisory intelligence-based methods [91], and hybrid feature extraction and
protection, aiming to improve the accuracy of local protection systems. artificial intelligence (AI)-based schemes [76,92]. Several notable
Dealing with this issue, the key objectives of WAMSs in this context are feature-extraction approaches have emerged, including wavelet trans­
twofold: maintaining a balance between the security and dependability form [93], wavelet-based entropy [90], and S-transform [94]. Within
of protection systems and detecting stress conditions to prevent unde­ the realm of protection systems, artificial neural networks [95], space
sired system operation. It is important to note that these functions serve vector machines [76], and decision tree-based schemes [96] have
as a backup layer, considering the limitations of data exchange through emerged as effective AI-based methods. These approaches leverage
communication systems and computational constraints. Furthermore, historical data to accurately predict system behavior, identify faults, and
the use of various variables has been explored in the context of super­ facilitate prompt protective actions. In the last category, by integrating
visory protection. In general, the applied methods in this area can be wavelet-based feature extraction with artificial neural networks or de­
categorized into two sections: the model-based approach, which relies cision trees, for example, these hybrid techniques offer improved ac­
on power system equipment parameters such as line parameters, and the curacy and efficiency in protection systems.
data-driven approach, which utilizes data-based techniques to enhance Despite the considerable advancements in data-driven methods for
the supervisory protection system. protection systems, these approaches face significant challenges. These
challenges include the potential vulnerabilities posed by cyber security
5.2. Model-based approaches threats, limitations in the quality of the acquired data, the substantial
volume of data required for training machine learning algorithms, the
Several concerns, such as economic costs, cyber-security issues, human factors associated with implementing these methods, and the
noise, packet loss, and the accuracy of PMU information, have led to imperative need for fast real-time decision-making.
limited PMU installations and pose threats to its observability. These Fig. 6 depicts the structure of the data-driven-based methods for

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S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

Fig. 5. The overall schematic of the model-based supervisory distance protection.

Fig. 6. Structure of the data-driven-based supervisory distance protection systems.

supervisory distance protection system. based on their application domain and the specific variables required for
Table 2 presents a comprehensive overview of the utilized informa­ each method.
tion for wide-area backup protection, providing detailed information on Furthermore, Fig. 7 illustrates the general structure of a typical su­
each proposed method in both model-based and data-driven based cat­ pervisory protection system.
egories. The table offers a comprehensive categorization of the methods

Fig. 7. A typical overall structure from the supervisory protection system.

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S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

5.3. Comparative discussion balance of the power system. The destroyed balance results in the
variation of the rotor angle of the generators to find a new stable
To assess the effectiveness of various proposed methods in enhancing operating point or retain the previous one. The inability of the power
the backup protection system as a supervisory system, an evaluation will system to recover after a large disturbance causes to loss of synchronism
be conducted on earlier references that utilize PMU or GPS-equipped of some generators’ rotor angles against the rest of the power system.
relays. The evaluation will specifically examine the performance of This condition, named OOS condition, makes the generators experience
these methods under stressed conditions and consider their ability to stressful situations and insulation problems. The mentioned problems
address critical factors such as the time response of the protection expose the power system facing uncontrolled islanding, cascading out­
approach, the number of installed PMUs, the consideration of mea­ ages, and blackouts [97]. Accordingly, it is necessary to present appro­
surement errors, and the accurate detection of both symmetrical and priate and comprehensive approaches for OOS detection and managing
asymmetrical faults, including the identification of faulty phases. These adaptive and suitable corrective actions against the OOS condition.
factors are widely recognized as essential for evaluating the perfor­ Discriminating between unstable and stable power swings is essen­
mance of the proposed methods in challenging conditions. tial because OOS protection systems must be able to detect unstable
In addition to these factors, the sampling rate of the used PMUs plays power swings and take appropriate corrective actions to prevent the
a critical role in increasing the accuracy and speed of the protection system from collapsing.
system, as well as the communication bandwidth and the probability of To address this challenge, researchers and engineers have developed
communication loss. various techniques for the accurate detection of OOS conditions.
To assess the performance and effectiveness of the proposed methods Fig. 8 illustrates the overall structure of the methods to identify the
based on these criteria, an evaluation of published works in the field of OOS conditions.
supervisory protection is presented in Table 3. By carefully analyzing
these indicators, the most suitable and dependable methods can be 6.1. Approaches classification
identified to enhance the supervisory capabilities of the system, ulti­
mately improving the overall security and reliability of the power grid. In general, the OOS condition is investigated from the impedance-
based relay point of view, as the attack target of the OOS, and genera­
6. Wide-area protection against the OOS conditions tors’ rotor angles point of view, as the core root of the OOS condition. In
addition, OOS detection and prediction can be realized based on two
A severe disturbance causes a mismatch in the generation-demand approaches, model-based and data-driven-based. In the following, the
advanced proposed wide-area schemes against the OOS condition are
discussed based on the mentioned classifications.
Table 3
Comprehensive comparison of some supervisory protection methods’ properties
against the stressed conditions. 6.1.1. Real-time OOS detection
Approaches pertaining to OOS detection can be broadly classified
Refs SFD AFD FPI PMU MFT CME Considerations
into two categories: model-based and data-driven-based methods. Spe­
numbers (ms)
cifically, model-based methods can be further divided into impedance-
[73] 133 Experimental-based
✓ – –
based techniques, which encompass vulnerable relay-based offline
threshold,
Vulnerable against
[98] and online [99] approaches, as well as combined graphical and
the noise and computational schemes [100].
measurements error. Considering the direct correlation between the OOS condition and
[80] ✓ ✓ 64 % 81 ✓ Need for line rotor angle transient stability, methods focusing on transient stability
parameters.
assessment have provided additional avenues for OOS detection [101].
[72] ✓ ✓ 38 % – Need for impedance- Among these, the EAC and extended EAC are the most prevalent tran­
relay settings,
sient stability-based concepts utilized for OOS detection. It is worth
Vulnerable against
the noise and noting that the EAC concept can be employed in various ways, utilizing
measurements error. P-δ, P-t, and δ-ω curves for OOS detection [102,103].
[74] ✓ ✓ 100 % 26 ✓ Need for high Furthermore, the Zobove-based method introduces another
investment.
graphical-computational-based approach within the transient stability
[63] ✓ 69 % 130 Need for prediction, assessment framework, offering an alternative means of OOS detection
Vulnerable against
[101].
the noise and
measurements error. In a data-driven graphical-based approach in [104], the impedance
[78] ✓ 100 % 44 Need for impedance- trajectory calculated from PMU data is reshaped by the
GER* relay settings. polygonal-shaped method discriminating the OOS condition from the
[61] ✓ ✓ ✓ 100 % 25 ✓ Vulnerable against stable power swing. Authors in [105] propose a data-driven-based
GER* the loss strategy to detect the OOS condition considering the behavior of the
communication. imaginary and real parts of the voltage as the angle of the voltage.
[75] 100 % 7.5 Need for high
The OOS condition is detected based on the proven fact in [106] that
✓ ✓ ✓
investment,
Vulnerable against the frequency continuously changes during the loss of synchronism.
the loss Thus, the OOS condition and the line belonging to the electrical center
communication, can be found based on the estimated local frequencies, extracted from
Vulnerable against
both line ends voltage.
the noise.
[68] ✓ ✓ 57 % 81 ✓ Need for threshold In general, the impedance-based approaches suffer from the variable
determination. configuration of the power system, estimation of the Thevenin imped­
SFD: Symmetrical fault detection -: Not mentioned precisely ance, and observability and their costly issues [63,99,103,104,107].
AFD: Asymmetrical fault detection FPI: Faulty-phase identification Furthermore, the detection approaches carried out near the 180◦ of the
MFT: Max fault time detection CME: Concerning the measurements rotor angle difference, as the core shortage of these methods. In this
error circumstance, the circuit breakers experience stressful insulation prob­
GBR: GPS-equipped relays
lems during the tripping line.

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S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

Fig. 8. Overall flowchart of the data-driven and model-based OOS protection systems.

6.1.2. OOS prediction Continuous calculation of the center of inertia rotor angle, determina­
The OOS detection schemes are accomplished in real-time threat­ tion of the coherent areas, dependency to the equivalent Thevenin
ening sufficient time for the corrective countermeasures. Accordingly, impedance, and awareness of the pre-disturbance initial rotor angle
the prediction approaches promise a better way for OOS detection values are taken into account as the significant challenges of these
before its occurrence and provide more time for remedial and preventive methods [112]. In addition, the behavior of the voltage angle is used as a
actions. These approaches can realize the reliability of the power system variable included in the prediction approach of the OOS condition
and enhance the accuracy and efficiency of the controlled islanding proposed in [113].
against the OOS conditions. Despite the fast performance of the machine-learning-based ap­
In this connection, the OOS prediction methods are accomplished in proaches, they need massive data for the training as the initial and
three categories, curve-fitting-based, machine-learning-based, and necessary stage. Furthermore, they may encounter unpredicted situa­
transient energy function [19]. The two former classes are categorized tions, resulting in increasingly inaccurate decision-making [114–120].
into the data-driven-based methods, while the third class belongs to the On the other hand, the transient energy function schemes depend on the
model-based approaches. The most popular techniques to carry out the power system configuration and deal with local instability prediction
curve-fitting approach consist trigonometric function method, poly­ defects [121]. Fig. 9 includes the overall schematic of the OOS predic­
nomial extrapolation, and auto-regression model [108]. Moreover, the tion and detection principle based on the wide-area information for both
curve-fitting-based schemes realize the prediction intentions based on local and inter-area oscillations.
the trend of the considered variable [63] and the projection of the PMU In addition, Fig. 10 demonstrates the overall classification of the
data onto the generators’ model [109–111]. The most common tools proposed methods for the OOS detection and protection.
used in the curve-fitting methods are EAC and extended EAC.

Fig. 9. Overall schematic of the OOS prediction and real-time detection principle.

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S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

Fig. 10. Tree diagram of the applied approaches for protection against OOS conditions.

6.2. Comparison discussion

Table 4
Properties of the OOS prediction approaches.
Apart from the diverse methods employed for OOS prediction in
power systems, it is crucial to take into account several performance Refs R.T Ac PMU Applied M Considerations
(ms) (%) no. variables
metrics to assess their effectiveness. This section elaborates on key
indices that significantly influence the performance of the applied ap­ [115] 755 86.27 – (V, θ, P) Training-based
method,
proaches. These indices encompass the efficiency and precision of the
Vulnerable against the
proposed algorithms, the quantity of PMUs utilized for prediction pur­ measurements error.
poses, and the incorporation of measurement errors into the analysis. [116] 102 95.84 10 (V, V̇˙, f, f˙˙, Training-based
( ),
It should be noted that the sampling rate of the PMUs, their delay in 39 θ) method,
10 Vulnerable against the
acquiring data, and the number of PMUs involved in each calculation ( )
10 measurements error.
can directly affect the accuracy and speed properties of the proposed [117] 20 99.25 10 (V, δ, Δf, Training-based
methods for OOS prediction. ( ),
39 P, Q) method,
Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the efficacy of the proposed 10 Vulnerable against the
( )
10
methods based on these factors. To illustrate these considerations, measurements error.
[118] 18.3 98.6 10 (V, I, θ, f˙˙) Training-based
Table 4 provides an overview of some prediction-based OOS approaches ( ),
39 method,
and their relevant requirements and considerations. 10 Vulnerable against the
( )
10 measurements error.
7. Integration of the converter-based devices [119] 200 – 10
( ), (θv , θ̇v ) Needs the critical
39 clearing time,
1 Vulnerable against the
7.1. Integration of IBERs into the power systems ( )
10 measurements error.
[111] 430 – – (ω, Δ̇ω) Generator’s speed
Growing critical global warming threats, rapidly increasing elec­ calculation by sensors,
tricity demand, economic and environmental restrictions on the trans­ Vulnerable against the
measurements error.
mission system extension, developing technologies related to
[110] 60 – – (ω, P) Needs to apply on two
photovoltaic and wind turbine systems, and incentive policies have curves,
motivated industries to widely adopt RESs across different voltage levels Vulnerable against the
of power systems. Despite the noticeable benefits of RESs penetration in measurements error.
power systems, they expose significant challenges for a power system to -: Not mentioned precisely PMU no: Installed PMU numbers,
R.T: Response time, Ac: Accuracy,
be under serious consideration to promise its stable operation. RESs
M: Measurement error consideration.
distribution in the entire power system results in the bidirectional cur­
rent injection [122]. In addition, the limited fault current of the IBERs
due to the thermal and insulation restrictions causes a decrease in the increase in source impedance resulting from RESs penetration in power
short circuit level [123]. Furthermore, the IBERs penetrate very low systems.
inertia to the power system reducing the total inertia [124]. The RESs’ The impacts of the mentioned features of RESs penetration in a
intermittent nature due to their dependency on the weather conditions is power system on the protection system can be summarized as follows:
another challenge related to the penetration of the RESs . In another
side, the grid code requirements for damage prevention of the IBERs • The limited fault current of the IBERs and bidirectional current in­
during the undesired conditions cause intentional islanding that leads jection causes the low sensitivity and selectivity of the distance and
the power system to unwanted situations IEEE std 1547, [30,125]. overcurrent relays,
Moreover, the negative and zero current sequences are depressed due to • The RESs’ intermittent nature makes the protection systems confused
meeting the high reactive power demand [126]. Another challenge is the regarding their variable fault current injection,

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S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

• RESs islanding to meet the grid codes causes more stressed condi­ the protection system. On the contrary, composite FACTs, exemplified
tions increasing the risk of protection mis-operation, by the unified power flow controller (UPFC), combine the advantages of
• Negative and zero sequence currents depression reduces the sensi­ both series and shunt FACTs. This configuration presents a sophisticated
tivity of the protection systems against the asymmetrical faults, condition including the both problems of the series and shunt configu­
• The low inertia of the power system results in high oscillation fre­ rations for ensuring the reliable operation of the protection systems.
quency and increases the rate of change of impedance, frequency, Accordingly, to mitigate potential maloperation risks, substantial efforts
and voltage affecting the distance, voltage, and frequency protection, have been made to develop preventive measures [133].
• The high source impedance of RESs affects the measured impedance, Numerous approaches have been proposed to mitigate the impact of
distance protection system’s sensitivity, and its selectivity, FACTs on protection systems. These efforts can be broadly categorized
as modified and adaptive distance-based methods [134–136], feature
The RESs type, including wind turbine types and photovoltaic sys­ extraction techniques [137,138], wide-area-based methods [139–141],
tems, is another substantial factor that negatively affects the protection and artificial intelligence-based approaches [133]. These strategies aim
systems [2]. In some works, the Thevenin equivalent parameters, to enhance the protection system’s performance and prevent maloper­
necessary for some impedance-based protection algorithms, are ation incidents.
considered constant [127–129], which it is unreasonable regarding their Moreover, several crucial factors affect the behavior of protection
changing intrinsic during the fault. In this connection, some efforts have systems when FACTs are integrated into the power network. These
been conducted concerning the variable Thevenin equivalent imped­ factors include the type and location of faults, fault impedance, sampling
ance, with and without directional distance protection, and frequency, communication threats, noise problems, control strategies
high-impedance fault detection in PV resources presence. With this employed for FACTs, and the penetration of renewable energy re­
respect, authors in [130] propose a fault-impedance-free algorithm sources. The variability of renewable energy sources, such as wind speed
based on the Thevenin impedance calculation from the PV plant point of and radiation intensity, introduces additional complexity and challenges
view to improve the distance protection of lines connected to the PV to the protection systems.
plants.
Generally, the new protection schemes to overcome the mentioned 8. New trends and discussion
challenges are classified into adaptive and non-adaptive classes. In the
former one, the settings of the protection systems are constantly updated 8.1. Dealing with challenges
based on the level of the RESs penetration and short circuit current ratio
utilizing the communication systems and wide-area information. In this High-level penetration of the RESs in various locations of the power
regard, a multi-agent system has been introduced to provide an adaptive system and emerging advanced computation and communication tech­
protection system concerning the level of the RESs penetration [2]. In nologies have created a bridge toward vast opportunities to improve the
another example, an adaptive optimization technique is used in [131] to performance quality in front of the power system expertise. Therefore,
overcome the problems of the overcurrent protection systems. In the both machine-learning-based and analytical measurement-based ap­
second class, the proposed protection schemes try to minimize the fault proaches have a noticeable potential for producing fast, accurate, and
current participation of the RESs [132]. comprehensive results regarding measurement technologies improve­
Furthermore, high-level penetration of the RESs in the power sys­ ment with high reporting rate and accuracy.
tems, their uncertain character, restriction of the reactive power supply In addition, continuous structure variation of the power system due
due to thermal consideration, and risk of the RESs disconnected due to to the growing penetration of various RESs in different power system
the grid code meeting have faced the voltage stability assessment levels preserves the necessity to frequently update the monitoring and
methods with significant challenges [40]. Addressing these challenges protection systems according to future conditions and enhance the
requires noticeable efforts to provide suitable and reliable voltage power system reliability. In this connection, the power system moni­
assessment. toring and assessment with up-to-date advanced analysis methods, uti­
lizing emerged facilities in the power systems such as FACTSs and
7.2. FACTs penetration in the power system energy mobility in companion with the improved and modified pro­
tection systems can be very challenging areas for dealing.
The FACTs have gained significant importance in modern power Expanding the practical utilization the microgrids and interconnec­
systems for addressing power quality issues and overcoming power tion microgrids in different countries have opened considerable chal­
transfer limitations. However, the integration of FACTs into the system lenges compared to the bulk power system despite their noticeable
introduces challenges to the protection systems, potentially leading to benefits. Accordingly, presenting data-driven-based wide-area situa­
mal-operation and over/under-reach phenomena. This part of the paper tional awareness considering substantial uncertainties in these grids and
focuses on the application of FACTs in series, shunt, and composite providing adaptive protection systems and emergency control are fields
configurations, examining their impact on the protection systems. that can absorb the power system specialists’ attention.
Additionally, key factors affecting the protection systems in the presence The cyber-security and problems related to the growing cyber-
of FACTs are discussed, considering fault characteristics, communica­ attacks negatively affect the protection systems based on the wide-
tion threats, control strategies, and the penetration of renewable energy area information. Improving the wide-area information-based protec­
resources. tion systems concerning cyber-security issues is another emerging
The presence of series FACTs, operating in both capacitive and research area that has assigned considerable potential research to its
inductive modes, significantly affects the reactance of the measured domain.
impedance by the relays. Consequently, this can result in over/under-
reach of the distance relays, compromising the accuracy and reli­ 8.2. AI tools emerging
ability of the protection system. Moreover, the location of series FACTs,
whether in the substation or along the transmission line, poses a po­ With the significant advancements in AI in various areas of human
tential threat to the overall performance of the protection system. life, the use of these approaches has also been integrated into power
Moreover, shunt FACTs, such as the static synchronous compensator system studies. This has created opportunities for experts in this field to
(STATCOM), exhibit adverse effects on the protection system during enhance and optimize power system performance in different areas,
unsymmetrical faults. These effects can lead to the undesired tripping of such as monitoring, protection, and control.
the healthy phase, further impacting the reliability and effectiveness of The remarkable speed and efficacy of AI have attracted the attention

12
S. Shazdeh et al. Electric Power Systems Research 235 (2024) 110832

of specialists in different fields of power systems, prompting them to Data availability

adopt this rapidly growing technology.
However, the application of AI in power systems faces several chal­ No data was used for the research described in the article.
lenges that limit its practical utilization. These challenges include data
quality, model complexity, cost, cybersecurity, and others. AI-based
approaches require a large amount of high-quality data for reliable References
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