CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE 1 LEVEL MASONRY SUPERSTRUCTURES

Unit of learning code: CON/CU/MA/CR/02/3/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard : Construct Simple Level 1 Masonry

Superstructures

4.1 Introduction to the unit of learning.

This unit specifies the competencies required to construct Simple 1 Level Masonry Superstructures.
It entails setting out the superstructure, construction of reinforced concrete elements and
construction of masonry wall with opening. It applies in the construction industry.

4.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Interpret working drawings
2. Quantify materials requirements
3. Use masonry tools and equipment
4. Set-out building superstructure
5. Construct reinforced concrete columns and ring beams
6. Construct masonry wall with openings

4.2.1 Learning outcome 1: interpret working drawings

4.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Interpreting Working
Drawings. It includes to differentiate working drawings, read and apply various scales as used in the
drawings for the purpose of interpretation, convert Imperial measurements used in the drawings into
metric measurements identify symbols based on technical drawings

4.2.1.2 Performance Standard

1.1.Working drawings are differentiated based on technical drawings standards.

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1.2. The scale of the drawing is read based on the provided key.
1.3.Imperial measurements are converted into metric measurements based on conversion table.
1.4.Symbols are identified based on technical drawings standards.
1.5.Reference points are identified on the ground based on the site drawing.

4.2.1.3 Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

Working drawings
This is a graphical representation of the actual works expected to be done such as Architectural
Drawings, Structural, MEP Drawings, Site Development Drawings, and Survey Maps

Technical drawings standards

These are documents which provide uniform reference in the practice of technical
ISO 128, Euro code, Ministry of public works drawing manual

Imperial measurements

These are measurements for length in terms of miles feet, and inches
They are old units of measuring length.
Points to note:

12 inches = 1 foot/feet
1 inch = 2.5 centimeters (25 mm)
1 feet = 300 centimeters (300 millimeters)
1 mile = 1.5 kilometers

Metric measurements

The metric system is used to measure the length, weight or volume of an object whereby;
Length is measured in terms of millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), meters (m) or kilometers (km).

1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm
1m = 1000 mm
1 km = 1000 m
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Weight is measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Volume is measured in milliliters (ml) and
liters (l).

1 kg = 1000 g
1 l = 1000 ml
1 kg is the weight of seven apples
1 l is the volume of a carton of orange juice

Scale
Is a representation of the actual ground dimensions to fit the drawing on a particular size of the
drawing paper? E.g. 1mm on paper representing 100mm on the ground.

Symbols
Are the shorthand of drawing, They graphically portray the characteristics of a component with a
minimal amount of drawing

Reference points
Points from which all other measurements and levels will be measured or taken from in relation to
the site under construction.

Types of working drawings.

Architectural Drawings.
This is a technical drawing of a house, building or any kind of structure
Drawn by the architect giving the floor plan, elevations and sections with comprehensive details.

Floor plan: They illustrate the horizontal dimensions of a building space. The floor plan conveys the
thickness and construction of vertical walls, and columns that define these spaces. These floor plans
are essential to define the spaces such as rooms & partition and its functional relationship. And also
to illustrate places of openings like doors and windows, finishing and entrances. Also, to define
utilities such as stairs, elevators, mechanical room, baths, stores.

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Building Section: Building section drawing is a vertical pane cut through a building. It is a drawing
of interior & exterior partitions and roofs and ground floor in addition of interior elevations seen
beyond the plane of cut.
The purpose of building section is to Illustrate building construction, and technical implementation
such as precast & pre-stress. Also to show the types of slab; is it solid slab, hollow block, or just flat
slab? Also, to show the building materials to be used such as block, stone, concrete, glass, etc.
Moreover, it’s used to show the height of the building and levels. And again, for details, finishing,
and measurements.

Building Elevations: These are views of a building’s exterior vertical surfaces that shows the
finishing materials, windows and doors, size & Heights of the buildings and its elements, shape of
the building, materials of exterior surfaces, and measurements. Elevations are drawing of four main
faces of a building: front, rear, right, and left and are named north, south, east, and west.

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Structural Drawings

Produced by the structural engineer giving details for structural members such as beams, foundations
strip, columns and column bases, slabs, roof members or other structures showing how they be built
These drawings outlines the sizes, type and standards of the materials required as well as
requirements for connections.
The structural drawings set has the following subsets:

• General Notes,
• Plans,
• Elevations,
• Sections,
• Details

General Notes are part of structural drawings and they cover the codes used in design and the by-
laws of the building.

Typically there are no details on these drawings. Structural notes provide information regarding
general material properties (steel or wood grade, concrete strength, etc) or construction requirements
(soil compaction, weld procedures, etc).
Elevations show the exterior walls of a building or structure. In elevation drawings you can find the
height of building (floors and roof elevations) and structural properties of elements present in the
walls and that cannot be seen in plan drawings.
Sections plans are referenced in the plan view drawings and provide information about elements
that cannot be see in plan drawings. The sections usually are cut through walls or structural elements
that are not typical and the constructor needs to be aware off.

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The details drawings provide particular information on how to construct or connect the structural
elements.The details can be reference in plans, elevations and sections.

Site Development Drawings

Produced giving details on how the site will be constructed bearing in mind the existing physical
planning regulations as stipulated in the physical planning act.
These drawings illustrate the location and orientation of the plot land.

It shows the following,

• Building foot prints, travel ways
• Drainage facilities,
• Sanitary sewer lines,
• Water lines,
• Lighting landscaping and garden elements.
• Property line
• Outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures
• Distance between buildings
• Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
• Parking lots/areas, indicating parking spaces
• Driveways
• Surrounding streets
• Easements
• Ground sign location
• Utilities

Survey Maps

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Produced by the surveyor giving detailed information indicating existing features, ground and
reduced levels for the purpose of setting out and earthworks.
Survey maps determine the precise location of new structures on construction sites before they are
built.

What Should Be Included In Working Drawings

The following information should be shown:
• Drawing Title
• Plan layout
• Elevations
• Detailed and labeled sections
• A reference number,
• Notes (general, civil, mechanical
• Drawing scales
• Date drawn
• A brief description of the requirement or schedule eg for doors, windows, foundations,
reinforcement bars etc

4.2.1.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity
• You are given a plan of a classroom, interpret the drawing and dive the detail of what is
required for the setting out of the building

A Case Study
Your institute intends to construct 3 No. classrooms to accommodate the rising number of trainees
joining the institute .The space available measures 100 feet by 160 feet.
You have been appointed as team leader on behalf of the institute to facilitate the construction of the
classroom.

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 a) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
b) What’s the need of establishing the reference points on the site?
c) Why is the use of scale important in project drawings?
d) What are some of the appropriate scales you can expect in the different drawings to be
produced?
e) What are the metric measurements for the provided institute space?
Field/Visit to nearby construction site
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To relate real site activities -types of drawings used in the Must interpret the working
in the interpretation of construction site drawing correctly.
working drawings - use of reference points in
constructions site
-use of scaled drawings Relate the drawings with
against ground ground measurements
measurements
- use imperial and metric
measurements

4.2.1.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the types of working drawings used in the construction sites?
2. What are the views drawn in an architectural drawings?
3. What is the purpose of structural drawings?
4. What are the contents of structural drawings.
5. What is a site development drawing?
6. Which are the features that can be shown on a site development drawing
7. A clients plot measures 50 feet by 100 feet, convert the size of this plot in metric
measurements?
8. How is the scale used in working drawings?
9. What does the following scale mean?

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 I. 1:100
II. 1.25

4.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Architectural Drawings
• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Site Development Drawings
• Survey Maps
• Scientific calculator
• Tape measures
• Stationery

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 4.2.1.7 References

W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK

J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2

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Response

1. What are the types of working drawings used in the construction sites?
• architectural
• structural
• MEP drawings
• site development drawings
• survey maps

2. What are the views drawn in an architectural drawings?

• floor plan
• building elevations
• building sections

3. What is the purpose of structural drawings?

• Produced by the structural engineer giving details for structural members such
as beams, foundations strip, columns and column bases, slabs, roof members or
other structures showing how they be built

4. What are the contents of structural drawings.

• General Notes,
• Plans,
• Elevations,
• Sections,
• Details
5. What is a site development drawing?

• Produced giving details on how the site will be constructed bearing in mind the
existing physical planning regulations as stipulated in the physical planning act.
• These drawings illustrate the location and orientation of the plot land.

6. Which are features that can be shown on a site development drawing?

• Building foot prints, travel ways
• Drainage facilities,
• Sanitary sewer lines,
• Water lines,
• Lighting landscaping and garden elements.
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 • Property line
• Outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures
• Distance between buildings
• Distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)
• Parking lots/areas, indicating parking spaces
• Driveways
• Surrounding streets
• Easements
• Ground sign location
• Utilities

7. A clients plot measures 50 feet by 100 feet, convert the size of this plot in metric
measurements?
• 15M by 30M

8. How is the scale used in working drawings?

• Represents of the actual ground dimensions to fit the drawing on a particular size of the
drawing paper? E.g. 1mm on paper representing 100mm on the ground

9. What does the following scale mean?

1:100
1.25

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 4.2.2 Learning outcome 2. Quantify material requirements

4.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in Quantity of Material
Requirements. It includes identifying materials required for substructure, calculating the supplies
and preparing a materials schedule based on the drawing.

4.2.2.2 Performance Standard

2.1. Materials required for masonry are identified based on the drawings
2.2. Supplies are identified based on drawings
2.3. A schedule of materials is prepared based on the drawing

4.2.2.3 Information Sheet

Definitions of terms
Materials/supply is a substance or a mixture of substances that are used in the construction of
buildings and structures.
Materials schedule is a list of materials used in constructing an element including the quantities,
units of measurements and description
Material quantification is the act of counting and measuring the materials that are required for a
specific task
Drawings
This is a graphical representation of the actual works expected to be done such as Architectural
Drawings, Structural, MEP Drawings, Site Development Drawings, and Survey Maps

Types of Masonry Materials

Cement

Used as a binding material for preparation of mortar, concrete for masonry works.

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It comes in 50kgs bag.

Figure 129: cement

It is received in bags of 50 kg (or in bulk carriers in case of storage in silos) and each batch should be
accompanied with test certificate of the factory. Also, it should be tested before use to ascertain its
strength, setting time, etc.
Cement should be well stored in dry place free of moisture. In case cement has been stored for over 6
months from date of manufacturer or for any reasons the stored cement shows signs of deterioration
or contamination, it should be tested as per the direction of the Engineer before use.
The quality, strength of masonry and plastering works mainly depend on the quality of cement
Hence cement should be tested in field and in laboratory before use.

Cement should be checked for field tests like cement brand, manufacturing date, fineness, hardness,
floating test and also laboratory tests like soundness and setting time.
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Sand

Sand should be well graded, clean, dry, durable, coarse, hard, angular river sand free from foreign
materials such as coatings of clay, dust and organic matters.

Sand should be tested for silt content. Silt should not exceed 7%.

Sand should be checked for bulk age, so that correct quantity of sand will be added and also check
for gradation. The various sizes of particles of which the sand is composed should be uniformly
distributed throughout the mass.

Sand should not contain harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, coal particles, lignite, mica shale or
similar laminated material, alkali, and organic impurities in such form or quantities so as to affect the
durability or strength of concrete or mortar. The seasonal changes shall be well guarded. Sand
should be invariably washed using screw type sand washing machine only if the silt content is not
within the permissible limits.

River sand should be used. Do not use river sand which is affected by tidal water.

Never use sea sand. Also do not use sand which contains the white spotted material and shells.

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Figure 130: sand sample

Sand Sieving Screen

Sieving of sand should be done before use so as to maintain the different sizes of screens for various
work. Do not use rusted screens. Screen should be replaced frequently. Big holes due to damage
should be replaced immediately. Mechanically operated sieving machine is also used for sand
sieving.

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Figure 131: sand sieving screen
Ballast

It should be obtained from an approved quarry, where natural stones of approved quality are crushed.
It is available in terms of aggregate size such as 12mm, 24mm, 36mm.
Ballast should be free of foreign materials before using as part of concrete.

Masonry Units and Materials

These are walling units used together with mortar as jointing agent to construct a wall.
Examples of walling units can be such as:

a) Quarry Stones
These are obtained from natural stones from approved quarries.
They are produced in different standard sizes to match the required design needs such as size of the
wall, facings etc.

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 b) Bricks

Bricks are made out pure clay soils and should be checked for size, shape, frog, finishing, color,
soundness, breaking etc. once burnt from the kiln, before use. They come in different standard sizes
depending on the use. It should have minimum crushing strength of 35 kg/cm2.

Brick can be locally available, fairly uniform in size, with plane rectangular faces, shape and color.

Brick needs to be be uniformly well burnt so as to give clear ringing sound when struck and shall be
free from cracks or other flaws which impair their strength. They shall show a fine grained, uniform,
homogeneous and dense texture on fracture and shall be free from lumps of lime, laminations,
cracks, air holes, soluble salts causing efflorescence or other defects which may impair their
strength, durability, appearance or usefulness for the purpose intended.

(Also Read: All About Brick Masonry Construction and Its Precautions)

Figure 132: bricks

c) Concrete Hollow Blocks

These are made out of concrete in various sizes by use of molds that allow for hollow section in the
blocks.
The hollow part is meant to reduce the weight of the blocks while maintaining its structural strength.
Commonly used for non-loading bearing and partitioning walls.

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 d) Sold concrete blocks.

Made of concrete and in various sizes.

They are good for both load bearing and non-load bearing walls.

Figure 133: solid concrete block

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 e) Dressed Stones

The stone dressing is a process of surfacing and shaping of rocks available naturally. The place
where the rocks are abundantly available is called a quarry. The process of taking stones from the
natural bed is known as ‘Quarrying’.

The operation of stone dressing is generally carried out at the site of quarry so as to reduce the
transportation cost.

The dressing of stone is generally done using hand tools like Chisel, Pickaxe etc. using heavy
machines or blasting using explosives. Once quarried, the stones are cut into the suitable size and
surface finishes. This process is termed as dressing of stones. The effective dressing of stones would
help in making your structure attractive and economical.

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Figure 134: dressed stones

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Figure 135: stone dressing stones

Different Stages Involved in Stone Dressing

Sizing:

The irregular quarried rock is cut into desired dimensions by removing extra portions. It is generally
done using hammers and chisels or cutting machines.

Shaping:

Once cut to desired dimensions extra projections are removed to shape the stone.

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Plaining:

It is the process of removing irregularities from the stone surface.

Finishing:

It is done by rubbing the stone surface with an abrasive material like silicon carbide.

Polishing:

In this stage the stone is polished by hand or machine to make it more attractive. It is generally done
in stones like lime stones, marbles and granite. The effective dressing of stones would help in
making your structure attractive and economical.

Reinforcing Steel

Reinforcement bars are manufactured and produced in different diameter sizes to serve structural
designs of the building.
They come in full lengths of 12M long and diameters ranging from 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm,
20mm, to 32mm.
Shapes can be either round bar, twisted bar, ribbed or deformed bar.

Timber Formworks

Timber obtained from different types of wood through logging process.

Timber comes in different sizes that meet the use and demand in the building industry
It should be stored in areas free from wetness, direct sunlight.

Additives
These are extra ingredients that are added to concrete or mortar aimed at making the final product
water proof, increased structural strength or change in color.

Quarry Dust

These are fine aggregates obtained from the quarry during the process of crushing quarry stones.
Its used together with sand and cement to produce blocks, or as mortar for jointing.
Gravel

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These are rubble stones obtained from quarry sites for use as hardcore filling.

Anti- Termite Treatment

Chemical meant to treat surfaces occupied by the building to kill or bar insects and termites that affect
the structural components of the building structure such as roof, slab, walls etc.
Obtains from various manufacturers in the market.
Usage is as per manufacturer’s instructions.
It’s hazardous and should be kept well.

Dump Proof Membrane

A damp-proof membrane is a moisture-inhibiting foil that is 100% watertight .Thus damp – which
exists in the surrounding air in the form of condensation – is prevented from penetrating the
membrane.

Damp-proof membrane types

• (polyethylene) foils are most widely used

• aluminium or aluminated paper are also often used for insulation materials - examples that
come to mind include flensing decks and laminated insulation panels.
• another solution is a bituminous course

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Figure 136: DPM
Damp Proof Course

Damp proofing material laid on which the wall is constructed that helps inhibit moisture from
accessing the walls.

Hoop Iron

It’s meant to reinforce masonry walls.

The hoop iron is important in controlling excessive cracking and possible collapse of walls. This due
to the fact that iron has very good tensile properties while concrete and mortar are very weak on
tensile strength.
Reinforced brick masonry is capable of resisting both compressive as well as tensile and shear stress.
They in different sizes and gauges.

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Figure 137: hoop iron 20kg roll

Quantifying Materials Used

Estimating masonry units

The most straight forward means of determining the walling of units needed is to determine the total
square area coverage of the wall and divide by the surface area provided by a single unit specified
for the project.
The table below shows the approximations.

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Table 6: masonry units measurements

Estimating Masonry Mortar ( sand and cement)

To estimate for these materials the following factors must be considered:
i. Desinties for materials
• Cement 1440kg per cubic meter
• Sand 1550kg per cubic meter
• Ballast 1670kg per cubic meter

ii. Bulking percentage

iii. Wastage percenage
iv. Cutting and breakages percentage
v. Volume of work to be done

Materials Schedule Format

Item description quantity unit

no.
1 Cement 50kg bag 60 Number
2 Sand 200 Tones

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 3 Ballast 468 Tones
4 Timber 200x25mm 690 Linear meters
5 D12 reinforcement bars 350 kgs

Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome

https://www.slideshare.net/NomanBindresh/reinforced-brickwork
Reinforced brickwork - SlideShare

http://www.experts123.com/q/what-role-does-hoop-iron-play-in-controlling-cracks-in-masonry-
walls.html
What role does hoop iron play in controlling cracks in masonry ...

https://theconstructor.org/building/types-masonry-construction-based-material/36289/
Types of Masonry Construction Based on Material

4.2.2.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity
Visit the college workshop and From the samples provided on materials identify and differentiate
them as per the type and use of each material.
Based on the drawing provided, quantify the amount of material that will be required and prepare
materials schedule.
Field/Visit to nearby construction site

Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction

To relate real site activities in • Construction materials Must identify construction
quantifying materials available in the site materials correctly
• Calculation and
estimation of quantities
Estimate quantities for
• Preparation of schedule materials required for given
of materials amount of work and as per the
drawings correctly.

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 Prepare material schedule
accurately

4.2.2.5 Self-Assessment

1. Which materials are used for superstructure walling

2. What is the importance of the following in masonry
• Hoop iron
• Damp proof membrane
3. Where the following materials are obtained from.
• Hollow block
• Quarry stone
• Bricks...

4. How should cement be stored

5. What factors are considered when quantifying materials for masonry walling
6. Draft a material schedule format.

4.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Architectural Drawings
• Structural
• MEP Drawings
• Site Development Drawings
• Survey Maps
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• Scientific calculator
• Tape measures
• Stationery

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4.2.2.7 References
KREH, D. BUILDING with masonry brick, block and concrete. The Tuanton Press, 1998.
Annoted Design and Construction Details for Concrete Masonry. TR 90B. NATIONAL
CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION, 2003.

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Responses

1. Which materials are used for superstructure walling?

• walling
• sand
• bricks
• ballast
• quarry stones
• timber
• hoop iron
• reinforcement bars
• dpm
• dpc
2. What is importance of the following in masonry
• Hoop iron: reinforces the wall and protects against tensional stress which cause
cracking
• Dump proof membrane: inhibits the ingress of dumpness from the surrounding
3. Where are the following materials obtained from?
Bricks... from burnt moulded clay soils
Quarry stone... from approved natural natural quarry sites
Hollow block..... from a mix of cement and fine aggreagates
4. How should cement be stored
• Cement should stored in stores free from dampness,rains and well aerated.
5. What factors are considered when quantifying materials for masonry walling.

• Bulking
• Density
• Wastage
• Cutting
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 • Breakages
6. Draft a material schedule format.

Item description quantity unit

no.
1
2
3
4

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 4.2.3 Learning Outcome 3 .Use Masonry Tools and Equipment

4.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in the use masonry tools and
equipment. It includes identifying the tools and equipment for a specific job including personal
protective equipment, cleaning and maintenance and proper storage after use.

4.2.3.2 Performance Standard

3.1.Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations.
3.2.Masonry tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
3.3.Masonry tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s manual
and workplace place policy.
3.4.Masonry tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
3.5.Masonry tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.

4.2.3.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms

PPEs are items worn to minimize exposure to hazards that can cause serious injury or illness.
Equipment: the necessary items required to perform a particular task

Tools: devices or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular function

Safety the condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk, or injury.

Maintenance is a deliberate activity intended to repair a tool or equipment. It can also be carried out
periodically to prevent breakdowns

Personal Protective Equipemnt (Care and Use)

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Required personnel protection equipment (PPE) must be worn at all times when on construction or
renovation sites or in the workshop while on practical sessions.

At a minimum, each worker is required to wear a hard hat and safety glasses. High visibility safety
vests with reflective striping are required when employees are exposed to vehicular traffic. In the
absences of vehicular traffic, high visibility shirts should be worn at all times. All workers must wear
shirts with sleeves, long work pants, and sturdy work shoes or boots when working on a construction
or renovation site or training workshops.

a) Eye and Face Protection

Safety glasses or face shields are worn any time work operations can cause foreign objects to get in
the eye. For example, during welding, cutting, grinding, nailing (or when working with concrete
and/or harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles). Wear when exposed to any electrical
hazards, including working on energized electrical systems.

Eye and face protectors – select based on anticipated hazards.

Figure 138: googles

b) Foot Protection

Construction workers should wear work shoes or boots with slip-resistant and puncture-resistant
soles.

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Safety-toed footwear is worn to prevent crushed toes when working around heavy equipment or
falling objects.

Figure 139: safety boots

Hand Protection

Protective Gloves should fit well .Workers should wear the right gloves for the job (examples:
heavy-duty rubber gloves for concrete work; welding gloves for welding; insulated gloves and
sleeves when exposed to electrical hazards).

Figure 140: gloves

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Head Protection

Wear hard hats where there is a potential for objects falling from above, bumps to the head from
fixed objects, or of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.Hard hats – routinely inspect them
for dents, cracks or deterioration; replace after a heavy blow or electrical shock; maintain in good
condition.

Figure 141: helmet

Hearing ProtectionUse earplugs/earmuffs in high noise work areas where chainsaws or heavy
equipment are used; clean or replace earplugs regularly.

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Figure 142: ear plugs

Respiratory Protection

When you have a lot cutting, grinding, handling dusty materials like cement, sand, chalk etc dust
gets everywhere including up to your nose. These calls for one wear a simple dust mask or a
respirator making it comfortable for one to work in such a dusty environment.

Figure 143: dust mask

Reflector Jackets
High Visibility gear is very imortant on most construction sites as well as in training workshops.
Colleges and companies can have refletive jackets as part of their uniform.. It's good to have a
warm jacket as well.

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Figure 144: reflector jacket
Masonry Tools and Equipment

1. Mason square

• The masonry square looks like a standard square but it is usually made of wood or plastic or
steel. The square is used at the corner of two perpendicular walls to make sure the bricks are
set at an exact 90° angle.
• Used by the mason during setting out to enable attainment of accurate 90 degrees corners of
squarenes
• It’s prudent for a mason to always check for the accuracy level of the square and do the right
adjustments before use. This will help minimize errors.

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Figure 145: mason square
2. Spirit Level
• Used to check vertical and horizontal levels during construction.
• It is usually made out of wood or plastic and is very lightweight. These levels, like standard
levels, have vials in them set at different angles, and each vial has an air bubble. There are
two lines marking the center of each vial. When the bubble is in between the two center lines,
the mason knows that the surface is level.

Figure 146: spirit level

3. Plumb bob

• Used to measure and check vertical levels during construction.

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Figure 147: plumb bob
4. Trowels

• A trowel is a small pie-shaped tool that is attached to a small handle.

• It is used to pick up mortar and spread it onto the brick you are about to put in place.
Sometimes the brick may get set down a little out of alignment.
• The butt end of the handle can be used to tap it into place. Trowels come in all shapes and
sizes. The one that you use depends on how big or how special the job is.
5. Margin Trowel

• A margin trowel is a long, thin trowel used for heaping small amounts of mortar on stone and
spreading it.
• Margin trowels are used with narrow masonry units such as a manufactured stone veneer in
order to avoid spilling excess mortar over the sides of the veneer units.
• Margin trowels, while not appropriate for every masonry project, are as close to a universal
trowel as you can get.

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Figure 148: margin trowel
6. V- or Square-Notch Trowel

• The workhorse of masonry jobs, the v- or square-notch trowel is large and has two sides that
are straight and another two sides that are notched.
• These notches can either be square or V-shaped, and they act essentially as a metered system
for dispensing mortar across a flat surface such as cement board. If you were to try to dispense
the mortar evenly with the flat edge of a trowel, it would be nearly impossible to disperse the
mortar at even rates.
• By pressing the trowel's notches flat against the surface, the mortar extrudes from the notches
evenly.

342
Figure 149: v or square notch trowel
7. Cold Chisel

• A cold chisel has a wide, flat head that is perfectly designed for slicing bricks or veneer stone
in half with a blow from a hammer.
• A cold chisel also has a myriad of other uses, such as chipping away excess mortar or
removing a single brick from a brick wall.
• Usually cold chisels have plastic handles to absorb the shock from the hammer blow.

Figure 150: cold chisel

8. Spades
• Used for mixing, picking ,collection and placing of materials in quantities

343
Figure 151: spade

9. Wheel Barrow

• In large construction works, a wheelbarrow can be used for taking concrete from the mixing
plant to its destination but where a small quantity of concrete is required; the masonry
worker can mix the concrete in the barrow to ease himself of the work.
• Moreover, when junks are required to be moved away from the construction site, a
wheelbarrow can be used when a truck cannot be used or when there is no

Figure 152: wheel barrow

10. Float
344
 • Floats are used regularly by plasterers and builders. A float is a tool with a curved handle and
a flat board surface made of plastic, wood, rubber or metal.
• The float is used by ‘floating’ or gliding it over freshly applied plaster once it has started to
firm up in order to level out the irregularities in the surface.

Figure 153: timber float

345
 11. Vibrator
A concrete vibrator is a machine used for construction-based purposes. These machines can come in
several different shapes and sizes. Some are small and run strictly on battery power, while others are
much larger with a primary power source stemming from electric power cords. Choosing the right
concrete vibrator can help settle your concrete for long-term stability and maintenance.

Why Use a Concrete Vibrator

Using vibration to assist concrete during its settling period has proven a worthwhile method that aids
in long-term durability. As wet concrete is poured, air bubbles become trapped within the mixture
creating cavities or honeycomb-like spaces. Left untouched, “honeycombing” can compromise the
cement’s longevity and strength. Vibrators force the trapped air out of the mixture leaving the final
product a more compact and level slab. It is not uncommon to see small bursts of air surfacing from
the wet mixture when the vibrator is being used correctly.

Figure 154: vibrator

12. Hammer
• Brick Hammer or Mason's Hammer
A masonry hammer is shaped like claw hammer, having a longer handle and a head, but that is
where the similarity stops. The masonry hammer’s head is also two-sided, like the claw hammer, but

346
one side has a square face on it, made for pounding in nails. The other side of the head has a long
chisel-like tip that is very sharp. This side is used to split bricks or break small pieces off rocks.

A brick hammer has a blunt side for tasks like chopping bricks or stones in half with a quick, decisive
blow. The other side is smaller and is used for scoring lines for more precise breaks.

Figure 155: brick hammer or masons hammer

• Mashing Hammer

The mashing hammer weighs between 2 to 4 pounds and has a double-sided pounding head. This
hammer is used to hit chisels to split brick or stone.

Figure 156: mashing hammer

347
Measuring and Levelling Tools

When performing any kind of masonry work, it is essential to check that everything is lining up with
your plans as you go. This, of course, means measuring distances and checking your angles to ensure
that everything is square, plumb, and level.

• Tape measure

A tape measure isessentially for measuring distances or lengths required during masonry work
construction.

Figure 157: tape measure

• Straight Edge

Figure 158: straight edge

348
Used to line up elements, check straight edges or level materials while pouring concrete slabs, or
plastering and screeding

• Blocking Chisel
A blocking chisel is made from heavy-duty steel and can be as large as 8 inches long. It is made
specifically to split large numbers of blocks. Using a mashing hammer and blocking chisel is more
efficient than a masonry hammer because you place the chisel exactly where you want to make your
split, and then hit it. There is no guarantee that a masonry hammer will land exactly where you want
it to.

Figure 159: blocking chisel

• Mason’s Line

A mason’s line is a heavy twine that is used to mark out a complete wall in one shot. The line is
wrapped around blocks that are placed at each corner of the wall. The blocks are securely in the
ground and the twine is tight, giving you a straight line to follow.

349
Figure 160: masons line

Care, Storage and Maintenance of Masonry Tools And Equipment

• They always be kept clean after use
• Use the right tool or equipment for the right job or purpose
• Repair with immediate effect any defect noted on your tool or equipment.
• Follow to the letter manufacturer’s user manual on use and maintenance of the tools and
equipment.
• Store all tools in their original pack cases.
• Keep all tools in a clean dry place.
• Lubricate, oil and grease tools and equipment before and after use.

350
Figure 161: care and storage of tools

Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome E.G. Books, Web Links

https://healthyhandyman.com/essential-masonry-tools-list/
The 13 Essential Masonry Tools List: Different Types & Their ...

https://gharpedia.com/blog/40-masonry-tools-used-in-masonry-work-of-your-home/
42+ Masonry Tools Used in Masonry Work of your Home

https://www.thespruce.com/overview-of-materials-for-masonry-work-1821974
Basic Masonry Tools and Materials to Get You Started

https://www.eurafco.com/eng/equipment-hand-tools/jung-masonry-tools.html
Masonry tools - Equipment - EURAFCO

4.2.3.4 Learning Activities

Practical
351
You have been taken to a workshop and tools are gathered together without any order. Select the
tools given according to their use and store them as required in the provided tools store.

Case study

A construction has not been doing well after self-appraisal. It was found that workers get injured
now and then and their health deteriorating after work.
It was noted that tools equipment don’t stay for longer after being bought.
What could be the cause of all these in relation to?
i. Use of PPEs
ii. Identification of tools and equipment
iii. Use ,care and maintence of tools and equipment
Field Study
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To relate real site activities Identify PPES
in the use of masonry tools Identification of PPES used in
and equipment. construction site Use PPES in line with OSH
regulations
Use PPES in the site
Identification of masonry Identify masonry tools correctly
tools used on site
Use tools and equipment
Use tools and equipment on appropriately.
the site.
Adhere to the procedure of
Adhere to care and storing tools and equipment
maintenance of tools appropriately
,equipment on site

352
 4.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. What are the forms of personal protective equipment in masonry work?

2. What are the major reasons for appropriate use of PPEs as mason?
3. Which types of PPEs used by masons.
4. Which is the major reason as to why use of PPEs is important.
5. What are the factors considered in good practice for care and maintenance of tools and
equipment?

4.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools and Equipment

• Club hammer
• Mason's hammer ,Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure)
• Power tools
• PPE’s

353
 • Sieve
• Brush
• Straight edge
• Sputter dash
• Vibrator Mixer
• Tamper
• Wheelbarrow
• Mason’s Square
• Helmet
• Dumper
• Sledge Hammer

Supplies and Materials

• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Masonry units e.g. quarry stones, bricks, concrete hallow brocks, precast products, capped
stones, dressed stones
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Quarry dust
• Gravel
• Anti- Termite treatment
• DPM
• DPC
• Hoop irop

354
 4.2.3.7 References

W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK

J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.
MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK LEVEL 1

355
Responses

1. What are the forms of personal protective equipment in masonry work?

• Protective gloves

• Hearing protection

• Full face disks when cutting, grinding or chipping

• Chemical splash protection goggles

• Respiratory protection

2. What are the major reasons for appropriate use of PPEs as a mason.
• Protective equipment (or PPE) are items worn to minimize exposure to
hazards that can cause serious injury or illness.
3. Which types of PPEs used by masons.
• Helmet or hard hats
• Googles
• Ear plugs and ear muffs
• Dust coat and coverall
• Safety shoes or gumboots
• Reflector jackets
• Face masks
• Protective eye wear
• Hand gloves

356
4. Which is the major reason as to why use of PPEs is important.
• Club hammer
• ,Mason's hammer ,Chisel
• Trowels (Brick, pointing, window, corner and finishing trowels)
• Spirit level
• Brick bat gauge
• Bolster
• Cold chisel
• Hawk (Hand board)
• Sandpaper/Sponge
• Jointing knife/rod
• Stepping ladder
• Mason's line
• Plumb bob
• Measuring tools (Tape measure
5. What are the factors considered in good practice for care and maintenance of tools and
equipment?
• They always be kept clean after use
• Use the right tool or equipment for the right job or purpose
• Repair with immediate effect any defect noted on your tool or equipment.
• Follow to the letter manufacturer’s user manual on use and maintenance of the
tools and equipment.
• Store all tools in their original pack cases.
• Keep all tools in a clean dry place.
• Lubricate, oil and grease tools and equipment before and after use.

357
 4.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Set-Out Simple Building Superstructure

4.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in setting out a building. It
includes to locate reference points for columns and wall openings on the floor slab, to transfer
markings to the floor slab from the profiles, to check measurement and square-ness and to mark
wall openings on the floor slab based on drawings

4.2.4.2 Performance Standard

4.1.Reference points for columns and wall openings are located on the floor slab as per drawings.
4.2.Markings are transferred to the floor slab from the profiles according to drawings and standard
procedures.
4.3.Measurement and square-ness are checked based on standard procedure.
4.4.Wall openings are marked on the floor slab based on drawings.

4.2.4.3 Information Sheet

Setting Out (Laying Out) Superstructure Walling

Reference points for columns and wall openings are located on the floor slab as per drawings. In
order to begin constructing of super structure walling for a building, the mason must first locate
reference points for columns, walls and wall openings on the floor slab as per the working drawings.
Reference will be made from the profile boards fixed and marked during initial setting out of the
building. The exact length, width, and position of the columns, walls and wall openings must be
indicated on the floor. This movement from the plan to the actual site floor is called lying out or
setting out. It is probably one the most critical step in the construction process.

Setting out Method

Pythagoras Method (triangle method)
Setting out a right angle S1 Work method:

358
Ensuring right angles (90 degrees) is important when setting out the initial perimeter of the house.

Figure 162: Setting out superstructure walls and columns on the floor slab
This can easily be achieved using the 3:4:5 triangle method.
A triangle, which has sides of length 3 metres, 4 metres and 5 metres, will always have a right angle
between the 3-metre side and the 4-metre side.
One can therefore construct a right angle using only a tape measure as follows:
Step 1. Measure the length A to B of 4 metres along the line from where a perpendicular line needs
to be defined. Place pegs exactly at points A and B,

Step 2. Hold the zero point of the tape measure on the peg A,

Step 3. A second person holds the mark 8.0 meters on the tape measure on peg B,

Step 4. A third person holds the tape measure on mark 5.0 meters, which will lead to point C when
the tape measure is pulled tight. Set a peg on point C.

359
Step 5. Extend the now perpendicular line from point B to point C to any length as required.

Step 6. After constructing the right angle check again that the triangle lengths represent exactly the
3:4:5 proportions.
Step 7. Ensure that all reference pegs are firmly fixed.
Step 8. Lay corner bricks or stones ensuring that they are vertically plumb and horizontally leveled.
Repeat the above procedure for other corners while applying diagonal checks to ascertain accuracy.

Figure 163: Pythagoras Method ( triangle method)

360
Figure 164 ground floor plan for setting out

A Building That Is Set Out Accurately Will Be:

• Level: no part of the floor or foundation higher than another;

• Square: walls parallel and the same length;

361
Figure 165: squareness
362
• Plumb: straight up and down, not leaning to one side or the other

Figure 166: plumbness

A building that is set out carelessly will be difficult or impossible to construct according to plan. As
a result, the finished structure may be expensive to maintain and unhealthful.

So it is important to take special care when setting out.

Marking of Wall Openings On The Floor Slab Based On Drawings

With the help of working drawings and particularly floor plan, wall openings such as doors, and
arches can be marked.
363
Study clearly the dimensions and exact positions from the floor plan and mark the same on the floor
using a tape measure .
Web
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-
1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-8-
10&cl=CL1.16&d=HASH0120e3be1fcef504939676c2.5.1>=1
Setting out (laying out)

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---
emp_ent/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_650137.pdf
LU2 Setting out Works - ILO

4.2.4.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity

Referring to the working drawing provided, set out the layout for superstructures marking all the
necessary wall openings.
Construct one course for all the walls applying all the relevant checks.
Case Study

You have successfully been selected as the site foreman by a nearby vocational training center in
your village. The center intends to construct a masonry workshop to accommodate the rising number
of trainees joining them.

a) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
b) What’s the need of establishing the reference points on the site?
c) What is the procedure you will use in setting out superstructures?
d) What checks must you apply to ascertain the accuracy of your work?
e) Which are the tools, equipment and materials the VTC will have to provide for the works.

364
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To relate real site activities -location of reference points Must interpret the working
in the Set-out building for walls and columns on floor drawing correctly.
superstructure slab.
- transfer of markings from the Transfer marks from profiles
profiles to the floor slab correctly
-application of accuracy
checks for measurements and Must apply accuracy checks
square ness during setting out
Marked wall openings on the
floor slab

4.2.4.5 Self-Assessment

1. What does the term setting out mean in construction

2. What are the steps followed in triangular or Pythagoras method of setting.
3. Which are the tools necessary for setting out
4. Which are the necessary checks that you must apply to ascertain the accuracy of setting out.
5. What are the types of wall openings you may be required to mark when setting out.
6. Which are the materials required during setting out.

4.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Tape measure
• Builders or mason square
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
365
 • Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Personal protective equipment
Supplies
• Ballast
• Cement
• Additives
• Water
• Timber
• Steel barsdamp proofing materials
• Lime chalk
• termite

366
4.2.4.7 References

• INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION, 2010, SETTING OUT

CONSTRUCTION WORKS, LEARNING UNIT 2.
• W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK
• J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
• W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
• W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.
• MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK
LEVEL 1

367
Response

1. What does the term setting out mean in construction?

• transferring of a building plan to the ground or floor slab

2. What are the steps followed in triangular or Pythagoras method of setting

• Step 1. Measure the length A to B of 4 meters along the line from where a
perpendicular line needs to be defined. Place pegs exactly at points A and B,

• Step 2. Hold the zero point of the tape measure on the peg A,

• Step 3. A second person holds the mark 8.0 metres on the tape measure on peg
B,

• Step 4. A third person holds the tape measure on mark 5.0 metres, which will
lead to point C when the tape measure is pulled tight. Set a peg on point C.

• Step 5. Extend the now perpendicular line from point B to point C to any
length as required.

• Step 6. After constructing the right angle check again that the triangle lengths
represent exactly the 3:4:5 proportions.

• Step 7. Ensure that all reference pegs are firmly fixed.

• Step 8. Lay corner bricks or stones ensuring that they are vertically plumb
and horizontally leveled.
• Repeat the above procedure for other corners while applying diagonal checks
to ascertain accuracy.

3. Which are the tools necessary for setting out?

• Tape measure
• Builders or mason square
• Mason string
• Pegs
368
 • Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob

4. Which are the necessary checks that you must apply to ascertain the accuracy of setting out?
• level check
• diagonal check
• square check
• plumbness check

5. What are the types of wall openings you may be required to mark when setting out
• doors
• windows
• arches

6. Which are the materials required during setting out?

• Ballast
• Cement
• Additives
• Water
• Timber
• Steel bars damp proofing materials
• Lime chalk
• termite

369
 4.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Construct Reinforced Concrete Columns And Ring Beam

4.2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in constructing reinforced
concrete columns and ring beam. It includes: to place steel reinforcements, place formworks,
prepare concrete mix, cast concrete, and cure ring beams and columns according to standard
operating procedures

4.2.5.2 Performance Standard

5.1. Steel reinforcements are placed according to structural drawings and standard operating
procedures
5.2. Formworks are placed as per specifications
5.3. Column concrete guide is casted as per standards operating procedure
5.4. Concrete mix is prepared as per specifications
5.5. Concrete is casted as per specifications and standard operating procedures
5.6. Ring beams and columns are cured according to standard operating procedures

4.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Preparation of Reinforcement
• Reinforcement for columns and beams are available in the market in different sizes.
• The sizes appropriate for use is normally detailed in the structural drawings provided by
the structural engineer.
• The bar bending schedule provided by the structural engineer need to be followed strictly
for better results.
• Accuracy of the highest degree is needed when taking measurements for the purpose of
cutting the bars.
• Unnecessary cutting of the bars should be avoided as much as possible so to reduce
wastage.

370
 • Tolerances and allowances necessary for cutting and bending should be allowed and this
vary from one size of the bar to another.

Standard Sizes of Reinforcement Bars

Available sizes are in diameters of 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 16mm, 20mm, 25mm, and 32mm.

Types of Bars
• Round or mild steel bars denoted as R
• Twisted bars or high tensile bars denoted as Y
• Deformed or ribbed bars or high tensile bars denoted as D

Procedure for Placing Of Reinforcement Bars

i. Identifying the type and size of the required bars from the drawings
ii. Straightening of the bars
iii. Measuring and marking the required lengths
iv. Cutting bars to required sizes
v. Bending
vi. Marking and Fixing using the tying or binding wire.
vii. Hoisting and placing in position
viii. Fixing of spacer or distance blocks ready for casting

Factors to Consider for Fixing and Positioning of Reinforcement

• Bar number/Bar Mark Reference

• Bar shape
• Diameter
• Spacing
• Length of bar
• Cutting Length
• Number of bars
371
Most of the information in a Bar Bending Schedule can be found in reinforcement drawings of the
structural unit. Bar shape, diameter, length and spacing is directly entered in the schedule just by
looking at the drawings, which will have detailed dimensioning.

Beam reinforcement bar marking for BBS

Number of bars:
Suppose the spacing of stirrups is 150 c/c and the length along which they are placed is 6800 mm,
we can find the number of bars by the formula below

[Length / Spacing] + 1 = number of bars

[ 6800 / 150 ] + 1 = 46.33

372
In this case, we always round up. Hence, we require 47 stirrups.

Cutting Length:
We must remember than steel is ductile in nature and is subject to elongation. Hence, the length of a
bar is increased when bends or hooks are introduced. Hence, certain deductions are needed to offset
this increase in length.

Cutting Length = True Length of a bar – Deductions

For 45 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 1 x Dia of bar x No. of bends

For 90 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 2 x Dia of bar x No. of bends

For stirrups:
90 degree hook:

Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 20 x dia

135 degree hook:

Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 24 x dia

Example BBS Calculation

373
Figure 167: Beam reinforcement bar marking for BBS Crossection
Formwork Placement
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into which concrete is
poured and formed.
Formwork is meant to hold reinforcement bars and concrete to mould and form the shape of the
beam or column required.
The shape, and sizes of formwork is as per the architectural working drawings provided by the
architect.
Correct dimensions should be used to avoid timber wastage and inaccuracies to the final product.

374
 Materials used For Formwork
• Timber
• Steel
• Glass fibre reinforced plastics
• Hard board
• Ply wood
• Round poles or posts
Beam Formwork
Formwork for beams takes the form of a three-sided box which is supported and propped in the
correct position and to the desired level.

375
Column Formwork

376
This consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size of the column to be poured. As a
means of keeping the formwork material thickness to a minimum, horizontal steel or timber
clamps (or yokes) are used at equal centers for batch filling and at varying centers for filling that is
completed in one pour.

Figure 168: column formwork

377
Functional Requirements of Good Formwork

378
The Following Requirements Should Be Satisfied By Good Formwork:

• Strong enough to withstand dead and live loads.

• Capable of retaining its shape by being efficiently propped and braced horizontally and
vertically.
• Joints should prevent leakage of cement grout.
• Should be capable of being removed in various parts without damaging the concrete.
• Material used be suitable for reuse.
• Should be set accurately to the desired line.
• As lightweight as possible.
• Material should not warp or distort on exposure to the elements.
• Should rest on a firm base.
• Deflection and shrinkage should be minimum
• The materials used should be cheap, easily available and suitable for reuse.

Concrete Preparation and Mixing

Proportioning for Mixing Concrete.

This signifies relative quantities of essential components that are mixed together to make concrete.
Thus a concrete mix of “1:3:6” signifies three parts of sand and five parts of coarse-aggregate for
one part of cement.
Other mixing ratios include 1:2:4, 1:3:5, 1:1.5:3, 1:4:8, 1:1:2
The quality of concrete depends to a great extent on these relative quantities. Various methods have
been applied to decide the proportions.

Ratios and quality of concrete expected are well defined in the detailed information on the working
drawings and specifications.

In ordinary construction, arbitrary method is generally applied where the experienced mason decides
the ratios of sand and coarse aggregates to be mixed with each volume of cement.

379
Batching Of Concrete Can Be Done By Either:

• Volume batching

This achieved by use a gauge box normally with a 1 cubic meter capacity.

• Weight batching

This method employs use of a weighing machine to batch the materials.

Casting of Concrete

The casting procedure is as follows.

1. Collect samples for maturity testing. Check slump and temperature if inclined with what’s
designed. Concrete should not be “freshen up” with water or re-tampered in any way.

2. The surfaces of construction joints should the thoroughly wet, free from laitance before pouring
fresh concrete.

3. For the casting, deposit concrete continuously. Make sure that concrete is cast as neatly as
possible and avoid considerable height difference that promotes aggregates segregation. Use chutes
if necessary. Make sure that no concrete that has already settled or “unworkable” is used, or does not
meet the required quality control limits.

4. Concrete pumps (lubricated using mortar before starting the work) may be used if necessary.

5. Concrete mix should be used and cast within one and one-half hour (1 1/2) after water has been
added to the dry mix.

6. Should the weather does not permit the ongoing concreting works; proper construction joints
should be established as per specifications and at the location where the stress is minimum.

7. As much as possible, avoid cold joints by placing layer by layer while the concrete is still in
plastic form.
380
8. Remove the temporary spreader (if used) in the formworks when the concrete placing has reached
the elevation of such spreader.

9. The concrete should be compacted using a mechanical vibrator. The use of vibrators should be
limited to the time necessary for consolidation. By any means, do not vibrate forms or
reinforcement. Under no circumstances should they be allowed to cause aggregate segregation.
Prepare for spare vibrator should the other one malfunction.

10. Strictly speaking, concrete should be cast max 0f 2 hours after leaving the batching plant (for
ready-mix concrete).

After the concrete has settled and has attained its designed strength safe for stripping, removal of
formworks may commence. Should there be any defect or noticeable bulges after the removal of
formworks, it should be rectified by the means of chipping, grinding or any approved tools.

Curing Of Concrete

Curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of concrete.

Curing takes place immediately after concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of
desired moisture and temperature conditions, both at depth and near the surface, for extended periods
of time. Properly cured concrete has an adequate amount of moisture for continued hydration and
development of strength, volume stability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and abrasion and
scaling resistance.

The length of adequate curing time is dependent on the following factors:

• Mixture proportions
• Specified strength
• Size and shape of concrete member
• Ambient weather conditions
• Future exposure conditions
381
Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome

https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/bar-bending-schedule-for-rcc-beam/9600/
Bar Bending Schedule for Reinforced Concrete Beam

https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/preparation-of-bar-bending-schedule/7629/
Preparation of Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) and Its Advantages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMSwp9JKdcE
Bar Bending Schedule of Beam - YouTube

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/formwork-150318073913-conversion-gate01/95/formwork-
construction-in-structures-7-638.jpg?cb=1426664578

http://www.civilengineersguide.com/procedure-on-how-to-cast-concrete-column
Procedure on How To Cast Concrete Column | Civil Engineers ...

https://www.quora.com/How-is-concrete-placed-in-the-formworks-for-a-slab-and-beams-what-is-
the-sequence-of-casting-and-what-area-of-the-slab-is-cast-by-each-lift-of-concrete
How is concrete placed in the formworks for a slab and beams .

https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/concrete-construction/curing-in-construction
Role of Concrete Curing - The Portland Cement Association

https://www.bobvila.com/articles/curing-concrete/
Curing Concrete Dos and Don'ts - Bob Vila

https://www.forconstructionpros.com/concrete/equipment-products/technology-
services/article/12169059/the-hows-and-whys-of-concrete-curing
The How's and Why's of Concrete Curing | For Construction Pros

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 4.2.5.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity

Referring to the working drawings provided, carry out the following tasks:
i. Prepare and place in position reinforcement and formwork ready for casting of concrete to
the beams and columns.
ii. Prepare concrete for casting using the following methods,
iii. Batching by volume: (beam concrete)
iv. Batching by weight: (column concrete)
v. Place the concrete prepared and subject it to curing till its gains the required strength and
demolish formwork.

1.2.5.4.1.2 A Case Study

Studies have shown that final those products of concrete elements fail to achieve the required
characteristics as expected from design work. You have been appointed as a lead team leader to
oversee construction of a dormitory.

a) What areas can look at to ensure that the final product meets the specifications
b) Why is curing essential to concreting
c) What are some of the materials you can recommend for formwork?
d) What methods can use in batching of concrete materials.
e) State the procedure you will use in casting concrete.

Field Study
Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction
To relate real site -placement of steel reinforcement as Must interpret the working
activities in the structural drawings drawing correctly.
Construction of - placement of formwork as per
reinforced concrete specifications Use bar bending schedule
columns and beams -preparation of concrete as per correctly
specifications Prepare formwork accurately

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 Correct concrete mixing ratios
Casting of concrete as per the followed accurately.
speciftions Casting procedure followed
correctly
Curing of concrete as per the
procedures

4.2.5.5 Self-Assessment
1. What are the available sizes of reinforcement bars in diameters in use?
2. Which types of reinforcement bars are commonly used ?
3. What is the procedure for placing of reinforcement bars?
4. What are the factors to consider for fixing and positioning of reinforcement?
5. How would you define the term formwork?
6. What is the major function of the formwork?
7. What are the materials used for formwork?
8. Which methods are used for concrete batching?
9. Which are the concrete mixing ratios used in construction?

4.2.5.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Tape measure
• Builders or mason square
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow

384
 • Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Personal protective equipment
Supplies and Materials
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop

385
 4.2.5.7 References

W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK

J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.

MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK LEVEL 1

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RESPONSES

1. What are the available sizes of reinforcement bars in diameters in use?

8mm,10mm,12mm,16mm,20mm,25mm, and 32mm
2. Which types of reinforcement bars are commonly used?
• Round or mild steel bars denoted as R
• Twisted bars or high tensile bars denoted as Y
• Deformed or ribbed bars or high tensile brs denoted as D
3. What is the procedure for placing of reinforcement bars?
• Identifying the type and size of the required bars from the drawings
• Straightening of the bars
• Measuring and marking the required lengths
• Cutting bars to required sizes
• Bending
• Marking and Fixing using the tying or binding wire.
• Hoisting and placing in position
• Fixin of spacer or distance blocks ready for casting
4. What are the factors to consider for fixing and positioning of reinforcement?

• Bar number/Bar Mark Reference

• Bar shape
• Diameter
• Spacing
• Length of bar
• Cutting Length
• Number of bars
5. How would you define the term formwork?
• Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into
which concrete is poured and formed

387
6. What is the major function of the formwork?
• Formwork is meant to hold reinforcement bars and concrete to mould and form
the shape of the beam or column required
7. What are the materials used for formwork?
• Timber
• Steel
• Glass fibre reinforced plastics
• Hard board
• Ply wood
• Round poles or posts

8. Which methods are used for concrete batching?

• volume
• weight
9. Which are the concrete mixing ratios used in construction?
• 1:2:4,
• 1:3:6,
• 1:1.5:3,
• 1:4:8,
• 1:1:2

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 4.2.6 Learning Outcome 6: Construct Masonry Wall with Opening

4.2.6.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required in construct masonry wall with
openings. It includes: to mark the position of the wall and openings on the slab and columns , lay
the Damp Proof , lay masonry wall units and construct bridging of walls as per drawings and SOP.

4.2.6.2 Performance Standard

6.1 Position of the wall and openings are marked on the slab and columns as per
drawings
6.2 Damp Proof Course is laid as per standard operating procedures and specifications
6.3 Masonry wall units are laid according to drawings and SOP
6.4 Bridging of walls are constructed as per drawings and SOP

4.2.6.3 Information Sheet

Masonry Walls

Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. Masonry is the word utilized
for development with mortar as a coupling material with singular units of blocks, stones, marbles,
rocks, solid squares, tiles, and so forth.

Mortar is a blend of restricting material with sand. Restricting materials can be concrete, lime, soil or
any other constructing materials.

Professionals do the Masonry projects and the unit works for various purposes. Some works for
building constructions, some makes barriers for boundaries to separate property line and some make
house wall for structural used.

Types of Masonry Wall

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Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure and help to maintain indoor and outdoor
temperature as well as it keeps protect the buildings from the outside world. Depending on the motor
mix materials, there are various types of Masonry Walls used in building constructions.

Categories

• Load bearing masonry wall

• Reinforced masonry wall
• Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
• Composite masonry wall
• Post-tensioned masonry wall

Brief descriptions of these masonry wall types are given below.

Load bearing Masonry Wall

Based on load bearing walls could be Load Bearing and Non-load Bearing walls.

Load bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it, which depends on weight constructing
and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of wall used for large buildings. e.g. housing
or tall buildings construction work. It is mainly made with brick, concrete block, or stone. Load
bearing wall helps to transfer weight from root to the foundation.

Non-load bearing walls that are only intended to support themselves and the weight of the cladding
or sheathings attached. This kind of walls provides no structural support and may be interior or
exterior walls

Reinforced Masonry Wall

A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, concrete or another type of masonry
materials that strengthened the use of other buildings materials to increase resistance to deterioration
due to weight bearing or other forms of stress. This type of wall could be a non-load bearing or load
bearing. One of the common examples of masonry involves exterior walls that are created using
concrete blocks or clay bricks. Along with these materials, steel rods are works into the structure,

390
often using some type of vertical framework that allows bearing the weight of connecting walls and
floors within the building.

Depending on which materials are used, and how they are located, reinforced masonry (RM) walls
can be divided into the following categories:

• Confined Masonry
• Reinforced Cavity Masonry
• Reinforced solid Masonry
• Reinforced hollow unit Masonry
• Reinforced grouted Masonry
• Reinforced pocket type Walls

Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall

Hollow masonry walls are made with cement blocks.

This type of masonry walls is used to stop dampness from getting inside of the building. It creates a
hollow area between the outside and inside of masonry walls.

It also assist with climate control. Modern masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry units
or combined hollow and solid masonry units.

Solid walls are systematically certified by metal ties, masonry investments or by collective
reinforcement.

Composite Masonry Walls

Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building materials; stones
and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks.

The purpose of this type of walls construction is –reduce the overall cost of construction and make
the structure durable by providing materials of better quality and good workmanship in the faces.
Composite masonry walls work to improve the appearance of a structure by covering up the inferior

391
works by use of superior quality of material in the desired positions. This type of walls is better
because it is cost-effective and optically appealing.

Types of Composite Masonry walls:

• Brick Backed Ashlar

• Brick facing with Rubble or Concrete Backing
• Stone facing with Brick, Rubble or concrete Backing

Post-tensioned Masonry Wall

Post-tensioning provides an additional axial load to masonry structures and thus increases resistance
to lateral force.

This type of walls has over their conventionally reinforced equivalents, such as increased in-plane
strength and the absence of residual post-earthquake wall displacements. Post-tensioning now is
used extensively in bridges, elevated slabs (parking structures and residential or commercial
buildings), residential foundations, walls, and columns. Designers commonly take advantage of this
method to produce buildings and structures with clear open spaces allowing more architectural
freedom.

Openings in Walls

These are gaps left on the wall to allow entry and exit in the building and to provide circulation of air
and light into the building.

The number, size and position of openings should not impair the stability of a wall to the extent that
the combined width of openings in walls between the centre line of buttressing walls or piers should
not exceed two-thirds of the length of that wall together with more detailed requirements limiting the
size of opening and recesses.

There is a requirement that the bearing end of lintels with a clear span of 1200 mm or less may be 100
mm and above that span, 150 mm.

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For strength and stability the brickwork in the jambs of openings has to be strengthened with more
closely spaced ties and the wall over the head of the opening supported by an arch, lintels or beams.

The jambs, brickwork on either side of the opening acts like legs which support brickwork over the
head of the opening. The term jamb is not used to describe a particular width either side of openings
and is merely a general term for the brickwork for full height of opening either side of the window.

‘Reveal’ is used more definitely to describe the thickness of the wall revealed by cutting the opening
and the reveal is a surface of brickwork as long as the height of the opening.

The lower part of the opening is a Cill for windows or a Threshold for doors.

The jambs of openings may be plain or square into which the door or window frames are built or fixed
or they may be rebated with a recess, behind which the door or window frame is built or fixed

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.

394
Damp Proof Course DPC

A damp proof course is a barrier usually formed by a membrane built into the walls of a
building typically 150 mm above ground level, to prevent damp rising through the walls.

395
A course is provided in the building to prevent the entry of the damp into the building, this course is
known as the damp proof course(DPC). This treatment is given to the building at the time of their
construction.

Effects 0f Dampness

Dampness in buildings can cause a number of serious problems, such as:

• Damp patches
• Mould growth, which is a course of respiratory allergies
• Mildew ,salts,staining and tide marks
• Damage to surface finishes
• Corrossion and decay of the building fabric
• Slip hazards
• Frost damage
• Poor performance of insulation
• Damage to equipment or electrical failure
• Poor drainage at the building site.
• In the perfect orientation of building; less entry of sunlight, heavy showers may
remain damp.
• Imperfect roof slope: flat slope may cause more water accumulation.
• Defective construction: in perfect wall jointings, joints in roofs, defective throating,
etc.
• Absorption of water from defective rainwater pipe

The most common causes of persistent dampness in buildings are:

• Condensation (surface or interstitial).

• Penetrating damp
• Rising damp

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Rising is caused by capillary action drawing moisture by up through the porous elements of a
building’s fabric and some penetrating , can be caused by faults to, or the absence of a (DPC) or
damp proof membrane (DPM).

When laying the DPC should be

• Continuous with any damp proof membrane in the floor.

• At least 150 mm above the grounf level of the adjoining ground if it is in an external
wall.
• If it is in an external cavity wall, the cavity should extend at least 225 mm below
the DPC or a cavity tray should be provided with weep holes every 900 mm so that
water running down the cavity cannot pass to the inner leaf.

Common Damp Proofing Materials

There are various materials that are used for damp proofing.

1. Hot Bitumen– It is a flexible material which is placed on concrete or mortar.

2. Mastic Asphalt – It is a semi-rigid material. It provides an impervious layer for damp
proofing.
3. Bituminous Felts – It is a flexible material which is available in rollers of walls width. It is
easy to lay and laid upon cement mortar.
4. Metal Sheets – The sheets of copper lead and aluminium are used as a damp proof course.
5. Stone – If stones such as granites, slates etc. laid in cement mortar they work as a damp
proof course.
6. Cement Concrete – Cement concrete with a ratio of 1:2:4 is a good damp proof course. It
is generally provided in the building at the plinth level.
7. Plastic Sheets – Plastic sheets are a very good course for damp proofing. They are made up
of black polythene having a thickness up to 1 mm.

397
398
Laying of Masonry Units

Steps in Setting of walling units:

Step: [1] Plan

399
Block walls require careful planning, just like any other masonry structure. If possible, plan the
length of your wall so it’s divisible by 450mm (the length of a standard block and mortar joint) to
minimize cutting.

Step:[2] Build A Solid Base Or Concrete Footing

Block walls must be built on a solid base.

Poured concrete footings for walls should be twice the width of the wall, flush with the ground, and
as deep as local codes require. Building codes might also call for concrete reinforcement.

Step :[3] Make Lines

400
Set a block at each end of the footing and center the width of each block on the width of the footing.

Mark the edges of the block on the footing and snap chalk lines on the surface of the footing. Make
sure your chalk lines extend to the ends of the footing

Step : [4] Establish The Corners

Use your batter or profile boards and mason’s lines to mark the corners of the wall on the footing.
Drop a plumb bob from the intersection of the lines and mark the footing clearly. Then snap a chalk

401
line between your marks. Check the corners for square using a 3-4-5 triangle or framing square, and
adjust as needed.

Step :[5] Make A Story Pole

A story pole helps you space the courses more quickly. To make one, cut a piece of straight
200×400mm to the height of the finished wall. Then mark the courses on the board, separating them
by 10mm for mortar joints.

Step: [6] Space the Blocks

402
Starting at one end of the footing with either an end block or half-corner block (depending on the
length of the wall), set blocks without mortar. Place the edges on the chalked lines, spacing them
with 3/8-inch-wide plywood. When you set the last block, snap perpendicular chalk lines to mark the
ends of the row.

Step [7] Navigate the Corners

If your wall turns a corner, establish the corner with your layout lines. Then start the second leg of
the trial run with a full corner block. Check the corner with a framing square. Lay out the rest of the
blocks along the chalk lines.

403
Step:[8] Prepare The Cement Mortal

Take the bag of dried concrete and measure out one dosage. Look on the bag’s specifications for the
brand you choose. Prepare a container to mix the dried mortar with water. Use a five gallon bucket
that you don’t mind damaging.

• Never mix more mortar than you can use

Step:[9] Apply Mortal To The Side

Apply mortar to each side of the concrete block using your trowel. You’ll need to apply at least an
inch to each side. Once applied, position the stone in the desired location. Try to align the corner to
the string set up earlier.

• Don’t apply mortar to outer edge of the corner.

404
 • Try not to leave any gaps when applying mortar, or it’ll weaken the bond between the blocks.

Step:[10] Continue To Lay The Concrete Blocks

Start laying blocks from the corner or edge of the wall so you can work in one direction.

• Apply mortar at the end of the block before you place the block adjacent to it.

Step:[11] Check The Alignment

Before stacking more concrete blocks on top of your initial foundation, check if everything is
aligned.

405
Use your mason’s level by laying it on the first set of blocks. Check both the outside and center
section of the bricks.

• Tap the blocks for any alignment adjustments while the mortar is still wet.

• Do not try to move a block after the concrete has set.

• Measure the length and height every two or three layers.

Step:[12] Apply Mortal To The Top

Place the mortar 1 inch (25mm ) deep and use the same width as the width of the block. You can
then spread the mortar so it covers the length of about 3 blocks in the direction that you are laying
the bricks.

Step:[13] Stack The Block

406
Lay the block down on top so the edge of the top block aligns with the halfway mark of the bottom
block.

You’ll recognize the pattern as a standard among the construction sites. The top block will fit in
between two bottom blocks.

Important Things to Note Why Laying Blocks.

• Before you apply mortar, lay the first course of blocks in a dry run, spacing the blocks with
3/8-inch plywood. Since you’ll need some method for keeping the block square to the
footing, either snap a chalk line on the footing along the edges of the block or 1-1/2 inches
away from the edges. Once you’ve set the block, you can use a 2×4 to keep the first course
spaced on this line. Or you can set stakes with mason’s line to align the outside faces.

• Concrete block webs are wider on one side. The wide side should face up because it provides
a larger bed for the mortar. This reduces waste, minimizing the amount of mortar that falls
off the web. It’s also easier to handle the blocks when you grip the wide side. To save time,
distribute the blocks along the job site with all the wide sides up.

• Do not wet the blocks before installing them. Wet blocks expand, then shrink when they dry.
If it rains or rain threatens, cover the blocks.

• Spread mortar only on the outside edges of the block (a technique called face-shell bedding),
not on the cross web. Applying mortar to the cross web is difficult, wasteful, and not
407
 necessary when building a wall in the landscape. An exception is when laying
reinforcements.

• On ends without corners, every other course after the first one should start and end with a
half-block.

Bridging Of Walls for Openings

This can be done by use of the following methods:

Lintels

Timber Lintels These were regularly used in the past and, depending on the span and the loading,
are still very useful.

Advantages of Timber Lintels

(1) they are light and thus easy to place

(2) they are cheap in comparison with other materials

(3) fixings are simple for architraves, pelmets, curtain rails, etc

Disadvantages Include

(1) the possibility of sagging under load when inadequately sized

(2) spans are limited according to the sizes available. While timber lintels have been used externally
in dwellings, they are more often than not used internally, covered in plasterboard and skimmed, not
only for appearance, but also to give them the required degree of fire resistance

Reinforced Concrete Lintels

This is cast using concrete and reinforcement bars since both materials expand and contract with
temperature variation at similar rates.

408
The use of reinforcing bars in concrete beams is important because of the inherent weakness of
concrete in tension (stretching). For example, if a beam is placed over an opening it will tend to sag
under load and stresses will occur in the beam

The lintels act as weight-supporting bridges, allowing the contractors to place bricks above a large
gap. Lintels can be precast or made on-site to the exact dimensions required. All you’ll need is some
strong cement – Tembo Power Plus is ideal for weight-bearing concrete beams and structures.

Materials needed to make concrete lintels

• cement
• River sand
• Crushed stone
• Wheelbarrow
• Shovel
• Trowel
• Timber for wooden formwork
• Steel rebar

• Hammer and nails

Steps to Making Concrete Lintels

1. Measure the gap you want to bridge with the concrete lintel and make a note of the exact
dimensions (length, width and height).

2. Create the wooden formwork using the timber. The bottom piece of wood should be the same
length and width as the lintel. Cut the four sides of the formwork to the right height and nail
the sides to the bottom piece of wood. You will now have an open-top box. Spray the inside
of the box with paint or oil to prevent the cement from sticking to the wood.

409
 3. Cut the steel rebar to the right size – they should be a few centimetres shorter than the length
of the wooden box. Place the bars inside the box using spacers or small wires to prevent them
from shifting when the cement is poured in.

4. Mix your concrete batch. Follow the instructions of the cement manufacturer , adding river
sand, crushed stone and water. Mix the concrete in a wheelbarrow until it has a paste-like
consistency.

5. Pour the wet concrete into the wooden formwork on top of the steel rebars. Fill the box to the
top and use a trowel to smooth the surface. Gently tap the sides of the wooden formwork
with a hammer to remove any trapped air inside the concrete. The concrete should be evenly
spread throughout the wooden mold.

6. Leave the lintel to stand for 24 hours then remove the wooden formwork. Place the semi-dry
concrete lintel on a flat surface to cure for seven days. After one week, the lintel will be
ready for use on your building.

Additional Information Sources Related To The Learning Outcome

http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-1-349-11379-8_7.pdf
BRIDGING OPENINGS

http://zhclg.com/brickwork-bricklaying/bridging-openings-in-cavity-walls.htm
BRIDGING OPENINGS IN CAVITY WALLS | Building, repair ..

4.2.6.4 Learning Activities

Practical activity

Referring to the working drawing provided, measure and quantify the materials required for
superstructures works and prepare materials schedule.
Set out the layout for superstructures marking the position of all the necessary wall openings on the
slab and columns.
Construct the walls applying all the relevant checks.
410
1.2.6.4.1.2 A Case Study

You have successfully been awarded a tender to construct a 3 bedroomed house, and work is to start
with immediate effect. At superstructure level:

a) What are the most important aspects to consider?

b) What type of drawings can you advice the institute to ensure that they are ready before the
work starts?
c) What’s the need of marking the positions of wall openings?
d) Which procedure will you use in setting out superstructures walling?
e) What checks must you apply to ascertain the accuracy of your work?
f) Which tools, equipment and materials the will have to provide for the works?
Field visit

Visit Objective/Aim Indicators Special Instruction

To relate real site activities in - marking of the positions 0f Positions of the walls and
Construct masonry wall with the wall and opennings as per openings must be marked
openings drawings. correctly
- laying of damp proof course Damp proof course must be
as per specifications and laid as per specifications
standard operating procedures
- laying of Masonry wall units Masonry wall units must be
are according to drawings and laid correctly
SOP
Construction of Bridging of Bridging of walls must comply
walls as per drawings and SOP with drawings and SOPs

4.2.6.5 Self-Assessment
1. Which are the types of openings in superstructure works
2. How would you define the term damp proofing as used in construction
3. Which materials are used for damp proofing
4. What are the major types of walls
411
 5. What are the advantages of timber lintel
6. What is the procedure of making a concrete lintel
7. What is the procedure of laying masonry wall units

4.2.6.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Tape measure
• Builders or mason square
• Mason string
• Pegs
• Hammer
• Spirit level
• Plumb bob
• Trowels
• Spades
• Wheel barrow
• Buckets
• Mixing platform
• Hose Pipe
• Personal protective equipment
Supplies and Materials
• Cement
• Sand
• Ballast
• Water
• Reinforcing steel
• Formworks
• Additives
• Hoop irop

412
 4.2.6.7 References

W.G NASH, 1983, BRICK WORK

J.C HODGE, MALCOLM THORPR, 2006, BRICKWORK FPR APPRENTICES
W.G NASH, 1990, BRICK WORK, VOLUME 2
W.G NASH, NELSON THOMES, 1983, BRICKLAYING, VOLUME 3.
MALCOLM THORPE, 2010,TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING,BRICK WORK LEVEL 1

413
Responses

1. Which are the types of openings in superstructure works

• Doors
• Windows
• Permanent vents
2. How would you define the term damp proofing as used in construction
• It’s a barrier usually formed by a membrane built into the walls of a building typically
150 mm above ground level, to prevent damp rising through the walls
3. Which materials are used for damp proofing
• Hot Bitumen
• Mastic Asphalt
• Bituminous Felts.
• Metal Sheets
• Polythene sheets
• Cement Concrete
4. What are the major types of walls

• Load bearing masonry wall

• Reinforced masonry wall
• Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
• Composite masonry wall
• Post-tensioned masonry wall

5. What are the adavantages of timber lintel

• they are light and thus easy to place
• they are cheap in comparison with other materials
• fixings are simple for architraves, pelmets, curtain rails, etc

6. What is the procedure of making a concrete lintel

414
 • Measure the gap you want to bridge with the concrete lintel and make a note of the
exact dimensions (length, width and height).

• Create the wooden formwork using the timber. The bottom piece of wood should be
the same length and width as the lintel. Cut the four sides of the formwork to the right
height and nail the sides to the bottom piece of wood. You will now have an open-top
box. Spray the inside of the box with paint or oil to prevent the cement from sticking
to the wood.

• Cut the steel rebar to the right size – they should be a few centimeters shorter than
the length of the wooden box. Place the bars inside the box using spacers or small
wires to prevent them from shifting when the cement is poured in.

• Mix your concrete batch. Follow the instructions of the cement manufacturer packet,
adding river sand, crushed stone and water. Mix the concrete in a wheelbarrow until
it has a paste-like consistency.

• Pour the wet concrete into the wooden formwork on top of the steel bars. Fill the box
to the top and use a trowel to smooth the surface. Gently tap the sides of the wooden

7. What is the procedure of laying masonry wall units.

• plan
• build a solid base or concrete footing
• make lines
• establish the corners
• make a story pole
• space the blocks
• navigate the corners
• prepare the cement mortal
• apply mortal to the side
• continue to lay the concrete blocks
415
• check the alignment
• apply mortal to the top
• stack the block

416