UNIT III

Meaning of Variables
A variable, as the name implies, is something that varies. This is the simplest way of defining
a variable. Webster says that a variable is “a thing that is changeable” or “a quantity that may
have a number of different values.” True, a variable is something that has at least two values:
however, it is also important that the values of the variable be observable. Kerlinger (1986)
defined variable ‘a property that taken as different values’. According to D’Amato (1970)
variables may be defined as those “attributes of objects, events, things and beings, which can
be measured”. According to Postman and Egan (1949) a variable is “a characteristic or
attribute that can take on a number of values”, for example, number of items that an
individual solves on a particular test, the speed with which we respond to a signal, IQ, sex,
level of anxiety, and different degree of illumination are the examples of variables that are
commonly employed in psychological research.

Types of Variables

Dependent and Independent Variables

The independent variable is the factor or condition that researchers manipulate or vary in an
experiment. It is the variable believed to have an effect on the dependent variable.

A dependent variable is the factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the experimenter
introduces, removes or varies the independent variable (Townsend, 1953). For Example:
Suppose you find a relationship between meaningfulness of the learning material and speed
of learning. Speed of learning then depends upon meaningfulness; the greater the
meaningfulness, the faster the learning. The speed of learning is, therefore, called dependent
variable; meaningfulness is independent variable.

Extraneous and Confounding Variables

Any and all other variables that may ‘mask’ or affect the relationship between independent
variable and dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. Extraneous variables
may directly affect the dependent variable or may combine with the independent variable to
produce an affect. Therefore, extraneous variables must be controlled so that the
experimenter can determine whether the dependent variable changes in relation to variation in
the independent variable. For Example : age, sex, intelligence, personality. Extraneous
variables are relevant in nature, and in experimental studies, they belong to three major
types i.e., organismic variables, situational variables and sequential variables. The subject
related variables include age, sex, intelligence, personality etc. are organismic variables. The
situational variables include environmental variables operating in the experimental setting
(e.g. noise, temperature, humidity) and variables related to the experimental task. The
sequence related variables deal with sequence effects. They arise when participants in
experiments are required to be tested in several conditions. Exposure to many conditions may
result in adaptation, fatigue or practice effects which, if allowed to operate, may make the
results difficult to interpret.

If an extraneous variable cannot be controlled for, it becomes what is known as a

confounding variable. This type of variable can have an impact on the dependent variable,
which can make it difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of the
independent variable, the confounding variable, or an interaction of the two. Example: In a
study on the effects of a new teaching method on student performance, teacher motivation
could be a confounding variable if it influences both the teaching method and student
performance.

Quantitative and Categorical Variables

Extraneous variables further has two types: Quantitative variables are that variable that are
numeric or varies in amount (we can take on an infinite number of values within a specific
range.) for example: Age, height, weight, Speed of response, intensity of sound, level of
Illumination, intelligence etc. are the example of quantitative variables. Whereas, categorical
variable varies in categories or cannot be measured numerically, gender, religion are the
examples of categorical or dichotomous variables.
Methods of controlling the extraneous variables
Controlling extraneous variables is crucial in scientific research to ensure that the effects
observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable being studied and not
influenced by other factors. Here are some common methods for controlling extraneous
variables in research:

Controlling extraneous variables is crucial in scientific research to ensure that the effects
observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable being studied and not
influenced by other factors. Here are some common methods for controlling extraneous
variables in research:

1. Randomization:

Assign participants or subjects randomly to different groups or conditions. This helps

distribute extraneous variables evenly across groups, reducing their impact on the results.
Randomization minimizes bias and increases the likelihood that extraneous variables are
equally distributed among groups, making the groups comparable. Randomisation is a bit like
‘shuffling’ the participants so that they take part in the experiment in no particular order.
When randomisation is applied, this means that the order of presentation of experimental
conditions (such as loud noise or no noise in the previous examples) is adapted by a random
strategy such as tossing a coin or drawing names from a hat.

Although, this technique is not perfect because although it is random, there is still a chance
that the order in which the participants take part will affect the outcome, as there may still be
chance differences in the numbers of participants who experience the condition in a particular
order.

2. Matching:

Match participants or subjects in different groups based on specific extraneous variables. This
ensures that groups are similar in terms of these variables. Matching allows researchers to
control for specific extraneous variables that may have a significant impact on the results.

3. Counterbalancing:

Sometimes, when a repeated measures experiment takes place, participants may perform
better when they undertake the task for a second time because they know what they are doing
or they may perform worse, because they are tired. These are known as order effects. These
effects can be overcome by counterbalancing, which is a technique where the researcher
alternates the order in which participants perform in different conditions of the experiment.
For example, if someone wanted to find out if participants were affected by noise when they
were asked to complete a physical task such as the one below, they may need to
counterbalance. The participants in the sample would split into two groups: A and B. The
counterbalancing may then be carried out like this

4. Control Groups:

Include control groups in experimental designs where participants are not exposed to the
independent variable or receive any treatment. Control groups provide a baseline against
which the experimental group can be compared, helping to isolate the effect of the
independent variable while controlling for extraneous variables.

5. Standardization:

As its name suggests, when procedures are standardised, they are kept the same for all
participants so that the research is carried out fairly and to try to ensure better reliability for
the results. Ensure that procedures, equipment, and data collection methods are standardized
and consistent across all conditions and participants. Create standard procedures to keep the
environment same for each participant, such as maintaining a specific temperature in the
experiment room to ensure it doesn't distract participants. Generally speaking, researchers can
try to ensure that the standardised procedures take place by ensuring all participants:
 1. Undergo the research in the same location
2. Have the same equipment or materials
3. Are exposed to the same environment, such as the same lighting, temperature or noise
levels
4. Undergo the research at the same time – people can react very differently at different
times of day
5. Are given the exact same instructions in the exact same way.

6. Single blind techniques

When a single blind experiment is carried out, the participants do not know if they are a part
of the experimental group or the control group – let’s remind ourselves what these are:

Experimental group: is exposed to the independent variable

Control group: is not exposed to the independent variable.

The researchers, however, do know which group the participants have been allocated to.

This method is thought to eliminate the possibility of participants ‘acting’ in a way that they
think they should. For example, if a participant thought that they were in an environment that
made them sleepy and so their recall in a memory test was affected, they may ‘act’ in a
sleepy way because this is what they think will be expected of them, as they are in the sleepy
environment. This is sometimes referred to as the ‘placebo effect’.

7. Double blind techniques

As you may have guessed from the definition of single blind techniques, a double blind
technique is where neither the researcher nor the participants know which group they have
been allocated to.

This is thought to eliminate any kind of bias from the researcher when analysing the results,
as well as from the participants when they are taking part.

This is because, as the participants do not know which group they are in, their beliefs about
the research they are taking part in are less likely to influence the outcome. Secondly, since
researchers are unaware of which participants are in the experimental group, they are less
likely to reveal accidentally subtle clues that might influence the outcome of the research or
how the data is collected at the end.
Meaning of Research Design

Research design in psychology refers to the systematic plan or blueprint that outlines how a
psychological study or investigation will be conducted. It encompasses the overall strategy
and structure of the research, including the methods, data collection, and data analysis
techniques that will be employed. A well-designed research study is essential for drawing
valid and reliable conclusions in psychology. The research design is developed based on the
research problem, research questions, and the type of data that will be collected.

Definition of Research Design

According to William Zikmund :

"Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection
and analyzing the needed information."

According to Kerlinger :

"Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance".

According to Green and Tull :

"A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information
needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what
information is to be collected from which sources by what procedures".

According to Selltiz et al. :

"A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure".

According to Creswell & Plano Clark, A research design is the 'procedures for collecting,
analyzing, interpreting and reporting data in research studies'.

Need for Research Design/ Purpose of Research Design

Research design is essential for several reasons:

1. Guidance and Structure: Research design provides a systematic and structured

framework for conducting research. It outlines the steps and procedures to follow,
helping researchers stay organized and focused throughout the research process. It
 outlines the data analysis techniques also that will be used and ensures that the data is
analyzed in a systematic and rigorous manner.

2. Clarity of Purpose: A well-defined research design helps clarify the purpose and
objectives of the study. It ensures that researchers have a clear understanding of what
they want to investigate and achieve.

3. Replicability: A well-documented research design allows other researchers to

replicate the study. Replication is a fundamental aspect of scientific inquiry, as it
helps confirm the reliability and validity of findings.

4. Ethical Considerations: A sound research design incorporates ethical considerations,

such as obtaining informed consent, protecting participant privacy, and minimizing
harm. This ensures that research is conducted ethically and responsibly.

5. Ensuring Validity and Reliability: A well-designed research project ensures the

validity and reliability of the research findings. The research design helps to ensure
that the research is conducted in a rigorous and systematic manner, and the data
collected is accurate and reliable.

6. Minimizing Bias: Research design helps to minimize bias in the research study. It
ensures that the research is conducted in an objective and neutral manner, and the data
collected is not influenced by personal or political biases.

7. Efficiency: Research design helps researchers make efficient use of resources,

including time, funding, and personnel. It ensures that data collection and analysis are
conducted in a systematic and cost-effective manner.

8. Generalizability: Depending on the research design, findings can be generalized to

broader populations or specific contexts. This allows psychologists to make
meaningful inferences about human behavior and cognition.

9. Confirmation or Rejection of the Hypothesis: The main purpose of research design

is for a researcher to make sure that the conclusions they’ve come to are justified. It
means that the research has to confirm or deny the hypothesis.
Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is a systematic and scientific approach to investigating the

cause-and-effect relationship between variables. It involves manipulating one or more
independent variables to observe their impact on one or more dependent variables while
controlling for other factors. Experimental research is often considered the gold standard for
establishing causation in scientific research. Here are the key components of an experimental
research design:

Independent Variable (IV): This is the variable that the researcher manipulates to observe
its effect on the dependent variable. The independent variable is what an experimenter
suspect may be causing a change in the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV): The dependent variable is what you measure or observe to
determine the effect of the independent variable. It is the outcome or response you are
interested in studying.

Experimental Conditions: Ensure that conditions other than the independent variable are
kept constant or controlled as much as possible. This minimizes the influence of extraneous
variables that could affect the results.

Control Group: In experimental research, you typically have a control group that does not
receive the treatment or intervention (remains untreated or receives a placebo) and an
experimental group that does receive the treatment. The control group provides a baseline
against which to compare the effects of the independent variable.

Random Assignment: Participants should be randomly assigned to the experimental group

or the control group to ensure that any differences observed are not due to pre-existing
characteristics of the participants.

Data Collection: Collect data on the dependent variable in both the experimental and control
groups. This may involve surveys, observations, physiological measurements, or other
methods.

Manipulation: Implement the treatment or intervention (manipulate the independent

variable) in the experimental group, while the control group remains untreated or receives a
placebo.

Data Analysis: Analyze the data collected to determine whether there is a significant
difference between the experimental and control groups. Statistical tests are often used to
assess the significance of the results.

Conclusion: Based on the data analysis, draw conclusions regarding the hypothesis.
Determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis, and consider the implications
of the findings.

Replication: Replicating the experiment with different samples or in different settings is

important for verifying the reliability of the results.
Experimental research designs are widely used in various fields, including psychology,
medicine, social sciences, and natural sciences. They are valuable for establishing cause-and-
effect relationships and testing the effectiveness of interventions, treatments, or programs.
However, it's important to conduct experiments ethically and ensure that participant rights
and well-being are protected throughout the research process.

Quasi experimental research design

Quasi-experimental research design is a type of research design used when it is not feasible
or ethical to conduct a true experimental study with random assignment of participants to
different groups. Quasi-experimental designs are often employed in situations where
researchers have limited control over the assignment of participants to groups, yet they still
want to investigate the causal relationship between variables. These designs can provide
valuable insights into cause-and-effect relationships, but they have limitations compared to
true experimental designs. Here are some key features of quasi-experimental research design:

Non-Random Assignment: Unlike true experimental designs, quasi-experimental designs do

not involve random assignment of participants to different groups. Instead, participants are
often assigned to groups based on pre-existing characteristics, such as age, gender, or pre-
existing conditions.

Independent Variable (IV): Quasi-experimental studies still involve an independent

variable (IV). The researcher changes or manipulates the independent variable to observe its
effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV): The dependent variable (DV) is the outcome or response
variable that is measured to assess the impact of the independent variable.

Treatment Groups: In quasi-experimental designs, researchers often compare two or more

groups, including at least one group that receives the treatment or intervention and one that
does not. These groups are typically referred to as the "treatment group" and the "control
group."

Pre-Existing Groups: Participants are assigned to groups based on pre-existing

characteristics or conditions. For example, researchers may compare a group of individuals
with a particular medical condition to a group without that condition.

Lack of Randomization: Because participants are not randomly assigned to groups, quasi-
experimental designs are more vulnerable to selection bias and threats to internal validity.
Researchers must use statistical techniques and careful design to control for potential
confounding variables.
Data Collection: Data on the dependent variable is collected from both the treatment and
control groups to assess the impact of the independent variable.

Data Analysis: Researchers use statistical methods to analyze the data and determine
whether there are significant differences between the groups that can be attributed to the
independent variable.

Quasi-experimental research designs are frequently used in real-world situations where

random assignment is difficult or impossible, such as in educational research, clinical studies,
and certain social science studies. While they can provide valuable insights and contribute to
the understanding of causal relationships, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of
quasi-experimental designs, including the potential for confounding variables and difficulties
in establishing causality compared to true experimental designs. Researchers using quasi-
experimental designs should carefully consider the design and statistical techniques used to
control for potential biases and threats to validity.

Difference between experimental and quasi experimental research

Experimental and quasi-experimental research are both methods used to study causal
relationships between variables, but they differ in key ways, primarily related to the level of
control over the research conditions and the use of randomization:

1. Random Assignment:

Experimental Research: In experimental research, random assignment is a defining feature.

Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, ensuring that each group is similar at
the start of the study. Randomization helps control for potential confounding variables,
making it easier to establish causation.

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research lacks random assignment.

Participants are often assigned to groups based on pre-existing characteristics, conditions, or
other non-random criteria. This means that groups may differ in ways that can affect the
study's outcomes, making it harder to establish causation.

2. Level of Control:

Experimental Research: Experimental designs offer a higher level of control over the research
conditions. Researchers can manipulate the independent variable, implement controlled
conditions, and minimize the influence of extraneous variables.

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental designs have less control. Researchers

cannot randomly assign participants, and they may need to work with existing groups or
conditions, which can introduce confounding factors.
 3. Causation:

Experimental Research: Because of the use of random assignment and the high level of
control, experimental research is better suited for establishing cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. It allows researchers to confidently conclude that changes in the
independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research can provide evidence of

associations or correlations between variables but does not establish causation as firmly.
Researchers must use statistical techniques and careful design to control for potential biases
and threats to internal validity.

4. Ethical Considerations:

Experimental Research: In some cases, experimental research may involve ethically

challenging situations, such as intentionally exposing participants to potentially harmful
conditions.

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental designs are often more practical and

ethical in situations where random assignment is not possible. For example, it may be
ethically inappropriate to randomly assign participants to smoking or non-smoking groups to
study the effects of smoking.

5. Real-World Applications:

Experimental Research: Experimental designs are often used in controlled laboratory settings
and may focus on testing the effects of specific interventions or treatments.

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental designs are frequently used in real-world

settings, where researchers study naturally occurring conditions, policies, programs, or
events.

In summary, the primary difference between experimental and quasi-experimental research

lies in the use of random assignment and the level of control over research conditions.
Experimental research provides a stronger foundation for establishing causation, while quasi-
experimental research is more practical and applicable in situations where random
assignment is not feasible or ethical. Researchers must carefully consider the design and
statistical techniques used to control for potential biases in quasi-experimental research.
Types of Quasi Experimental Research Design

Quasi-experimental designs are research methodologies used in scientific studies, particularly

in social sciences, where it may not be feasible or ethical to conduct true experiments. These
designs lack random assignment of participants to groups, making them "quasi" experiments.
Some common types of quasi-experimental designs include:

1. Non-Equivalent Group Design:

In this design, two or more groups are compared, but participants have not been randomly
assigned to those groups. Researchers try to control for other variables that might affect the
outcome.

In non-equivalent group design, the researcher chooses existing groups that appear similar,
but where only one of the groups experiences the treatment.

In a true experiment with random assignment, the control and treatment groups are
considered equivalent in every way other than the treatment. But in a quasi-experiment where
the groups are not random, they may differ in other ways—they are non-equivalent groups.

When using this kind of design, researchers try to account for any confounding variables by
controlling for them in their analysis or by choosing groups that are as similar as possible.

Example: Non-Equivalent groups design

You hypothesize that a new after-school program will lead to higher grades. You choose two
similar groups of children who attend different schools, one of which implements the new
program while the other does not.

By comparing the children who attend the program with those who do not, you can find out
whether it has an impact on grades.

2. Regression-Discontinuity Design:

The design relies on a specific cutoff point or threshold to determine group assignment. In
this design, participants are assigned to treatment or control groups based on a cutoff score on
a particular variable. For example, it may be used to examine the impact of a remedial
education program for students who scored just above or just below a certain test score
threshold.

3. Natural Experiments:

In a natural experiment, researchers take advantage of naturally occurring events or situations

that mimic the conditions of a controlled experiment. For example, studying the impact of a
policy change on a population.
In a natural experiment, researchers do not intervene to manipulate variables as they would in
a traditional experiment. Instead, they observe and analyze the impact of a naturally
occurring event, policy change, or other external factor on a population or group of
participants
Examples of natural experiments include studying the impact of a new healthcare policy on
health outcomes, examining the effects of a natural disaster on a community's well-being, or
investigating the influence of economic changes on employment rates.