UNIT-I: MECHANICS

By
Ms. Pavithra T
Assistant Professor (S& H-Physics)
22BST102-Engineering Physics
J.N.N. Institute of Engineering
 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES (RIGID BODIES)
1. Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod

(a) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to its length
Let AB be a thin uniform rod of length l and mass M. The rod is free to rotate about an axis PQ perpendicular to its length
and passing through its center O. (Fig. 1.25)
Mass per unit length (linear density) of the rod,
m = M/l ... (1)
Consider a small element of length dx of the rod at a distance x, from O.
Mass of the element = m . dx
M.I. of this element about the axis PQ
= mass × (distance)2.
= mdx . x2
= mx2 dx ... (2)

The rod AB is considered to be made up of a number of such small elements of length dx.
Hence the moment of inertia I of the rod about the axis PQ is obtained by integrating the
moments of inertia of all such elements lying between the limits
(b) About an axis passing through one end of the rod and perpendicular to its length
Let AB be a thin uniform rod of length l and mass M. O is its center. As the rod is uniform,
its center and center of gravity coincide. PQ is an axis passing through O and perpendicular
to the length of the rod. (Fig. 1.26)
Let RS be an axis passing through one end A and perpendicular to the length of the rod.

Let I be the moment of inertia of the

rod about the axis RS.
By the theorem of parallel axes,
M.I. of the rod about the axis RS = M.I.
of the rod about the axis PQ passing
through the center of gravity + Mass ×
square of the distance of the axis from
the C.G.
Therefore,
 Moment of inertia of a thin circular disc
(a) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to its plane
Let M be the mass and R, the radius of a thin circular disc. The disc is free to rotate about an
axis AB passing through its centre O, and perpendicular to its plane
Consider a narrow circular strip of the disc with center O and radius x. Let dx be its radial
width.
Area of the strip = 2 π x dx.

Moment of inertia of this circular strip about the axis AB

The circular disc is considered to be made up of a large number of such narrow strips,
concentric with O and radii ranging from 0 to R.
Hence, the moment of inertia I of the disc about the axis AB is obtained by integrating the
above expression between limits x = 0 and x = R.
(b) About a diameter
Let AB and CD be two perpendicular diameters of the disc. The moment of inertia of the disc
about any diameter is the same as that about any other diameter. Hence the moments of
inertia about AB and CD are equal.
Let each of them be I.
The moment of inertia of the disc about an axis,
through the centre and perpendicular to the
plane of the disc is

= MR2/2 ... (6)

Therefore, by the theorem of perpendicular
axes,
Iz = Ix + Iy ... (7)
But, Iz = MR2/2 and
Ix = Iy + I
MR2/2 = I + I
MR2/2 = 2I
I = MR2/2 × 2
 Moment of Inertia of a Solid cylinder
(a) About an axis passing through the center and perpendicular to its length
Let M be the mass of a solid cylinder of length l and radius R. The cylinder is free to rotate
about an axis. AB passing through the center and perpendicular to its length.
Mass per unit length (linear density) of the cylinder,
m = M/l ... (1)
The cylinder is imaged to be divided into a large number of thin circular discs with their plane
at right angles to the length of the cylinder.
Consider one such circular disc of thickness dx at a distance x from the axis AB.
Mass of the disc = m dx
Moment of inertia of this disc about its own diameter.

∴ Moment of inertia of this disc about the axis AB, parallel to the diameter = Moment of
inertia about the diameter + Mass × square of the distance between the axes. (using parallel
axes theorem).
Therefore, the moment of inertia of the solid cylinder about axis AB, is obtained by integrating
the above expression between limits x = -l/2 and x = + l /2.
∴ M.I. of the cylinder about AB,
(b) About the axis of the cylinder
A solid cylinder is considered to be a thick circular disc. It is composed of a large number of
thin circular discs placed one above the other.
Let each such elementary disc be of mass m and radius R, equal to the radius of the cylinder.
The moment of inertia of each such disc about an axis passing through its center and
perpendicular to its plane
= mR2/2 ... (8)
∴ M.I. of the solid cylinder about its axis = ∑ mR2/2

where M is the mass of the cylinder.

Moment of Inertia of Certain Rigid Bodies
of mass M
 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A DIATOMIC MOLECULE

A diatomic molecule, in its stable equilibrium position consists two atoms that are at a
distance 'R' apart. The distance 'R' is called the bond length between the two atoms.
Presently we can consider that it consists of two tiny spheres at either end of a thin
weightless rigid rod, as shown in fig. 1.35. This kind of arrangement can be called as
rigid rotor.

Then
r1 + r2 = R .... (1)
and
m1 r1 = m2 r2 .... (2)
where m1 and m2 are the masses of two atoms respectively.
From eqn.(1),
r1 = R – r2 .... (3)
and from eqn.(2),
Now, the moment of inertia of the molecule (i.e., of the two atoms) about an axis passing
through the center of mass "C" and perpendicular to the bond is given as
I = m1 r12 = m2 r22 .... (7)
So,
I = m1 r1. r1 + m1 r1. r2, [ ⸪ From eqn.(2)]
I = m1 r1 (r1 + r2),
(or) by using eqn.(1),

Substituting eqn.(6) in eqn.(8) gives

So

where is called as reduced mass of the molecule. Thus the figure 1.35 can also

be redrawn as
In fig. 1.36, K = R, which is called radius of gyration, so
moment of inertia
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES
Angular momentum
The moment of linear momentum is known as angular momentum.
Consider a particle of mass m at a distance r from the axis of rotation. Let v be the linear
velocity of the particle (Fig. 1.37). Then,
Angular momentum= linear momentum × distance

where ω is the angular velocity of the particle.

Also =

S.I unit for angular momentum is kgm2 s-1

Definition
Angular momentum of a particle is defined as its moment of linear momentum. It is given
by the product of linear momentum and perpendicular distance of its line of action from the
axis of rotation. It is denoted by

In vector notation, angular momentum is given as the vector product of and

the linear momentum i.e.,

The direction of angular momentum

is perpendicular to plane containing
and
Expression for Angular momentum of a rigid body
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis XOX'. The rigid body consists of a large
number of particles.
Let m1, m2, m3, ... etc. be the masses of the particles situated at distances r1, r2, r3, ... etc. from
the fixed axis.
All the particles rotate with the same angular velocity ω. (Fig. 1.39)
Angular momentum = linear momentum × distance
= mv × r
= mr ω × r = mr ω × r
= mr2 ω { ⸪ v = r ω}
∴ Angular momentum of the first particle = m1 r12 ω
Angular momentum of the second particle = m2 r22 ω
Angular momentum of the third particle = m3 r32 ω and so on.
The angular momentum of the whole body is equal to the sum of the angular
momentum of all the particles of the body.
The angular momentum of the rigid body = m1 r12 ω + m2 r22 ω + m3 r32 ω
= ω (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + ...)
= ω Σ mr2
Let I be the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the fixed axis, I = Σ mr2

∴ The angular momentum of the rigid body, = ω I

Torque (τ)
Torque is the turning effect of a force on a body, on which the force acts.
The turning effect of a force depends on
(i) the magnitude of the force and
(ii) the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force

Definition
The moment of the applied force is called torque. It is represented by the symbol ‘τ’.
If F is the force acting on a body at a distance r (Fig. 1.40) then,
Torque = Force × distance, i.e., τ = r × F
The rotational motion comes into picture only when the torque acts on the body.
Torque in vector notation
When a force is applied on a rigid body capable of rotation about some axis, the body rotates
about the axis.
The ability of a force to rotate a body about an axis is measured in terms of a quantity
called torque.
Consider a body capable of rotation about an axis passing through O. Let a force F act at
A, distance 'r’ from O such that the line of action of the force is perpendicular to OA.
The moment of this force F about the axis through O is a measure of the torque. (Fig 1.40)
If perpendicular to each other τ = rF

(⸪ θ = 90° and sin θ = 1)

Unit of Torque

Newton - meter (Nm)

Relation between torque and angular momentum
Consider a rigid body capable of rotation about the axis. Let I be the moment of inertia of
the body about that axis. Let a constant torque τ acting on it changes its angular velocity
from ω0, ω in time 't'.
Torque = rate of change of angular momentum

where α is the angular acceleration.

 CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The law of conservation of angular momentum states that in the absence of an external
torque, the angular momentum of a body or a system of bodies remains conserved.

The equation of motion of angular momentum of a particle is given by

where is the torque acting on the particle and is the rate of change of angular momentum.

If there is no torque i.e. =0 or =0 𝑳= Constant .... (2)

i.e., angular momentum is conserved.

Thus, when the resultant external torque acting on a particle is zero, the total vector angular
momentum of the particle remains conserved. This is called law or principle of
conservation of angular momentum.
Hence, in the absence of any external torque, if the moment of inertia (I) of the system
increases, the angular velocity (ω) decreases. Similarly, if moment of inertia (I) decreases,
the angular velocity increases.
( ⸪ angular momentum, L = I ω)

Final angular momentum = Initial angular momentum

i.e Angular momentum remains unchanged.
If the moment of inertia I of a body changes due to redistribution of mass about the axis,
angular velocity ω changes in such a manner that the product I ω remains a constant.
It is clear that if the M.I. increases, the angular velocity ω decreases and vice versa.

This principle of conservation of angular momentum is utilized by a diver, a skater, or a

circus acrobat, while doing various acts of spinning.
Illustrations to explain the law of conservation of angular
UNIT-II: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
There are four Maxwell's equations in electromagnetic theory. The first two equations are known as steady state
equations and the last two equations are known as time varying equations.

Maxwell's Equation - I (From Gauss's law in electrostatics)

Integral form
Gauss's law in electrostatics states that the total electric flux through-any closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed by it (Fig. 2.1).
According to Gauss law,
Now, if ρ is the charge density, (charge per unit volume) then total charge inside the closed surface is given by

Substituting eqn (3) in eqn (2), we have

This is Maxwell's equation in integral form from Gauss law in electrostatics.

Applying Gauss's divergence theorem to LHS of eqn (4), we get

on substituting eqn (5) in eqn (4), we get

This is Maxwell's equation from Gauss's law electrostatics in differential form

Statement
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the total charge within
the volume
Maxwell's Equation - II
(From Gauss's law in magnetostatics)
Integral form
It is a well known fact in magnetism that the magnetic lines of force are continuous and do not appear to have the origin
or the end. Thus the total magnetic flux through any closed surface in a magnetic field is zero ie.,

This is Maxwell's equation in integral form from Gauss's law in magnetostatics.

Applying Gauss divergence theorem to the L.H.S. of equation (1), We get
on substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1), we have

This is Maxwell's equation in differential form from Gauss's law in magnetostatics.

Statement
The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
Maxwell's Equation - III

(From Faraday's law)

Let us consider C be a closed circuit and S be the surface with C as its boundary (Fig. 2.2). Let B be the magnetic flux
density inside the closed circuit.

Magnetic flux through a small area ds =

⸫ Total magnetic flux linked with the circuit =

Faraday's law states that the induced emf is the rate of change of magnetic flux ϕB
Here, the integral is taken over a closed curve C.
Equating eqn (3) and eqn (4), we have

This is Maxwell's equation in integral form from Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Now, applying Stoke's theorem to L.H.S. of eqn (5), we have
On substituting the eqn (6) in eqn (5), we get

Since this must be true for all surfaces S, it follows that

Eqn. (8) represents Maxwell's equation from Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction in differential form.
Statement:
The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the rate of magnetic displacement (flux density) through
that closed path.
Conduction current density
This is the current due to flow of electrons through the resistance in the circuit obeying ohm's law
We know that

where ρ - resistivity of the conductor

l - length of the conductor
A - area of cross-section of conductor
σ - Conductivity of conductor
Substituting for R from eqn (2) in eqn (1), we have

Here, Jc represents the conduction current density

Displacement current density

It is the current that exists across the capacitor in the circuit. When alternating field is applied to the parallel plate capacitor,
no charge motion takes place (Fig 2.3).
It is due to vacuum or dielectric medium in capacitor but exchange (displacement) of charge takes place inside the capacitor.
It results in the existence of current on the surface of capacitor. This current is called displacement current in the capacitor.

But q = CV
C- Capacitance of capacitor
V - Potential difference
The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by

where ε- Permittivity of the medium

A- Area of the parallel plate capacitor
d - Distance between two plates
Substituting for C from eqn (2) in eqn (1), we get
substituting eqn (4) in eqn (3), we have
Maxwell's Equation - IV
From Ampere's Circuital law
Ampere's law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity H on any closed path is equal to the current
(I) enclosed by that path

But, current density J = I/A

where A is cross sectional area

substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1), we have

Ampere's law is modified by introducing displacement current density

Unless or otherwise it is not specified, J stands for conduction current density alone. (ie., J = JC)

then,

This is Maxwell's equation in integral form from Ampere's circuital law.

Applying Stoke's Theorem to LHS of equation (6), we have

On substituting eqn (7) in ean (6) we get

Equations (9) and (10) are Maxwell equations in differential form from Ampere's circuital law
Statement
The magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to the sum of the conduction current and displacement
current enclosed by the path.
Maxwell's equations are summarized as follows
Maxwell's Equations in Free Space

In a free space, there is no charges enclosed. There is no conductivity in the medium and conduction current is zero. Thus current
density and charge density ρ are zero. (ie., ρ = 0 and J = 0)

Therefore,
Maxwell's equations reduce to
Maxwell's Equations in Conducting Media
In conducting media,

where σ is electrical conductivity of the conducting medium

where μ is permeability of the medium

where ε is the permittivity of the conducting medium

By applying above conditions, general Maxwell's equations reduce to

 Characteristics of Maxwell's Equation

1. Maxwell's First Equation;

• It explains Gauss's law in electrostatics.

• It is time independent or steady state equation.
• The flux of the lines of electric force depends upon charge density.
• Charge acts as a source or sink for the lines of electric force.

2. Maxwell's Second Equation

• It expresses a well known observation that isolated magnetic poles do not exist.
• It states that total magnetic flux entering and leaving a given volume is equal.
• There is no source or sink for lines of magnetic force.
• It is a time independent equation.
• It explains Gauss's law in Magnetostatics
3. Maxwell's Third Equation

• It relates the electric field vector and magnetic induction vector

• It is a time dependent or time varying equation.
• It explains the well known Faraday's laws and Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction.
• is generated by the time variation of
4. Maxwell's Fourth Equation

• It gives relation with the magnetic field vector with displacement vector and the current density
• It is also a time dependent equation.
• It explains Ampere's circuital law.
• can be produced by and the time variation of
Plane Wave
If a wave is confined to a particular plane (instead of in 3-dimensions) and propagating along particular axis
with equal magnitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors, then that wave is called plane wave.