UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

AN ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE COURSE ARC 461

THE TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BAMBOO

IN COMPARISON WITH STEEL AND CONCRETE

BY

IBEIKE CELESTINE .O

LECTURER: ARC. ANOLUE BASIL

JULY, 2024
Introduction

Structural systems are those elements of construction that are designed to form part of
a building’s structure either to support the entire building (or other built asset, such as
a bridge or tunnel) or just a part of it. So, a steel frame is a structural system that supports
the building and everything on itand in it. A space frame is a structural system that typically supports
the roof.

Building materials are those that are utilized in construction. Many materials found in nature, including
wood, sand, pebbles, clay, and even twigs and leaves, have been utilized to build structures. In
addition to materials found in nature, man-made products are widely used, varying in their degree of
synthetic nature. Many nations have well-established industries dedicated to the production of
construction materials, and the usage of these products is usually limited to specialized crafts like
carpentry, insulation, plumbing, and roofing. They supply the building blocks for homes and other
constructions.

Building materials have changed throughout time from being mostly natural to being more man-made
and composite, biodegradable to imperishable, indigenous (local) to being moved around the world,
repairable to throwaway, and selected for better seismic and fire resistance. The short- and long-term
financial, environmental, energy, and social costs of construction materials are generally rising due to
these factors.

Types of structural system

Continuous structures

These comprise continuous supporting walls through which the combined loads and forces in
a building are transferred, mainly by direct compression, into the subsoil through the foundations.
The timber floors of a traditionalbrick-built house, for example, provide lateral bracing and prevent
potential deflection of the walls. Laying the bricks in a bond pattern (ie with staggered vertical joints)
allows compression forces to be evenly distributed throughout the wall volume.

Framed structures

Timber, reinforced concrete and steel can all be used to create

regular frameworks comprising beams and columns.
The beams transfer loads from roof, floors and walls to the columns. The columns transfer
the beam loadsto the sub-soil through the foundations. The dead and imposed
loads from roofs or floor slabs will be transferred to the floor beams and then to the structural frame.
Compared to a continuous support-type structure of similar weight, a framed structure typically
transfers more concentrated loads into the subsoil.

External walls in framed buildings act as infill panels between columns and beams. Because they are
non-load bearing (although they carry their own weight and must resist wind forces), they can be of
any durable material that fulfils thermal, acoustic, fire and environmental criteria. When positioned on
the outside of the frame they form a part of the building envelope and are known as cladding. When
they are positioned on a secondary steelframework attached to outside of the main structure so that
a ventilation gap is created behind them, they are known as a rainscreen.

The position of the structural frame relative to its cladding will determine the external
appearance: cladding panels can be located behind, in front of, or flush with the frame.

Shell structures

Shell structures are made from structural ‘skins’ where the shell material is thin in section relative to
the other dimensions of the roof and undergoes relatively little deformation under load. They are
commonly used where a building interior needs to be free from intermediate walls or columns that
might support a more conventional flat or pitched roof, such as; libraries, theatres, leisure
centres, airport and railway terminals, and so on.

Shell roofs structures be ‘flat’, but are typically curved, assuming a cylindrical, domed, paraboloid or
ellipsoid shape. The curvature of shell structures benefits from the
same structural efficiency as arches, which are pure compression forms with no tensile stresses.
Because of their structuralefficiency less material is generally needed compared to
more traditionalroofs. However, a restraining structure such as an edge beams is required to prevent
the shell from ‘spreading’.

For more information see: Shell structure.

Tensile structures

Conventional structures tend to be stabilised by the action of gravity on their mass holding them
in compression. A tensile structure is a structure that is stabilised by tension rather than compression.
In practice, structures tend to carry both tension and compression, and it is the degree to which
a structure is intentionally tensioned to stabilise it that determines whether it is considered a tensile
structure.

A suspension bridge is an example of a tensile structure.

For more information see: Tensile structures.

Membrane structures
Membrane structures (or fabric structures) create spaces that are enclosed by tensioned membranes.
At its simplest, a tent may be regarded as a membrane structure given its steel or fibreglass poles
support a canvas or plastic membrane covering.

As structures, membranes can be divided into pneumatic structures,

tensile membrane structures and cable net membrane structures. In all these,
the membrane is rendered taut through tensile forces applied by steel cables (or internal air pressure)
which transfer the forces to a structural frame and then to the subsoil. It is through the action of
the cables and constructionmembers that the membranes find their form.

In inflatable structures, steel cables and columns are replaced by air which supports a
reinforced membrane.

BUILDING MATERIALS

A. Natural Materials

Brush

Primitive tribes like Native Americans and the Pygmies of Africa utilized brush buildings, which are
made entirely of plant components in Fig 1. These are constructed primarily from bark, twigs, and
branches, much like a beaver's lodge. They went by several names, like wikiups, lean-tos, and so on.

The wattle and daub method, which fills in and covers a woven brush structure with clay soils or cow
dung, is a continuation of the brush building concept. As a result, the structure gains strength and
thermal mass. Building using wattle and daub is one of the oldest methods. Wattle and daub are a
common non-load-bearing wall material used in older timber frame constructions.
2. Ice and Snow

The Inuit people utilized snow and sometimes ice to construct igloos, and they also used snow to
construct quinzhees, which are covered shelters. In colder climates, ice has also been utilized to
create ice hotels, which are popular tourist attractions.

3. Mud and Clay

Buildings made of clay often fall into one of two categories. There are two methods for creating walls:
one involves using the mud mixture directly, and the other involves stacking mud bricks, which are air-
dried building blocks.

Clay is also used in construction to make mud plaster, light clay, and wattle and daub. It is also
blended with straws.

4. Wet Laid Clay Walls

The mud or clay mixture is used directly, without shaping blocks and drying them first, to create wet-
laid, or damp, walls. Different architectural styles are produced depending on the kind and quantity of
each element utilized in the mixture. The quality of the soil being used is typically the determining
factor. More clay is typically used when building with cob, whereas sod houses or roofs are typically
constructed with low-clay soil. Straw or grasses and sand or gravel make up many of the other
elements. Both an older and a more modern method of building walls are known as "rammed earth."
Originally, forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors were used to manually crush clay soil
between planks.
Soil, particularly clay, has a high thermal mass and is excellent at maintaining a steady temperature.
Homes constructed of earth typically have a natural tendency to be warm in the winter and cool in the
summer. Like stone, clay retains heat or cold and releases it gradually. Because earthen walls absorb
heat and release it more slowly than, say, a house built of wood, artificially raising or lowering the
temperature can require more energy but the effect lasts longer.

Homes made of primarily earth and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, have been erected for ages
throughout western and northern Europe, Asia, and the rest of the world. Construction is still going on,
albeit on a smaller scale. There are some of these structures that have been inhabited for hundreds of
years.

5. Structural Clay Blocks and Bricks

Evidence of mud-bricks, or adobe in Spanish, dates back thousands of years BC, making them an old
building material. at modern industrialized societies, compressed earth blocks are a more common
type of brick used for construction since they can be produced off-site at a central place at a brickwork
and then transported to various building locations. Additionally, it is easier to monetize and sell these
blocks.

Clay is nearly always used to make structural mud bricks; typically, only clay soil and a binder are
needed, while other materials may include sand, lime, concrete, stone, and other binders. After the
crushed or formed block has air dried, it can be put flat or covered with clay slip or mortar.

6. Sand

For plastering and masonry projects, sand, cement, and occasionally lime are combined to create
mortar. Additionally, sand is added to the concrete mixture. Sand Crete blocks are a popular low-cost
building material in nations with soils that include a lot of sand; they are less durable than baked clay
bricks but still cost less.
7. Stone or Rock

There have been rock formations for as long as recorded history. It is typically easily accessible and
the most durable building material available. There are numerous varieties of rock, and each has
unique qualities that make it ideal or undesirable for a certain application. Since rock is so solid, it
provides a great deal of protection; nevertheless, its weight and labour-intensive nature make it an
unsuitable building material. Its energy density has benefits and drawbacks. Stone is difficult to heat
without using a lot of energy, but once it is heated, its thermal mass allows it to hold heat for extended
periods of time.

For as long as people have piled stones on top of one another, dry-stone walls and houses have been
constructed. Over time, various types of mortar were employed to secure the stones, with cement
currently being the most widely utilized type.

For example, the United Kingdom's Dartmoor National Park's granite-strewn uplands offered plenty of
resources to early settlers. Throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Ages, round cottages were built
out of loose granite boulders; an estimated 5,000 of these structures' remnants can still be seen
today. Granite was still in use throughout the Middle Ages and into the Modern Era (see the Dartmoor
longhouse). Another type of stone that is frequently used for roofing is slate, which is found in the UK
and other regions of the world. Most large towns have stone structures, and certain civilizations, like
the Inca culture and the pyramids of Egypt and the Aztecs, built most of their structures out of stone.

8. Thatch

One of the earliest known construction materials is thatch. "Grass" is another word for "thatch"; it is
easily gathered and acts as an excellent insulator. For a long time, many African tribes have
fashioned their homes entirely of grass and sand in Fig 2. Thatch roofs were originally common in
Europe, but as transportation and industry improved and other materials became more accessible,
thatch roofing became less and less popular. However, a resurgence of the practice is currently taking
place. For example, a lot of newly constructed homes in the Netherlands feature thatched roofs with
unique ridge tiles on top.
9. Wooden and Timber

In its natural state, wood has been utilized for construction purposes for thousands of years in Fig 3.
In modern industrialized nations, manufactured wood is becoming increasingly prevalent.

When cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks, and similar materials, wood—a
byproduct of trees and occasionally other fibrous plants—is utilized in construction. It is a universal
building material that may be utilized in most climates to build almost any kind of structure. When
loaded, wood can be exceedingly flexible, maintaining strength while bending, and it can withstand
tremendous vertical compression strength. Even within the same tree species, there are numerous
differences in characteristics between the various varieties of wood. This indicates that certain
species are more appropriate for a given purpose than others. Furthermore, quality is determined in
part by growing conditions.

Except in the United States, where the term "lumber" is used, "timber" is the term used in building.
When raw wood (a log, trunk, or bole) is "converted"—sawn, hewn, or split—it becomes timber.
Examples of this include light-frame building, timber frame construction, and minimally-processed logs
stacked on top of one another. The two biggest issues with timber structures are moisture-related
issues and the possibility of fire.

These days, hardwood is typically utilized for furniture and finishings, while softwood is used as a bulk
material with lower value. In Western Europe, oak was traditionally used to build timber frame
structures; but, in recent times, Douglas fir has emerged as the most widely used wood for most
structural building types. In rural locations, a lot of households and towns have their own woodlot
where they plant and harvest trees for their own use or to sell. These lots receive the same care as a
garden. This is still a viable method of agriculture, but it was far more common in pre-industrial
periods when there were regulations governing the amount of wood that could be cut at any given
time to guarantee a supply of timber for the future.

B. Man – Made Material

1. Fired Bricks and Clay Blocks

Bricks are made similarly to mud-bricks, but without the fibre binder like straw. To make them

permanently hard, they are burnt, or "burned," in a brick clamp or kiln after they have air-dried in

Fig 4a. Bricks made from kiln-fired clay are made of ceramics. Fired bricks can have hollow

interiors or be solid to help with drying and to make them lighter and more portable. Using

mortar, the individual bricks are stacked one on top of the other in courses. The construction of

walls, arches, and other architectural features is done in successive courses. Compared to

cob/adobe, fired brick walls are typically much thinner while maintaining the same vertical

strength. Although they are lighter than stone blocks and require more energy to produce, they

are also easier to transport and store. Roman bricks are named for the shape and type of burnt

brick that the Romans employed frequently. In Brick construction became very popular in the

middle of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This resulted from rising brick production and

fire safety in the ever-crowding cities at cheaper rates.

In the latter half of the 20th century, cinder blocks either supplemented or replaced burnt bricks,

and they were frequently employed both alone and for the inside of masonry walls.

Clay or terracotta structural clay tiles, also known as clay blocks in Fig 4b, are usually hole-

perforated.
2. Cement Composites

Pre-cast building components are created by binding wood, particles, or fibres together with

hydrated cement paste. This process is known as cement bonded composites. As binders, a

variety of fibrous materials have been employed, such as paper, carbon fibre, and fiberglass.

Various soluble organic components, including sugars, glycosides, and phenolics, make up wood

and natural fibres. It is well known that these substances slow cement setting. As a result, a
wood's suitability for use in cement-bonded composites is determined before employing it. The

ratio of a characteristic associated with a wood-cement composite's property to that of a clean

cement paste is known as wood-cement compatibility. A percentage value is frequently used to

express compatibility. A variety of factors, including hydration characteristics, strength, the

interfacial binding, and morphology, are taken into consideration when determining the

compatibility of wood with cement. Researchers employ a variety of techniques, including

measuring a cement-aggregate mix's hydration characteristics, comparing the mixes' mechanical

qualities, and visually evaluating the wood-cement mixes' microstructural qualities. The most

practical approach has been determined to be the hydration test that measures the change in

hydration temperature over time. From the Roman era until the early 1900s, bricks were set in

lime mortar. Later, Portland cement mortar took their place. Cement blocks are occasionally

coated with a parge layer or filled with grout.

3. Concrete

Aggregate and a binder, like cement, are combined to create concrete, a composite building

material. Portland cement concrete, which is made up of water, Portland cement, and mineral

aggregate—typically sand and gravel—is the most popular type of concrete.

Following mixing, the cement hydrates and finally turns into a substance that resembles stone.

This is the substance that is meant to be understood when the term "concrete" is used in its

general sense.

Because concrete has a relatively low tensile strength, steel rods or bars—also referred to as

rebars—are typically used to reinforce concrete constructions of any size. We therefore call this

strengthened concrete reinforced concrete. A vibrator is used to remove any air that has been

entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork to minimise air bubbles,

which could undermine the structure. Concrete's durability, formability, and portability have made

it the most popular building material in the modern era. Concrete forming and other building

phases (insulation installation) are combined in recent innovations like insulating concrete forms.

Every item must be consumed in the specified amounts as per the criteria.

4. Fabric

All around the world, nomadic people prefer to live in tents. The circular yurt and the conical

teepee are two popular varieties. With the advent of synthetic materials and tensile architecture,
the tent has become a prominent building technique once again. Contemporary structures can

be supported by air pressure, a system of internal or rigid steel wires, or flexible materials like

fabric membranes.

5. Foam

Lately, structural elements like concrete have been combined with synthetic polystyrene or

polyurethane foam. It is a great insulator, lightweight, and pliable. Typically, foam is utilized in

structural insulated panels, where it is positioned between insulating concrete forms and wood or

cement.

6. Glass

Both an industrial technique or material and an art form are associated with glassmaking.

Since the creation of glass, clear windows have been used to conceal minor gaps in buildings.

Glass windows allowed people to keep bad weather outdoors while yet allowing light into their

rooms. Glass is often created in a kiln, which is a very hot fire stove, using mixes of silicates and

sand. Glass is extremely brittle. Additives are frequently included into the mixture to create glass

with different hues or features (like lightbulbs or bulletproof glass).

In contemporary society, using glass in architectural structures has grown in popularity. Glass

"curtain walls" can be utilized to span over a vast roof structure in a "space frame" or to cover a

building's whole facade. But for these purposes, glass needs a frame of some kind to keep

portions of glass together because glass on its own is too fragile and would need to be fired in an

excessively large kiln to span such vast expanses.

The invention of glass bricks dates to the early 1900s.

7. Gypsum Concrete

Fiberglass rovings and gypsum plaster are combined to create gypsum concrete. Although

plaster and fibrous plaster have been used for a long time, particularly for ceilings, serious

research into the strength and characteristics of the Rapid wall walling system—which uses a

combination of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fiberglass rovings—did not begin until the early

1990s. Worldwide availability of gypsum (naturally occurring and as a by-product chemical FGD

and phosphor gypsums) makes gypsum concrete-based building products highly environmentally

beneficial. Additionally, gypsum is totally recyclable.

8. Metal

Metal is utilized as an external surface covering or as the structural basis for larger constructions,

such skyscrapers. Metals come in a wide variety and are utilized in construction. Metal is

employed in most cosmopolitan cities and is a key feature of prefabricated buildings like the

Quonset hut. Producing metal takes a lot of human effort, especially when it comes to the huge

quantities required for the construction sectors. The main factor preventing metal from lasting a

long time is corrosion.

The most common metal alloy for use in structural building applications is steel, which is mostly

made of iron. It is resilient, strong, and long-lasting if properly refined and/or treated.

Tin and aluminium alloys' superior corrosion resistance and lower density can occasionally

outweigh their higher cost.

Due to its beneficial qualities, copper is a highly prized architectural material (see: Copper in

architecture in Fig 5). They consist of a broad range of finishes, resilience to corrosion, longevity,

minimal heat movement, light weight, radio frequency shielding, lightning protection,

sustainability, and recyclability. Roofs, flashing, gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, wall

cladding, building expansion joints, and interior design components are all made of copper.

Titanium, gold, silver, and chromium are among additional metals that are used. Although

titanium costs far more than steel, it can be utilized structurally. Silver, gold, and chrome are

utilized as ornamental materials because they are not structurally sound or have high tensile

strength.
9. Plastics

Any organic condensation or polymerization product, whether synthetic or semi-synthetic, that

can be moulded or extruded into objects, films, or fibres is referred to as a plastic. Their name

comes from the fact that they have the quality of plasticity, or malleability, when they are in a

semi-liquid condition. The heat tolerance, hardness, and resilience of plastics vary greatly. In
addition to their versatility, plastics' generally homogeneous composition and low weight

guarantee their usage in nearly all modern industrial applications. Because of their exceptional

abrasion resistance and chemical inertness, high performance polymers like ETFE have

emerged as the perfect building material. The Eden Project biomes and the Beijing National

Aquatics Centre are two notable structures that include it.

10. Papers and Membranes

Membranes and building sheets are employed in construction for a variety of purposes. Red

rosin paper is one of the oldest building papers; it is known to have been in use prior to 1850 and

was used as an underlayment for external walls, roofs, and floors as well as to safeguard a

construction site. Tar paper was created around the end of the 1800s and was used for gravel

roofing and applications akin to those of rosin paper. Asphalt felt paper has essentially replaced
tar paper in usage. In certain applications, synthetic underlayment has replaced felt paper; this is

especially the case for house wraps and synthetic underlayment in roofing.

For roofing, waterproofing basements, and geomembranes, a broad range of damp proofing and

waterproofing membranes are available.

11. Ceramics

The use of fired clay bricks dates to the Roman era. Roofing, siding, floors, ceilings, pipes, flue

liners, and other applications all require specialty tiles.

C. Living Building Material

live building materials are a relatively new class of construction materials. that are materials that

are either made of, or derived from, live organisms, or that behave in a way that is evocative of

living things. Materials that duplicate (reproduce) instead of being created and materials that can

cure themselves are examples of potential applications.

Conclusion

Managing materials is an extremely intricate task. It is unclear which material should be utilized

in this model to keep costs from rising, and selection of the material should be based on cost.

The economic, ecological, social, and energy costs of a material should all be taken into

consideration when choosing it. The quality of the construction and its lifespan are then

jeopardized if the material is not chosen in accordance with the kind and requirements. Climate
claims that in order to prevent the structure from becoming hollow, the material\'s process needs

to be addressed. This paper discusses all of these topics because none of these issues arise.

References

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(2015), “Building Materials”, Prentice Hall India Learning Private Limited, ISBN 978-8120350915. [3]

Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows (2010), “Green Building Material: A Guide to Product Selection and

Specification”, Wiley. [4] Michael Pfeifer (2009), “Materials Enabled Designs”, Butterworth –

Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-8287-9. [5] Dr N. Subramanian (2019), “Building Materials”, OXFORD

HIGHER EDUCATION, ISBN 978-0-1994-9721-8. [6] G.D. Taylor (2002), “Materials in Construction”,

2nd Edition, Harlow, England; New York: Longman.