Grade 12 Acids and bases 2021

ACIDS AND BASES

Substances known as acids and bases are chemically important and they are
compounds that have many uses in our homes, and we come into contact with them
every day. In this section we will discuss the properties and reactions of these
substances. All acid-base reactions are called protolytic reactions.
We will often be referring to the term proton in this section. Bear in mind that this
refers to hydrogen ions, H+, and not to just any proton out of the nucleus of an atom.
1 Ionisation and dissociation

The definition of acids and bases that we use is the Brǿnsted-Lowry definition

An acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton

acceptor.

Both basic and acidic properties of substances arise when they are in
aqueous solution.
There are two processes by which different kinds of substances can dissolve
in water. One is known as ionisation.

Ionisation is the reaction of molecular

substances with water to produce ions.

The other is called dissociation.

Dissociation is the splitting of an ionic

compound into its ions in water.

You must be able to write balanced chemical equations for the ionisation of
acids in water. When equations are written for strong acids, there is a single
arrow in the equation but for weak acids a double arrow must be used. The
following are some examples:
HNO3 (aq) + H2 O(ℓ) → H3 O+ (aq) + NO−
3 (aq)

H2 SO4 (aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ) → 2H3 O+ (aq) + SO2−

4 (aq)

H3 PO4 (aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ 3H3 O+ (aq) + PO3−

4 (aq)

The H3O+ ion that is formed here is called the hydronium ion. It is responsible
for the acid nature of a solution.

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2 Strength of acids and bases

The strength of an acid is defined in terms of its ability to undergo ionisation.

A strong acid is an acid that ionises

almost completely in aqueous solution.

Common strong acids are:

• hydrochloric acid - HCℓ

• nitric acid – HNO3
• sulfuric acid – H2SO4
You must know the names and formulae of these acids.

A weak acid is an acid that only ionises

partially in aqueous solution.

The following are weak acids:

• oxalic acid – (COOH)2

• sulfurous acid – H2SO3
• phosphoric acid – H3PO4
• ethanoic acid – CH3COOH
• other carboxylic acids
You must know the names and formulae of these acids.
The strength of an acid is given numerically by what is known as its Ka value –
the acid ionisation constant. This value is an equilibrium constant which
indicates the degree of ionisation of an acid in water.
For example, if we consider ethanoic acid, the equation for its ionisation is:
CH3 COOH(ℓ) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ CH3 COO− (aq) + H3 O+ (aq)
The expression for Ka is:
[CH3 COO− ][H3 O+ ]
Ka =
[CH3 COOH]
As for all equilibrium constant expressions, this is always products over
reactants, but the water is left out. The bigger the value of Ka, the stronger an
acid is. For strong acids the Ka value cannot be calculated because the
concentration of the acid (bottom line in the expression) approaches zero.
A similar base constant, Kb, also exists and similarly indicates the strength of a
base. The larger the value of this constant, the stronger the base.

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Some acids donate more than one proton when they contain more than one
hydrogen atom in their chemical formula. These are known as polyprotic
acids.

A polyprotic acid is an acid which

can donate more than one proton
per molecule.

You have seen this in the equations for the ionisation of acids earlier in the
section (H2SO4; H3PO4).
Note:

• monoprotic acids can donate one proton, e.g. HCℓ

• diprotic acids can donate two protons, e.g. H2SO4
• triprotic acids can donate three protons, e.g. H3PO4
The strength of a base is dependent on its ability to undergo dissociation in
water.

A strong base is a base which

dissociates completely in an aqueous
solution.

Common strong bases are:

• sodium hydroxide – NaOH

• potassium hydroxide – KOH
You must be able to write balanced chemical equations for the dissociation of
bases in water. When equations are written for strong bases, there is a single
arrow in the equation but for weak bases a double arrow must be used. The
following are some examples:
NaOH(s) → Na+ (aq) + OH − (aq)
KOH(s) → K + (aq) + OH − (aq)
The OH– ion is called the hydroxide ion. It is responsible for the basic nature
of a solution.

A weak base is a base that

dissociates or ionises partially in
aqueous solution.

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Ammonia is a weak base and it is molecular, so it undergoes ionisation. The

formula for ammonia solution is NH3(aq) or NH4OH(aq). It ionises partially in
aqueous solution
NH3 (g) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH − (aq)
The metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates are weak basic salts.
In practice, we can compare the strengths of acids by noting how well they
conduct electricity. Solutions conduct electricity only if there are ions
present which are free to move. The more ions there are, the better a solution
will conduct. This means that solutions of strong acids, which undergo a
greater amount of ionisation than weak acids, will be better conductors of
electricity.
Both acids and bases can occur as concentrated or dilute solutions.

A concentrated acid is an acid which

contains a large number of acid molecules per
unit volume of solution.

A dilute acid is an acid which contains a small

number of acid molecules per unit volume of
solution.

A concentrated base contains a large

number of base formula units/molecules per
unit volume of solution.

A dilute base contains a small number of base

formula units/molecules per unit volume of
solution.

3 Conjugate acid-base pairs

In all acid-base reactions, there are 2 acids and 2 bases, one of each for each
of the forward and reverse reactions. Consider the following reaction:
CH3 COOH(ℓ) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ CH3 COO− (aq) + H3 O+ (aq)
Forward reaction Reverse reaction

This behaves as a base

This behaves as an acid because it accepts a
because it donates a proton proton.
to water.

This behaves as a base This behaves as an acid

because it accepts a because it donates a
proton. proton.

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becomes
CH3COOH CH3COO–
Acid-base conjugate pair
acid base
becomes
H2O H3O+ Acid-base conjugate pair

base acid
So, in every such reaction there are two acid-base conjugate pairs.
N.B. A strong acid has a very weak conjugate base and a strong base has a
very weak conjugate acid. The reverse also applies.
Example
Identify the acid-base conjugate pairs in the following reaction:
H3 PO4 (ℓ) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ H2 PO− +
4 (aq) + H3 O (aq)

acid 1 base 1 base 2 acid 2

pair 1
pair 2

There are substances that can behave both as an acid and as a base.

An amphoteric (or amphiprotic)

substance is a substance that can
behave both as an acid and as a base.

Examples of these are H2O, HSO4–, HCO3–

In the following reaction, water acts as an acid:
NH3 (g) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH − (aq)
In the Example above, water acted as a base.
4 Autoprotolysis of water
The term autoprotolysis means that water molecules transfer protons to one
another. This occurs because water molecules are so polar and because the
oxygen atom in each water molecule has lone pairs of electrons. The
illustration shows the process.

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[https://image.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/water-autoprotolysis-atom-model-260nw-190629131.jpg]

The chemical equation for this process is:

H2 O(ℓ) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ H3 O+ (aq) + OH − (aq)
An equilibrium constant can be worked out for this reaction. The expression
for this constant is:
K w = [H3 O+ ][OH − ]
The value of this constant is 1 x 10–14 at 25 °C. Kw is called the ionisation
constant for water.
Example
Calculate the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution of KOH of
concentration 0,1 mol·dm–3.

Solution
The equation for the dissociation of KOH in water is:
KOH(s) → K + (aq) + OH − (aq)
KOH is a strong base so it dissociates completely in water. This means that for
every unit of KOH present, one OH– ion is produced. It follows that

[OH–] = 0,1 mol·dm–3

Once we know this concentration, we can use the ionisation constant for
water expression to calculate [H3O+].

K w = [H3 O+ ][OH − ] = 1 × 10−14

[H3 O+ ](0,1) = 1 × 10−14
1 × 10−14
[H3 O+ ] =
0,1
= 1 × 10−13 mol ∙ dm−3
Note that in pure water [H3O+] = [OH–] so pure water is neutral. It is neither
acidic nor basic. When an acid is dissolved in water, it increases [H3O+] and so
there is an excess of these ions, which makes the solution acidic.
When a base is dissolved in water, it increases [OH–], of which there is now an
excess, so the solution is basic (alkaline).

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5 The pH scale
The pH scale is a measure of the [H3O+] in a solution at 25 °C. It converts the
hydronium ion concentration into a number between 0 and 14.
The neutral point (pure water) on this scale is 7.
Values above 7 on the pH scale indicate that the solution is basic. The closer
the value gets to 14 the more basic the properties of the solution. Note that
increasing values above 7 indicate a lower and lower concentration of
hydronium ions.
Values below 7 on the pH scale indicate that the solution is acidic. The closer
the value gets to 0 the more acidic the properties of the solution. Note that
decreasing values below 7 indicate a higher and higher concentration of
hydronium ions.
6 Acid-base reactions
These types of reactions involve salt-formation.

A salt is a substance in which the

hydrogen of an acid has been
replaced by a cation.

You must be able to write balanced chemical equations for the following acid
reactions:

• acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen (redox reaction)

e.g.
2HCℓ + Mg → MgCℓ2 + H2
• acid + metal oxide → salt + water
e.g.
2HNO3 + CaO → Ca(NO3 )2 + H2
• acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
e.g.
H2 SO4 + 2KOH → K 2 SO4 + H2 O
• acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
e.g.
2HCℓ + CaCO3 → CaCℓ2 + H2 O + CO2
• acid + metal hydrogen carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
e.g.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝐶𝑂2

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You must also be able to identify the acid and base that could react to form
any salt. Consider the salt magnesium chloride:

MgCℓ2

The metal that replaced the In this salt, the Cℓ comes from
hydrogen came from a base –
the acid – so the acid was HCℓ
so the base was Mg(OH)2

7 Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the reaction of an

ion from a salt with water.

When a salt forms, the ions that make up the salt are the conjugates of the
acid and base that reacted to form the salt. The conjugate base of a strong
acid is very weak and the conjugate acid of a strong base is very weak. So
neither of the ions of the salt formed when a strong acid reacts with a strong
base undergoes hydrolysis.
The conjugates of a weak acid and a weak base are ions that are a strong
base and a strong acid respectively. These ions will react with water. That
means that they undergo hydrolysis. Let us examine an example. The reaction
between ethanoic acid (weak acid) and potassium hydroxide (strong base) is
represented by the following equation:
KOH + CH3 COOH → CH3 COOK + H2 O
The salt formed (CH3COOK) is made up of the ions:

• CH3COO– this is the conjugate of a weak acid, so it is a relatively

strong conjugate base
• K+ which is the conjugate of a strong base, is a very weak conjugate
acid
This means that the ethanoate ion (CH3COO–) will undergo hydrolysis as
follows:
CH3 COO− (aq) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ CH3 COOH(aq) + OH − (aq)
This hydrolysis reaction increases the concentration of OH– ions and the
resulting solution will have a pH greater than 7.

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Another example is the reaction between ammonia solution (weak base) and
hydrochloric acid (strong acid):
HCℓ(aq) + NH4 OH(aq) → NH4 Cℓ(aq) + H2 O(ℓ)
The salt formed (NH4Cℓ) is made up of the ions:

• NH4+ which is the conjugate of a weak base, so it is a relatively strong

conjugate acid
• Cℓ– which is the conjugate of a strong acid, is a very weak conjugate
base
This means that the ammonium ion (NH4+) will undergo hydrolysis as follows:
NH4+ (aq) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ NH3 (aq) + H3 O+ (aq)
This hydrolysis reaction increases the concentration of H3O+ ions and the
resulting solution will have a pH lower than 7.
N.B. It is important to remember that the salts of a strong acid and a weak
base and the salts of a strong base and a weak acid will always undergo
hydrolysis.
The following ions do not undergo hydrolysis:

• The ions of group 1 metals

• HSO4–
• SO42–
• NO3–
• Cℓ–
8 Neutralisation and titrations

Neutralisation (or equivalence

point) is the point at which an acid
and a base have reacted so that
neither is in excess.

For the neutralisation process in a laboratory, one of the necessities is a

standard solution.

A standard solution is a solution

of known concentration.

A standard solution is made up as follows:

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• calculate the mass of solute required to make up the solution, of which

the concentration is known and the volume of the measuring flask is
known
• mass out the required mass of solute on an electronic balance
• transfer the solute to the measuring flask through a filter-funnel
• add some distilled water to the measuring flask (about half full)
• shake the flask until all the solid dissolves
• slowly fill the flask with distilled water to the mark on its neck, adding
the last bit drop by drop until the bottom of the meniscus is on the mark
Example
It is necessary to prepare a standard solution of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) of
concentration 0,25 mol·dm–3. The measuring flask available has a volume of
250 cm3. Calculate the mass of sodium sulfate required.
Solution
Calculate the molar mass of sodium sulfate:
M(Na2 SO4 ) = (2 × 23) + 32 + (4 × 16)
= 142 g · mol−1
Now calculate the mass required: Don’t forget to
m convert the volume
c= to dm3
M·V
m=c·M·V
= 0,25 × 142 × 0,25
= 8,88 g
When a neutralisation reaction is carried oit in the laboratory, it needs to be
done in a controlled way. The process is carried out using pieces of apparatus
called a burette, a pipette and a conical flask. What follows is the method for
doing a titration to determine the concentration of an unknown substance. In
this case it is an acid.
The process is carried out as follows:

• rinse the burette with a small volume of acid, ensuring that the inside of
the burette is uniformly wet, then run out the acid

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burette
pipette

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0YRtM1_OVWsFXe-XhUD1xLG9upPy7SatSndZHNWxf3UDvV5qd]

Illustration of the set-up for a titration

• place a filter funnel in the burette, and working at a comfortable level,

pour the acid slowly into the burette (the substance of which we want
to calculate the concentration goes into the burette)
• remove the filter funnel and clamp the burette into the retort stand;
make sure that the burette is vertical
• take the reading of the acid volume from the burette (N.B. the burette
can be read directly to one decimal place. The second decimal place
must be estimated. Burette readings are recorded to two decimal
places)
• rinse the pipette with a small amount of base until the inside is wet then
allow the base run out
• fill the pipette up to the mark on the neck with the standard solution –
in this case the base (the bottom of the meniscus must be on the mark)
• release the contents of the pipette into the conical flask (do not blow
into the pipette to get all the liquid out)
• add three or four drops of indicator to the conical flask
• open the tap of the burette and run acid into the conical flask, swirling
all the time
• after a while the area around the jet of acid coming into the base starts
changing colour, but the colour disappears again with swirling
• when the colour starts becoming more permanent, start adding the
acid drop by drop until the colour just changes permanently
• read the burette for a second time at this point

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• subtract the second reading from the first to get the volume of acid
added
• the process must be repeated until three consecutive readings are in
close agreement
With this information, the concentration of the acid can now be calculated.
Example
A sample of nitric acid of unknown concentration is titrated against a standard
solution of NaOH of concentration 0,15 mol·dm–3. Samples of 20 cm3 are
pipetted into a conical flask. The average volume of acid which just neutralises
the base is 12,48 cm3. Calculate the concentration of the acid.
The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

HNO3 (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2 O(ℓ)

Solution
First calculate the number of moles of base used in each titration:
n(NaOH) = c · V
= 0,15 × 20 × 10−3
= 3 × 10−3 mol
From the balanced equation:
Mole ratio of HNO3:NaOH = 1:1
Number of moles of HNO3 used = 3 x 10–3 mol
Now calculate the concentration of HNO3:
n
c(HNO3 ) =
V
3 × 10−3
=
12,48 × 10−3
= 0,24 mol · 𝑑𝑚−3
9 Indicators
When describing a titration earlier, mention was made of a change in colour
caused by an indicator. An indicator is usually a weak organic acid. What
makes it suitable as an indicator is the fact that the molecule of the acid has a
particular colour, but the resulting anion, after it has donated its proton, has a
different colour.
We willl use the general formula HIn for an indicator. H is its donatable proton
and In is the organic part of the molecule. When the indicator dissolves in
water, a general equation for its dissolution is:
HIn(ℓ) + H2 O(ℓ) ⇌ In− (aq) + H3 O+ (aq)
yellow blue

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We will assume that the acid molecule has a yellow colour, and the anion of
the acid is blue. When the indicator solution has reached equilibrium in its
bottle it will have a greenish colour (mixture of blue and yellow).
When the above indicator is added to an acidic solution, the concentration of
H3O+ ions increases in the equilibrium system represented on the previous
page. To relieve the stress, the reaction that reduces the concentration of
these ions will be favoured – this is the reverse reaction. More HIn will be
formed, and the colour will become more yellow.
When the indicator is added to a basic solution, the concentration of OH– ions
increases. OH– ions react with H3O+ and so the concentration of H3O+ in the
equilibrium system will decrease, which creates a stress. The reaction that
produces more H3O+ ions to relieve the stress will be favoured. This is the
forward reaction. More In– ions will be produced, and the colour will become
more blue.
From this example it is seen that the colour of the indicator is pH dependent
and is suitable for titration processes.
It is important to remember that in all acid-base titrations, neutralisation
occurs, but the final mixture is not necessarily always neutral, i.e. its pH will
not always be 7, because hydrolysis of the salts formed occurs in certain
instances.
Titrations in which:
• a strong acid is titrated with a strong base will have an end point with a
pH = 7
• a strong acid is titrated with a weak base will have an end point with a
pH < 7
• a strong base is titrated with a weak acid will have an end point with a
pH > 7
Specific indicators change colour only over certain pH ranges and an indicator
must be chosen with this in mind. If it is required that you choose a suitable
indicator for a particular titration, you will be given a table with indicators and
their pH colour-change range.
You must be able to determine what type of titration is taking place and then
choose a suitable indicator from the table.
Example
A neutralisation is to take place between ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide.
The equation for the reaction is:
CH3 COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3 COONa(aq) + H2 O(ℓ)

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From the table below, choose a suitable indicator for this titration and explain
your choice.
Indicator pH range
methyl orange 3,1 – 4,4
bromphenol blue 6,2 – 7,6
phenolphthalein 8,0 – 10,0

Solution
A suitable indicator is phenolphthalein.
The reaction is that of a strong base and a weak acid. Hydrolysis of the
CH3COO– ion occurs and the final mixture will have a pH > 7.

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