BUILDING SERVICES-1

Introduction to Environment
and Health Aspects

Introduction to Environment and Health Aspects: History of Sanitation with respect

to human civilization, Importance of Health, Hygiene Cleanliness, Waterborne,
Water-related, Water based, Epidemic diseases, Conservancy to water carriage
system, Urban and Rural Sanitation.

Presented by: Ar. Rakshith Raj

 Water Supply and Sanitation Across
Civilizations: A Chronological Overview
• Mesopotamia (c. 3500 – 539 BC):
– Water Supply: Extensive network of canals and levees for irrigation and domestic
use.
– Sanitation: Early sewage disposal methods included open drains and cesspools.
• Mohenjo-Daro (c. 2500 – 1900 BC):
– Water Supply: Advanced water management systems with wells, reservoirs, and
public baths.
– Sanitation: Covered drains connected homes to larger drainage channels.
• Egypt (c. 3100 – 30 BC)
– Water Supply: The Nile River’s annual flooding supported agriculture and daily
water needs.
– Sanitation: Basic practices; waste disposed of in the Nile, with public hygiene
maintained through regular washing.
• Babylon (c. 1894 – 539 BC):
– Water Supply: Canals and aqueducts diverted water from the Euphrates River.
– Sanitation: Waste collected in pits; simple drainage systems existed.
• Rome (c. 753 BC – 476 AD):
– Water Supply: Aqueducts provided fresh water; public fountains and baths were
common.
– Sanitation: The Cloaca Maxima, an early and large sewer system, drained waste
from the city.
• Paris (c. 13th Century onwards):
– Water Supply: Initially relied on wells and the Seine River; later aqueducts
improved supply.
– Sanitation: Open drains and cesspools led to health issues until modern sewer
systems were developed.
• London (c. 17th – 19th Century):
– Water Supply: Depended on the Thames and local wells; the New River brought
clean water to the city.
– Sanitation: The Great Stink of 1858 led to the construction of a comprehensive
sewer system by Joseph Bazalgette.
 Mesopotamia:
The Birthplace
of Civilization
• Water Management:
– Sumerians created an
intricate system of
irrigation canals and
levees.
– Challenges: Seasonal
floods and salinization
contributed to
agricultural decline.
• Sanitation Practices:
– Waste disposal was
rudimentary with
cesspools and open
drains.
 Mohenjo-Daro:
An Ancient Urban Marvel

• Water Supply:
– The city had an elaborate water
supply system with wells in nearly
every house and public baths.
• Sanitation Infrastructure:
– Covered drains connected homes
to larger drainage channels,
demonstrating advanced urban
planning.
 Babylon:
The Ancient City of
Wonders

• Water Supply:
– Water was sourced from the
Euphrates River, with canals
and aqueducts distributing it
across the city.
• Sanitation Practices:
– Waste was collected in pits,
and basic drainage systems
handled stormwater.
 Rome:
Engineering the Future
of Sanitation

• Water Supply:
– Aqueducts like the Aqua Appia
and Aqua Claudia brought water
into the city.
• Sanitation System:
– The Cloaca Maxima was one of
the earliest and largest sewer
systems, draining waste into the
Tiber River.
 Paris:
From Medieval Filth to
Modern Sanitation

• Water Supply:
– Initially relied on wells and the
Seine River; aqueducts
supplemented water supply by
the 13th century.
• Sanitation Evolution:
– Open drains and cesspools led to
disease outbreaks, prompting
the development of modern
sewer systems in the 19th
century.
 London: Overcoming the Great Stink
• Water Supply:
– The New River, constructed
in the 17th century,
improved water supply to
London.
• Sanitation Crisis and
Solution:
– The Great Stink of 1858 led
to the construction of a
comprehensive sewer
network designed by
Joseph Bazalgette.
 The Middle Ages:
The Age of Filth

• Urban Filth:
– Medieval cities struggled with
poor sanitation, with waste often
dumped in streets and rivers.
• Epidemics:
– The lack of sanitation contributed
to devastating plagues like the
Black Death.
• Cesspools:
– Waste was often collected in
cesspools, which were emptied
manually, leading to severe
health hazards.
 Evolution of Water
Classification: The
Iberian Influence

• Rainwater:
– Collected and stored for various uses,
particularly in arid regions.
• Greywater:
– Wastewater from baths, sinks, and
kitchens was often reused for irrigation.
• Wastewater:
– Iberians understood the need to
separate wastewater from potable water
sources to prevent contamination.
 Modern Water Treatment Techniques
• Activated Sludge Process:
– Introduced in the early 20th century, this process
uses aeration and a biological floc composed of
bacteria to treat sewage and industrial waste.
• Current Techniques:
– Include membrane filtration, UV disinfection, and
advanced oxidation processes to ensure water
safety and quality.
• Statistics (WHO & UNICEF):
– Nearly 2 billion people globally use a drinking
water source contaminated with feces.
– Waterborne diseases cause approximately 1.5
million deaths annually, mostly in children under
five.
• SDG Goals:
– SDG 6 aims to ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all by
2030.
 Design History of
Sanitation and
Civilization
• Impact on Civilization:
– Sanitation systems have played
a crucial role in the
development and sustainability
of civilizations.
• Decline:
– Poor sanitation has been a
significant factor in the decline
of civilizations, highlighting the
importance of clean water and
waste management.
 Importance of Water Sanitation and Hygiene
(WASH)

• WASH Overview:
Explanation of WASH
(Water, Sanitation, and
Hygiene) and its critical role
in public health.
• Global Impact: The
influence of WASH on
reducing disease burden
and improving quality of
life globally.
 Waterborne
Diseases: An
Overview

• Definition: Waterborne
diseases are caused by
pathogens in
contaminated water.
• Types of Diseases:
Classification into
bacterial, viral, and
parasitic diseases.
• Global Statistics: Data on
the prevalence and impact
of waterborne diseases.
 Bacterial
Waterborne
Diseases
• Cholera:
• Cause: Vibrio cholerae bacteria.
• Symptoms: Severe diarrhea and
dehydration.
• Transmission: Contaminated water
or food.
• Prevention: Safe water, sanitation,
and hygiene practices.

• Typhoid Fever:
• Cause: Salmonella Typhi bacteria.
• Symptoms: Fever, abdominal pain,
and rash.
• Transmission: Ingestion of
contaminated water or food.
• Prevention: Vaccination, safe water,
and proper sanitation.
 Viral Waterborne
Diseases

• Hepatitis A:
• Cause: Hepatitis A virus (HAV).
• Symptoms: Jaundice, fatigue, and
nausea.
• Transmission: Fecal-oral route, often
through contaminated water.
• Prevention: Vaccination, safe drinking
water, and hygiene.

• Rotavirus:
• Cause: Rotavirus.
• Symptoms: Severe diarrhea in children,
leading to dehydration.
• Transmission: Contaminated water and
surfaces.
• Prevention: Vaccination, sanitation, and
handwashing.
 Parasitic
Waterborne
Diseases

• Giardiasis:
• Cause: Giardia lamblia parasite.
• Symptoms: Diarrhea, cramps, and
nausea.
• Transmission: Ingestion of contaminated
water.
• Prevention: Boiling or filtering water,
proper sanitation.

• Schistosomiasis:
• Cause: Schistosoma parasites.
• Symptoms: Rash, fever, and long-term
organ damage.
• Transmission: Contact with
contaminated freshwater.
• Prevention: Avoiding contaminated
water, controlling snail populations.
 Impact of Poor
Sanitation on Public
Health
• Disease Burden: Connection
between poor sanitation and the
spread of waterborne diseases.
• Child Mortality: High rates of child
mortality due to diarrheal
diseases in areas with inadequate
sanitation.
• Economic Impact: The cost of
waterborne diseases on
healthcare systems and
economies.
 Strategies for Improving
Water Sanitation and
Hygiene (WASH)

• Infrastructure Development:
Investment in clean water and
sanitation infrastructure.
• Community Education: Importance of
educating communities about hygiene
practices.
• Government Policies: Role of
government in implementing and
enforcing WASH policies.
• Innovative Solutions: Examples of low-
cost and sustainable WASH solutions.
 • Bangladesh’s Arsenic Mitigation: Efforts to
reduce arsenic contamination in drinking
Case Studies: water.
Successful • Ethiopia’s Community-Led Total Sanitation
(CLTS): Empowering communities to improve
WASH Initiatives sanitation.
• India’s Swachh Bharat Mission: Nationwide
campaign to improve sanitation and hygiene.
 The Role of
International
Organizations in
WASH

• World Health Organization

(WHO): Guidelines and
support for global WASH
initiatives.
• UNICEF: Programs focused on
improving water, sanitation,
and hygiene in schools and
communities.
• World Bank: Funding and
technical support for WASH
projects in developing
countries.
Conservancy System to Water Carriage System
Conservancy System
- Definition: Manual collection and removal of
human waste using cesspools, privy vaults, or
buckets.
- Operation: Waste collected manually and
transported to disposal sites like landfills or
dumps.
- Advantages:
- Simple to implement, no complex
infrastructure.
- Low water requirement, suitable for areas
with limited water.
- Disadvantages:
- High health risks due to manual handling.
- Environmental contamination if improperly
disposed.
- Impractical for growing urban populations.

Transition to Water Carriage System

- Challenges: Urbanization and population
growth exposed the limitations of conservancy
systems.
- Flush Toilet Invention: Revolutionized
sanitation; John Harrington and Sir John
Harington's designs allowed waste to be
flushed away with water.
Water Carriage System
Water Carriage System
- Definition: Waste disposal method using water to flush
waste through pipes to treatment facilities.
- Operation: Flush toilets connect to sewer systems that
transport waste to sewage treatment plants.
- Advantages:
- Significantly improves hygiene, reduces disease
transmission.
- Scalable for urban populations.
- Protects the environment through sewage treatment.
- Disadvantages:
- Requires a substantial and continuous water supply.
- High infrastructure costs for building and maintenance.

Historical and Modern Context

- 19th Century: Adopted in cities like London and New York,
leading to significant public health improvements.
- Modern Applications: Backbone of urban sanitation;
complemented by advanced treatment technologies like
activated sludge processes.
- Sustainability: Innovations like low-flush toilets and
vacuum systems aim to reduce water usage while
maintaining sanitation efficiency.
 Government of India's
Vision for Health &
Sanitation

• Vision:
– The Government of India
emphasizes health and
sanitation as critical
components of national
development, with
policies aiming to
improve access to clean
water, sanitation
facilities, and public
health services.
 Rural Sanitation in
India: Challenges and
Achievements
• Challenges:
– Lack of infrastructure, cultural practices, and inadequate
funding have historically hindered rural sanitation efforts.
• Total Sanitation Scheme:
– Launched to promote hygiene and sanitation in rural areas
through community-led initiatives.
• Nirmal Gram Puraskar:
– An award scheme that incentivizes Panchayats to achieve total
sanitation.
• Rural Sanitary Mart:
– A supply chain initiative providing affordable sanitation
materials to rural communities.
• Ecosan Latrines:
– Environmentally friendly latrines that recycle human waste
into compost.
• Achievements:
– Significant improvements in rural sanitation coverage,
contributing to public health and environmental sustainability.
 Urban Sanitation in
India: Issues and
Policies
• Urban Sanitation Challenges:
– Rapid urbanization, inadequate
infrastructure, and slum conditions
pose significant challenges to urban
sanitation.
• National Urban Sanitation Policy:
– Aims to transform urban sanitation
practices through public-private
partnerships, capacity building, and
improved governance.
• Role of Government:
– The government, at national, state,
and local levels, plays a crucial role in
planning, financing, and implementing
sanitation initiatives.
• Urban Sanitation Methods:
– Include centralized sewer systems, on-
site sanitation, and decentralized
wastewater treatment.
• Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
(DEWAT):
– A sustainable approach to managing
urban wastewater, particularly in areas
where centralized systems are not
feasible.
 Conclusion

• Key Takeaways:
– Sanitation has evolved
significantly from ancient to
modern times, with each
civilization contributing to the
development of systems that
promote health and hygiene.
– The ongoing challenges of
providing adequate sanitation in
both urban and rural areas
require innovative and
sustainable solutions.
• Final Thoughts:
As architects and urban planners, there is
a responsibility to design and implement
sanitation systems that are not only
efficient but also sustainable and
adaptable to future challenges.
 References
• Books:
– "The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to
the Present" by Martin V. Melosi.
– "Waterborne Diseases in the United States" by Gunther F. Craun.
• Articles:
– "Public Health and Sanitation: The Evolution of Urban Infrastructure" in
the Journal of Urban History.
– "Water and Health: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Times" in
Environmental Health Perspectives.
• Web Resources
– World Health Organization (WHO) on Sanitation and Health.
– CDC on Waterborne Diseases.
– United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) related to Clean
Water and Sanitation.
 Poster Assignments

Make A3 size poster on:

1.Historical timeline and case studies overview

of sanitation.
2.Impact of sanitation on health & hygiene.
 Written Assignments
(To be Answered as 10 marks for each question)

1. How is water borne diseases caused? Explain.

2. Define the terms sanitation& Hygiene? Discuss personal
Hygiene.
3. Distinguish between waterborne, water related and water
based diseases. Is epidemic disease & Pandemic disease the
same? Explain with quoting current situation.
4. Explain the history of sanitation with respect to human
civilization.
5. Write brief note on conservancy to water carriage systems in
sanitation.
6. Explain the challenges & achievements in Rural & Urban
Sanitation.
7. Write your insights on how as an upcoming architect : What
will be your role in creating an efficient & sustainable
sanitation system.
 Introduction to
Water Supply

Water Supply: Source of Water

supply – Municipal, bore well, river,
etc, Quantity of water for different
usages like Domestic, Hot water,
Flushing, Gardening, Commercial,
Industrial Applications, Assessment
of requirement for different uses,
Quality of supply for different uses as
per national and international
standards, Treatment of water for
different uses, filtration, softening,
disinfection, Storage and pumping –
gravity system, hydro-pneumatic
system, Distribution of water to
fixture and fittings, schematic
diagrams, Swimming pool, water
bodies, Efficient usage of water
 Water:
• Chemical Composition: Water (H₂O) consists of two
hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. It is vital for
all known forms of life.
• Properties:
• Colorless, Odorless, Tasteless: Water is generally
neutral in these characteristics.
• Solvent: Water is often referred to as the "universal
solvent" because it can dissolve more substances
than any other liquid, which is essential for all
biological processes.
• pH Scale: Measures how acidic or basic a substance
is on a scale from 0 to 14. Pure water has a pH of 7,
which is neutral. The pH can vary depending on
dissolved minerals and chemicals.
• Phases of Water:
• Gas (Water Vapor): When water evaporates, it turns into
a gas called water vapor. It’s invisible and present in the
atmosphere.
• Solid (Ice): When water freezes, it turns into ice, which is
less dense than liquid water, causing it to float.
• Liquid (Water): The most common state of water, found
in rivers, lakes, oceans, and used for drinking, cooking,
and irrigation.
 Sources of Water Supply
Surface Sources:
• Lakes & Ponds:
• Natural and Artificial: Lakes and ponds are bodies of water that
collect surface runoff from rain, streams, and rivers.
• Storage: They serve as natural reservoirs, storing water for
municipal, agricultural, and industrial use.
• Ecosystems: Provide habitat for aquatic life, support
biodiversity, and play a crucial role in the local ecosystem.
• Rivers & Streams:
• Flowing Water Bodies: Rivers and streams carry water from
higher elevations to seas, oceans, or lakes.
• Source of Water Supply: Major cities and agricultural areas
often rely on rivers for their water supply.
• Hydrological Cycle: Rivers are an integral part of the hydrological
cycle, transporting water and nutrients across regions.
• Desalination:
• Reverse Osmosis: A process where seawater is forced through a
semi-permeable membrane that removes salts and other
impurities, making it potable.
• Importance: Desalination is crucial in arid regions where
freshwater is scarce, such as the Middle East and parts of India.
• Challenges: It is energy-intensive and expensive, with
environmental concerns related to brine disposal.
 Sources of Water Supply
Sub-Surface or Underground Sources:
• Groundwater:
• Aquifers: Layers of water-bearing rock or sediment
that store groundwater.
• Accessibility: Groundwater can be accessed
through wells and boreholes. It is a reliable source
of water, especially in dry areas.
• Sustainability: Over-extraction can lead to
depletion, causing issues like land subsidence and
reduced water quality.
• Water Table:
• Definition: The water table is the upper surface of
the zone of saturation, where groundwater fills all
the pores in the soil or rock.
• Fluctuation: It varies seasonally and annually,
depending on precipitation, groundwater
extraction, and recharge rates.
• Recharge Areas & Discharge Areas:
• Recharge Areas: Locations where water infiltrates
into the ground, replenishing aquifers.
• Discharge Areas: Areas where groundwater flows
out naturally, such as springs or into rivers and
lakes.
 The Water Cycle
• Evaporation:
• Water from oceans, rivers, and lakes turns into vapor due to the sun’s heat
and rises into the atmosphere.
• This process is crucial for the water cycle, driving the movement of water
from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere.
• Condensation:
• Water vapor cools as it rises, forming clouds as it changes from gas to liquid
droplets.
• This process is responsible for cloud formation and is a precursor to
precipitation.
• Precipitation:
• When cloud particles combine and grow heavy enough, they fall to Earth as
rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• This is the primary way water returns to the Earth's surface, replenishing
rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
• Runoff:
• Water flows over the ground, often into rivers and lakes, and eventually back
into oceans.
• Runoff is a critical process in redistributing water from land to aquatic
systems.
• Infiltration:
• Water soaks into the soil, replenishing groundwater and contributing to the
water table.
• Infiltration is vital for maintaining aquifer levels and ensuring a steady supply
of groundwater.
Precipitation Types:
• Hail: Ice pellets formed in strong updrafts within thunderstorms. Hailstones can vary
in size and cause damage.
• Snow: Precipitation in the form of ice crystals that occurs when atmospheric
temperatures are low.
• Rainfall: Liquid water that falls when atmospheric water vapor condenses.
 Water Resources
in India
India's Water Math:
• Monsoon Dependency: India receives the majority of
its rainfall during the monsoon season, which is critical
for replenishing water sources.
• Uneven Distribution: Water resources are unevenly
distributed across the country, with some regions
experiencing water scarcity while others have abundant
supplies.
• Rivers: Major rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and
Yamuna are vital sources of water, but they are also
under pressure from pollution and overuse.
Water Activities:
• Domestic Usage: Includes drinking, cooking, bathing,
and cleaning, accounting for a significant portion of
daily water use.
• Agricultural Usage: Irrigation is the largest consumer of
water in India, necessary for the country’s extensive
agriculture.
• Industrial Usage: Water is essential for cooling,
processing, and cleaning in various industries,
particularly in manufacturing and energy production.
 Water
Demand
in India
Water
consumption
per day per
person
( in Litres)
Water Footprint
A water footprint is an
environmental indicator
that measures the
amount of fresh water
used to produce goods
and services, including
direct and indirect water
use. It's similar to a
carbon footprint and is
measured in liters or
cubic meters
 Factors Affecting
Water Supply System

Socio-Political & Cultural Considerations:

• Policy and Governance: Water supply systems
are heavily influenced by national and local
policies, governance structures, and political will.
• Cultural Practices: Water use and conservation
practices are often shaped by cultural beliefs and
traditions.
Other Factors:
• Economic Conditions: Funding and infrastructure
development are critical for building and
maintaining water supply systems.
• Environmental Sustainability: Ensuring that
water extraction and use are sustainable to avoid
long-term depletion and ecological damage.
• Technological Advancements: Innovations in
water treatment, distribution, and conservation
can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
water supply systems.
• Climate Change: Changes in precipitation
patterns, extreme weather events, and rising
temperatures are impacting water availability
and quality.
 UNICEF Reports on
Indian Water Supply
Key Findings:
• Access to Safe Drinking Water: A significant portion of
India’s population lacks access to safe drinking water,
leading to health issues.
• Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater
is a critical issue, particularly in agriculture-dependent
regions.
• Water Supply Challenges: Both rural and urban areas face
challenges in ensuring consistent and safe water supply,
with infrastructure deficits being a major concern.
Water Footprint:
• India's Water Usage: India has a high water usage
footprint, particularly in agriculture. Efforts to reduce
water waste and improve efficiency are critical for
sustainability.
• India will not be able to sustain water demand by 2050
as per current trends
 Water Conservation Techniques
Strategies:
• Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing
rainwater for later use, especially in water-
scarce areas.
• Efficient Irrigation: Techniques like drip and
sprinkler systems reduce water wastage in
agriculture by delivering water directly to the
plant roots.
• Wastewater Recycling: Treating and reusing
wastewater for non-potable purposes, such
as irrigation and industrial processes.
• Public Awareness: Educating the public on
the importance of water conservation and
promoting water-saving practices in daily life.
 Quantity of Water Supply
•Domestic Use:
•Average domestic water consumption per person
varies globally, ranging from 50-150 liters per day.
•In India, domestic use accounts for approximately
22% of total water demand.
•Hot Water Use:
•Hot water is essential for residential heating,
sanitation, and certain industrial processes.
•The demand for hot water increases with higher
living standards and colder climates.
•Flushing:
•Flushing toilets require a significant portion of
domestic water, often 30% of household consumption.
4 to 6 liters (1.1 to 1.6 gallons) per flush.
•Gardening:
•Irrigation for gardens and landscapes accounts for 5-
10% of domestic water usage.
•Commercial & Industrial Applications:
•Industries consume about 23% of total water
demand in India, with significant variations across
sectors (textiles, food processing, chemicals).
 •Overview:
•Water supply schemes are designed to meet the current and future water needs
Water Supply of a community.
•These schemes consider population growth, economic development, and
environmental sustainability.
Scheme Demand •Design Period:
•The design period typically ranges from 20 to 40 years, during which water supply
infrastructure like dams and reservoirs are planned and constructed.
•The design period is crucial for ensuring long-term water security and
infrastructure resilience.
 •20-40 Years Projection:

Design Period •Water supply infrastructure, such as dams and reservoirs, is planned with a
20–40-year horizon.
•This period allows for gradual population growth, urban expansion, and

and Population changing water usage patterns.

•Population Determination Methods:
•Arithmetic Increase Method: Assumes a constant rate of population

Projection growth, ideal for stable regions.

•Geometrical Increase Method: Assumes exponential growth, suitable for
rapidly developing areas.
•Incremental Increase Method: Adjusts for variations in growth rates over
time, offering a more dynamic approach.
•Simple Graph Method: Visual representation of population trends, allowing
for easy interpretation and adjustments.
 Per Capita
Demand of Water

•Definition:
•Per capita demand is the average water usage per person per
day. In India, it ranges between 100-135 liters per day.
•WHO recommends 50-100 liters per person per day for basic
needs.Indian standards suggest 135 LPCD for urban areas and
70 LPCD for rural areas.
•The total amount of water used divided by the population
served, expressed in liters per capita per day (LPCD).
•Factors Influencing Per Capita Demand:
•Climate: Hotter regions have higher water consumption due to
increased evaporation and personal hygiene needs.
•Cultural Habits: Water usage varies with bathing practices,
laundry frequency, and food preparation methods.
•Economic Status: Wealthier populations tend to use more
water due to access to better infrastructure and amenities.
•Global Scenario:
•In developed countries like the U.S., per capita water usage can
exceed 300 liters per day, whereas in water-scarce regions, it
may be less than 50 liters per day.
 •Domestic Use:

Uses •Drinking, cooking, cleaning, and sanitation are the primary domestic uses.
•On average, 20-25% of total water usage in Indian households is for drinking and cooking.
•Civic Use:

of •Public utilities such as parks, gardens, and street cleaning.

•Civic use represents a small but essential portion of urban water demand.
•Trade/Business Use:

Water •Water is used in various businesses such as laundromats, car washes, and restaurants.
•This usage accounts for about 10-15% of urban water demand.
•Commercial/Industrial Use:
•Water-intensive industries like textiles, paper, and chemicals consume large volumes of water.
•Industrial water use can be as high as 60% in industrial regions.
 Water Demand in
Indian Cities/Towns

•Domestic Demand:
•Typically constitutes 50-60% of total water demand in
Indian cities.
•Includes personal hygiene, cooking, and cleaning needs.
•Industrial Demand:
•Accounts for 20-30% of total demand, with significant
regional variations.
•Industries in states like Maharashtra and Gujarat have
higher water demands due to their industrial base.
•Institutional/Public Demand:
•Schools, hospitals, and government buildings consume
around 10-20% of total demand.
•Fire Demand:
•Emergency water reserves are maintained for firefighting,
usually a small percentage.
•Losses & Wastes:
•Water losses due to leaks and unauthorized use can
account for 15-30% of total water supply.
 Annual Water
Demand
•Calculation:
•Annual demand is derived from daily
per capita consumption multiplied by the
population and number of days in a year.
•For example, a city with 1 million people
and 135 LPCD would require 49.3
million cubic meters of water annually.
•Factors:
•Considerations include seasonal
variations, population growth, and
industrial expansion.
•Rainy seasons may reduce demand for
irrigation, while dry seasons increase
overall water use.
 Fluctuations in
Water Demand
•Seasonal Fluctuations:
•Water demand peaks in summer due to increased evaporation and
cooling needs.
•Monsoon seasons may reduce the need for irrigation and certain
industrial processes.
•Daily Variations:
•Morning and evening peak hours correspond to higher domestic and
commercial water usage.
•Industrial demand may fluctuate based on operational hours.
•Emergency Situations:
•Natural disasters like droughts can lead to increased water demand
for emergency relief and firefighting.
 Water Demand
Planning
•Importance of Accurate Forecasting:
•Ensures that water supply systems are
resilient and capable of meeting future
needs.
•Accurate demand forecasting helps in
planning infrastructure investments.
•Infrastructure Requirements:
•Reservoirs, treatment plants, and
distribution networks must be designed
to accommodate future demand.
•Policy Implications:
•Government policies play a crucial role
in water management, from conservation
to infrastructure development.
 Water Supply
Challenges

•Urban vs. Rural Demand:

•Urban areas have higher per capita
water demand due to
industrialization and better
infrastructure.
•Rural areas often face challenges in
accessing safe water, leading to
lower per capita usage.
•Water Quality Concerns:
•Ensuring that water meets national
and international standards for
drinking, industrial, and agricultural
use.
•Climate Change Impact:
•Changing rainfall patterns and
extreme weather events can disrupt
water supply and increase demand
unpredictably.
 Case Study: Water Demand in an Indian City

• Example City: Mumbai: A city with a population of over 20 million, where water
demand exceeds 4 billion liters per day.
• Water Demand Statistics:
• Domestic: 55%
• Industrial: 25%
• Public and Institutional: 15%
• Fire Demand and Losses: 5%
• Challenges and Solutions:
• Frequent shortages, leakages, and contamination are major issues.
• Solutions include water conservation programs, infrastructure upgrades, and
public awareness campaigns.
 Global Perspective
on Water Demand
•Comparison with Global Cities:
•New York City has a per capita water
usage of around 600 liters per day, while
Cape Town limits it to 50 liters during
drought conditions.
•International Standards:
•WHO guidelines recommend 50-100
liters per day for basic human needs, but
actual usage varies widely across
countries.
•Water-rich countries like Canada have
higher per capita consumption, whereas
water-scarce countries like Namibia
have stringent conservation measures.
 •Efficient Use:

Strategies for •Domestic Sector: Water-saving appliances, public education

campaigns.
•Industrial Sector: Recycling and reusing process water, adopting

Water Demand water-efficient technologies.

•Technology:
•Smart Water Meters: Real-time monitoring of water usage helps

Management reduce wastage.

•Leak Detection Systems: Early identification and repair of leaks can
save significant amounts of water.
•Public Awareness:
•Educational programs and media campaigns to promote water
conservation practices.
 Quality of Water

• Portable or Wholesome Water:

• Definition: Water that is safe for
human consumption, free from
harmful microorganisms, chemicals,
and physical impurities.
• Characteristics:
• Clear, colorless, and free from
objectionable taste and odor.
• Should not contain any harmful
substances beyond the
permissible limits set by
national and international
standards.
• Significance: Ensures public health
by preventing waterborne diseases.
 Impurities in
Water
• Classification of Impurities:1st Method:
• Suspended Impurities: Particles that are visible
and do not dissolve in water, such as silt, clay,
and organic matter.
• Dissolved Impurities: Substances that dissolve
completely in water, including salts, minerals
(e.g., calcium, magnesium), and gases.
• Colloidal Impurities: Microscopic particles that
do not settle and remain dispersed in water, like
fine clay or organic matter.
• 2nd Method:
• Organic Impurities: Derived from living
organisms, including decaying vegetation,
animal waste, and synthetic organic chemicals.
• Inorganic Impurities: Mineral-based impurities
such as salts, metals (e.g., lead, mercury), and
other non-organic compounds.
• Living Organisms: Includes bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, and algae that can cause diseases if
not removed.
 Water Analysis
•Purpose of Water Analysis:
•Before Purification:
•To determine the type and extent of impurities
present.
•To design appropriate treatment processes and
facilities.
•After Purification:
•To verify that the treated water meets the
required standards.
•Ensures the effectiveness of the treatment
process and compliance with regulatory
standards.
•Key Parameters in Water Analysis:
•Physical Parameters: Turbidity, color, temperature,
and taste.
•Chemical Parameters: pH, dissolved oxygen (DO),
total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, and
concentrations of specific chemicals (e.g., chlorine,
fluoride).
•Biological Parameters: Presence of bacteria, viruses,
and other pathogens.
 Standards for Drinking Water:

•Indian Standards (IS 10500:2012):

•Specifies acceptable limits for
various contaminants in drinking
water.
•Includes parameters like pH, TDS,
hardness, microbial content, and
permissible levels of heavy metals.
•WHO Guidelines:
•Global standards that define the
quality of drinking water necessary to
protect public health.
•Often more stringent and
comprehensive compared to national
standards.
 •Hard Water: Water that contains high levels of dissolved minerals,
particularly calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions.
•Soft Water: Water with low concentrations of calcium and magnesium.
•Types of Hardness:

Hardness of •Temporary Hardness:

•Caused by dissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate and
Water magnesium bicarbonate).
•Can be removed by boiling, which precipitates the bicarbonate ions as
carbonate.
•Permanent Hardness:
•Caused by sulfates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
•Cannot be removed by boiling and requires chemical treatment (e.g.,
ion exchange or the use of lime).
 •Objectives of Water Treatment:
Water •Primary Goal: To produce water that is safe
for consumption and meets regulatory
Treatment standards.
•Additional Goals: To remove physical,

Process chemical, and biological impurities, improve

taste, and reduce corrosiveness.
 •Step 1: Screening

Water •Purpose: To remove large floating matter such as leaves,

branches, and debris.
•Process: Water passes through screens with varying mesh
sizes to trap and remove these materials.

Treatment •Step 2: Aeration

•Purpose: To increase the oxygen content in water and
reduce levels of dissolved gases like CO2, hydrogen sulfide,
and methane.

Process •Process: Water is exposed to air by spraying it over

fountains, cascades, or through air diffusers. This also helps
to remove volatile compounds causing bad odors.
 •Step 1: Screening
•Purpose: To remove large floating matter
such as leaves, branches, and debris.
•Process: Water passes through screens
with varying mesh sizes to trap and remove
these materials.

•Step 2: Aeration
•Purpose: To increase the oxygen content
in water and reduce levels of dissolved
gases like CO2, hydrogen sulfide, and
methane.
•Process: Water is exposed to air by
spraying it over fountains, cascades, or
through air diffusers. This also helps to
remove volatile compounds causing bad
odors.

•Step 3: Alum Dosing

•Purpose: To initiate coagulation, which
aggregates fine particles and colloids into
larger flocs that can be easily removed.
•Process: Aluminum sulfate (alum) is
added to the water in a flash mixer, where
it reacts with impurities to form flocs.

Water Treatment Process •Step 4: Flocculation

•Purpose: To promote the growth of flocs,
making them larger and more settleable.
•Process: The water is gently stirred in
flocculation tanks, allowing the flocs to
combine and grow.
 •Step 5: Settling & Sedimentation
•Purpose: To allow flocs to settle to the
bottom of the tank, separating them
from the water.
•Process: Water is held in sedimentation
tanks for a minimum of 3 hours, where
gravity causes the flocs to settle out of
the water.

Step 6: Filtration
Purpose: To remove the remaining fine
particles and microorganisms.
Process: Water passes through layers of
coarse sand, fine sand, and pebbles,
which trap and filter out impurities.

Step 7: Chlorination
Purpose: To disinfect the water by killing
pathogenic microorganisms.
Process: Chlorine or chlorine compounds
Water Treatment Process are added to the water, ensuring that it is
free from harmful bacteria and viruses.
 Step 8: Water Softening
• Purpose: To reduce the hardness of
water, particularly in areas with high
levels of calcium and magnesium.
• Process: Methods include lime
softening, ion exchange, and the use
of chemical softeners.

Step 9: Service Reservoirs

• Purpose: To store treated water
before it is distributed to consumers.
• Process: These reservoirs help to
balance supply and demand, providing
a steady supply of water even during
peak usage times.

Step 10: Distribution Pipes

• Purpose: To deliver treated water to
homes, businesses, and other end-
users.
Water Treatment Process • Process: The water is distributed
through a network of pipes, ensuring
that it reaches consumers in a safe
and efficient manner.
 Location of Water
Treatment Plants

• Factors Influencing Location:

• Proximity to Water Sources: Treatment plants
are often located near rivers, lakes, or
groundwater sources to minimize the cost of
water transport.
• Distance from Populated Areas: To reduce the
risk of contamination and ensure efficient
distribution.
• Topography: Plants are ideally situated in areas
that facilitate gravity flow, reducing the need
for pumping.
• Environmental Considerations: Sites should be
chosen to minimize the impact on local
ecosystems and comply with environmental
regulations.
• Accessibility: The plant should be easily
accessible for maintenance, monitoring, and
emergency response.
 Introduction to
Water Distribution
Systems

• Definition: A system of engineered

hydrologic and hydraulic
components that provide water
supply.
• Importance: Ensures that water
reaches consumers efficiently and
reliably.
• Scope: Distribution systems can
account for 40-70% of the entire
water supply scheme cost.
Components of Water Distribution
Systems Appurtenances:
Valves, fire hydrants, water meters, and
other fixtures that assist in the
regulation, measurement, and control
of water flow.
 Methods of
Water Distribution

• Overview: Efficient distribution

relies on maintaining proper
pressure in pipelines.
• Three Types:
• Gravity System
• Pumping System
• Dual System (Combined
Gravity & Pumping)
 •Definition: Uses the natural elevation to move water, relying on
gravity.
•Working Process: Water flows from a higher elevation source
to lower areas through pipelines.
•Advantages:
Gravity System •Cost-effective with no energy costs for pumping.
•Reliable as it doesn't rely on mechanical parts.
•Disadvantages:
•Limited by topography.
•Initial cost for infrastructure can be high.
 •Definition: Relies on pumps to push water through the distribution
system.
•Working Process: Water is lifted from a source using pumps and
Pumping System then distributed through pipelines.
•Advantages:
•Can be used in flat or low-lying areas.
•Allows for precise control of water distribution.
•Disadvantages:
•High operational and maintenance costs.
•Dependent on power supply.
Dual System •Definition: Combines the advantages of both gravity and pumping systems.
•Working Process: Gravity assists the initial distribution, while pumps are

(Gravity + used to maintain pressure in lower areas.

•Advantages:
•Flexible and can serve varied topographies.

Pumping) •Optimizes energy usage.

•Disadvantages:
•Complex to design and operate.
•Requires both pumping and gravity infrastructure.
Distribution/Service Reservoirs

• Purpose: Store treated water and maintain pressure in the distribution system.
• Types:
1. Surface Reservoirs
2. Elevated Reservoirs

Surface Reservoirs

• Definition: Large tanks or ponds situated at ground level.

• Working Process: Water is stored and gradually released into the distribution system.
• Materiality: Usually made of reinforced concrete or earth embankments.
• Advantages:
o Easy to construct and maintain.
o Can store large quantities of water.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires significant land area.
o Prone to contamination if not covered.

Elevated Reservoirs

• Definition: Storage tanks built at a height to maintain water pressure.

• Working Process: Water flows by gravity from the tank to consumers.
• Materiality: Typically made of steel or reinforced concrete.
• Advantages:
o Maintains consistent pressure.
o Occupies less ground space.
• Disadvantages:
o Higher construction cost.
o Requires maintenance of height structures.

Systems of Water Supply

• 1. Continuous System:
o Definition: Water is supplied 24/7.
o Working Process: Continuous flow ensures water is always available.
o Advantages: Consistent availability, reduces health risks.
o Disadvantages: High water loss if leaks occur.
• 2. Intermittent System:
o Definition: Water is supplied at specific times.
o Working Process: Water is released for a few hours a day.
o Advantages: Reduces water loss.
o Disadvantages: Inconvenience to users, higher risk of contamination.
Appurtenances in the Distribution System

• Definition: Fixtures like valves, fire hydrants, and water meters essential for control,
safety, and measurement.

Valves in Water Distribution

• Function: Control flow, pressure, and direction of water.

• Types:
1. Sluice Valves
2. Check Valves
3. Air Valves
4. Drain Valves
5. Scour Valves

Sluice Valves

• Definition: Also known as gate valves, control water flow in pipelines.

• Working Process: A gate moves up and down to allow or block water.
• Placing Distance: Typically placed at intervals of 500-600 meters.
• Advantages:
o Simple and reliable.
o Minimal pressure drop when fully open.
• Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for regulating flow.
• Alternate Terminologies: Gate valve.

Check Valves (Reflux Valves)

• Definition: Prevent backflow in the system.

• Working Process: Water pressure keeps the valve open, but reverse flow closes it.
• Placing Distance: Usually installed after pumps or where backflow might occur.
• Advantages:
o Prevents contamination and damage.
• Disadvantages:
o Can cause water hammer.
• Alternate Terminologies: Non-return valve.
Air Valves

• Definition: Release air trapped in pipelines.

• Working Process: Automatically opens to expel air.
• Placing Distance: Installed at high points in the system.
• Advantages:
o Prevents air pockets that could impede flow.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires regular maintenance.
• Alternate Terminologies: Vent valve.

Drain Valves (Blow-off Valves)

• Definition: Used to empty water from pipelines for maintenance.

• Working Process: Opens to release water, usually located at the lowest points.
• Placing Distance: Placed at the end of mains or near depressions.
• Advantages:
o Allows for complete drainage.
• Disadvantages:
o Can cause flooding if not properly managed.
• Alternate Terminologies: Blow-off valve.

Scour Valves

• Definition: Clean out sediment and debris from pipelines.

• Working Process: Opened periodically to flush out sediments.
• Placing Distance: Located at low points or bends in the pipeline.
• Advantages:
o Maintains pipeline cleanliness.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires regular operation to be effective.

Water Meters

• Function: Measure water usage for billing and monitoring.

• Importance: Encourages water conservation and accurate billing.

Fire Hydrants

• Function: Provide access to water for firefighting.

• Types: Dry barrel, wet barrel, and flush hydrants.
 • Importance: Critical for urban safety and firefighting efforts.

Municipal water supply

Conveyance of Water

• 1. Gravity Conduits:
o Definition: Use gravity to move water.
o Advantages: Energy-efficient, simple design.
o Disadvantages: Limited by topography.
• 2. Pressure Conduits:
o Definition: Use pumps to move water under pressure.
o Advantages: Can be used in any terrain.
o Disadvantages: Higher operational costs.

Factors Determining Pipe Size

 • Factors: Flow rate, pressure, material strength, and future expansion needs.

Pipe Materials

• Considerations: Direction changes, internal pressure, soil conditions, temperature,

and water hammer.

Types of Pipes

1. Asbestos Cement Pipes

o Definition: Made from cement and asbestos fibers.
o Sizes & Age: Available in various diameters, lasts 30-50 years.
o Advantages: Corrosion-resistant, lightweight.
o Disadvantages: Health concerns, brittle.
2. Cast Iron Pipes
o Definition: Durable pipes made of cast iron.
o Sizes & Age: Available in large diameters, lasts over 50 years.
o Advantages: Strong, long-lasting.
o Disadvantages: Heavy, prone to rust.
3. Cement Concrete Pipes
o Definition: Pipes made from reinforced concrete.
o Sizes & Age: Large diameters, lasts over 50 years.
o Advantages: Durable, good for large flows.
o Disadvantages: Heavy, difficult to install.
4. Galvanized Iron Pipes (GI Pipes)
o Definition: Iron pipes coated with zinc.
o Sizes & Age: Commonly used in smaller diameters, lasts 10-20 years.
o Advantages: Corrosion-resistant, easy to work with.
o Disadvantages: Prone to clogging, not suitable for large scales.
5. Plastic Pipes
o Definition: Pipes made from PVC or HDPE.
o Sizes & Age: Flexible sizes, lasts 20-50 years.
o Advantages: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant.
o Disadvantages: Prone to damage from UV rays and chemicals.

Layouts of Distribution Networks

Distribution networks are designed to transport water from treatment plants or reservoirs to consumers
through a series of interconnected pipes. The layout of these networks plays a crucial role in ensuring
efficient and reliable water supply. Here, we'll explore the four main types of distribution network
layouts: Dead End or Tree System, Grid Iron System, Circular or Ring System, and Radial System.
1. Dead End or Tree System
• Definition:
o The Dead End or Tree System is a layout where the main pipeline runs along the
center of the distribution area, with smaller branches extending off it to reach various
destinations. These branches typically end in dead ends, hence the name.
• Working Process:
o Water flows from the main pipeline into the branches, supplying water to consumers
along the way. Each branch serves a specific area, and water does not circulate back
into the system, creating dead ends.
• Diameter of Pipes:
o The diameter of the main pipeline is larger than the branches, as it must carry the
entire water load. Branches have smaller diameters, as they serve fewer consumers.
• Advantages:
o Simplicity: Easy to design and construct, making it cost-effective for smaller or less
complex areas.
o Low Initial Cost: Requires fewer pipes and less complex infrastructure, reducing the
initial investment.
o Ease of Expansion: New branches can be added relatively easily as the demand for
water increases.
• Disadvantages:
o Stagnation: Water in the dead-end branches can become stagnant, leading to
potential contamination and reduced water quality.
o Pressure Drop: Significant pressure loss can occur towards the end of the branches,
especially during high demand periods.
o Difficulty in Maintenance: Isolating sections of the network for maintenance can be
challenging, as it often disrupts water supply to large areas.
2. Grid Iron System
• Definition:
o The Grid Iron System consists of a network of interconnected pipelines that form a
grid-like pattern. Water can flow through multiple paths to reach any point in the
system.
• Working Process:
o Water is supplied from multiple sources or from a looped main pipeline, ensuring that
it can reach any destination through more than one path. This interconnectedness
allows for continuous water flow, even if one pipeline segment is shut down.
• Diameter of Pipes:
o The diameter of the pipes is generally uniform across the network, as water flow is
balanced throughout the grid. However, mains and sub-mains may have slightly
larger diameters to handle higher flow rates.
• Advantages:
o Reliability: The interconnected nature of the grid ensures a continuous water supply,
even if one pipe fails.
o Balanced Pressure: The system helps maintain uniform pressure across the network,
reducing the risk of pressure drops.
o Flexibility: Easier to isolate sections for maintenance without disrupting the entire
system.
• Disadvantages:
o Complexity: The design and construction of a grid iron system are more complex
and expensive compared to simpler layouts.
o High Initial Cost: Requires more piping and infrastructure, leading to higher initial
investment.
o Water Quality Management: If not properly managed, the grid system can lead to
water quality issues due to mixing from multiple sources.
3. Circular or Ring System
• Definition:
o In the Circular or Ring System, the main pipeline forms a loop or ring around the
distribution area. Branch pipelines extend from this ring to supply water to
consumers.
• Working Process:
o Water is fed into the ring, where it circulates around the loop. Branch pipelines draw
water from the ring to serve specific areas. The loop ensures that water can reach any
point in the system from two directions.
• Diameter of Pipes:
o The ring or main pipeline typically has a larger diameter to support the circulation of
water around the loop. Branch pipelines have smaller diameters as they serve fewer
consumers.
• Advantages:
o Redundancy: The circular design ensures that water can reach consumers from either
direction, enhancing reliability and reducing the risk of service interruptions.
o Uniform Pressure: The ring helps maintain consistent pressure throughout the
distribution area.
o Ease of Isolation: Sections of the ring can be isolated for maintenance with minimal
impact on the overall supply.
• Disadvantages:
o Higher Cost: The circular design requires more piping and careful planning, leading
to higher construction costs.
o Complex Maintenance: While the system is reliable, maintaining the ring and
ensuring consistent water quality can be more challenging.
o Limited to Certain Areas: Best suited for areas with a defined central point or
circular layout; not ideal for irregularly shaped or sprawling regions.
4. Radial System
• Definition:
o The Radial System is a layout where the distribution area is divided into zones, each
served by a separate pipeline radiating from a central reservoir or treatment plant. The
central source supplies water to each zone independently.
• Working Process:
o Water flows directly from the central source to each zone through dedicated pipelines.
Each zone is self-contained, with water being supplied from the center outwards.
• Diameter of Pipes:
o The main pipelines leading from the central source to the zones typically have a
larger diameter. Within each zone, the pipe diameter decreases as it branches out to
serve individual consumers.
• Advantages:
o Zonal Isolation: Each zone can be isolated for maintenance or in case of an
emergency without affecting other zones.
o High Pressure: The direct connection from the central source to each zone ensures
high water pressure, particularly near the center.
o Efficient Supply: The radial design minimizes the distance water has to travel,
reducing friction losses and ensuring efficient delivery.
• Disadvantages:
o Centralized Vulnerability: If the central source fails, the entire system can be
disrupted, affecting all zones.
o High Infrastructure Cost: Requires extensive infrastructure, including multiple
large-diameter pipelines radiating from the central point.
o Complex Design: Planning and designing a radial system are more complex,
requiring careful consideration of zonal boundaries and demand patterns.
Comparison and Application
• Dead End or Tree System: Best suited for smaller towns or rural areas with less complex
distribution needs. It’s cost-effective but may face challenges with water quality and pressure.
• Grid Iron System: Ideal for urban areas where reliability and balanced pressure are critical.
Although more expensive, it ensures consistent water supply and easier maintenance.
• Circular or Ring System: Commonly used in areas with circular or centralized layouts, such
as cities with a defined center. It provides redundancy and uniform pressure but comes at a
higher cost.
• Radial System: Typically used in large cities or industrial areas where zonal management is
essential. It offers high pressure and efficient delivery but requires significant investment in
infrastructure.
Each layout has its own strengths and weaknesses, making the choice dependent on factors like
topography, population density, water demand, and budget constraints.

Water Supply Connections

• Consumers wanting water supply facility must apply to local authorities (municipal
council or corporation).
• Water connection components consist of:
o Ferrule
o Goose neck
o Service pipe
o Stop cock
o Water meter

Components of Water Connection

• Ferrule:
o Right-angled sleeve made of brass or gunmetal.
o Joined to a hole drilled in the water main, 10 to 50 mm in diameter.
o Service pipe connects to the ferrule; controls domestic water pressure and
distribution.

Goose Neck
• Small, curved pipe made of flexible material, about 75 cm in length.
• Provides a flexible connection between the water main and the service pipe to
accommodate displacement or movement.
Service Pipe
• GI pipe, less than 50 mm in diameter.
• Supplies water to the building through the goose neck and ferrule.

Stop Cock & Water Meter

• Stop Cock: Controls water flow into the building, housed in a masonry chamber.
• Water Meter: Measures water consumption and is installed within the boundary wall.

Water Taps & Valves

• Water taps are valves at the end of service pipes, used for withdrawing water at
consumer houses.
• Common types include bib cocks.

Water Connection from Municipal water

Types of Pipes
• Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes:
o Economical, durable, resistant to water pressure and mechanical shocks.
o Coated with zinc for corrosion resistance.
• PVC Pipes:
o Lightweight, flexible, and resistant to corrosion and light acids.
o Joined using PVC cement, not suitable for hot water supply.
• CPVC Pipes:
o Strong, rigid, and suitable for drinking water.
o Resistant to bacterial growth and corrosion.

Pipe Fittings
• Coupling: Connects two pipes in a straight line.
• Elbow: Changes the direction of piping, typically at 45° or 90°.
• Union: Allows for quick disconnection of pipes for maintenance.

Additional Pipe Fittings

• Cross: A fitting with one inlet and three outlets.
• Cap: Covers the end of a pipe.
• Plug: Closes off the end of a pipe but fits inside the pipe.
• Reducer: Allows for a change in pipe size.

Water Control Equipment

• Stop Valve: Regulates water pressure and volume; commonly used outside buildings.
• Angle Cock: Regulates water flow at right angles inside buildings.
• Ball Valve: Automatically controls water flow in storage tanks and cisterns.

Water Piping Systems

• Water supply can be direct or indirect, depending on municipal pressure.
• Direct supply: Water directly from the mains to kitchen or other fixtures.
 • Indirect supply: Water is pumped into an overhead tank from where it’s supplied by
gravity.

Storage of Water in Buildings

• Water is stored in overhead or underground tanks for:
o Non-supply hours.
o Reducing demand on mains.
o Meeting fire storage requirements.

Storage Tank Components

• Inlet Pipe: With control valve and ball valve.
• Overflow Pipe: Ensures no overflow when ball valve fails.
• Manhole Cover: Allows access for cleaning.
• Access Ladder: For maintenance.

Water Distribution and Supply

• Water is supplied through a distribution pipe (min. 25 mm diameter).
• From distribution, smaller pipes (12 mm) connect to outlets like bib cocks and
showers.
• Every line should have a control valve for repairs or pressure regulation.
Piping Inside Buildings
• Typically, the water pipe from the main is ¾" to 1".
• Once inside the home, piping size reduces to ½" to maintain water pressure.
• Smaller-sized piping ensures efficient distribution of water in buildings.

Efficient Water Usage

• Using low-flow fixtures such as aerators in taps and water-saving showers.
• Repair leaks immediately to avoid wastage.
• Install water-efficient appliances like dishwashers and washing machines.

How to Calculate Water Tank Capacity

• Per capita water usage in India is 135 liters per day.
• For a household of 5 people, calculate:
o Total daily water requirement = 135 liters * 5 = 675 liters/day.
o Multiply by number of days for required storage capacity (e.g., for 2 days =
1350 liters).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A3 Size Poster
• Water sources & Treatment Process
• Market study on water supply fixtures wrt materiality, sizes, and cost
Assignment: (10 Marks Each Question)
1. With a help of a neat diagram, explain the Water Treatment process.
2. Mention and describe various forms of sources for water supply schemes.
3. Explain Municipal water supply system with neat sketch.
4. Explain Efficient water usage.
5. A short note on water distribution & Storage.
6. A short note on Layouts of distribution networks.
7. A short note on water control equipment.
8. Explain methods of water distribution & Storage.
9. Explain Water Connection from Municipal water.