AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW IS MOTION UNDERSTOOD?

9 Forces in action
KEY KNOWLEDGE
In this topic, you will:
• apply the vector model of forces, including vector addition and components of forces, to
readily observable forces including the force due to gravity, friction and normal forces
• model the force due to gravity, F g , as the force of gravity acting at the centre of mass of a
body, F on body by Earth = mg, where g is the gravitational field strength (9.8 N kg−1 near the
surface of Earth)
• apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act:
Fnet
a= , Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
m
• model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and direction),
labelling these forces using the convention ‘force on A by B’ or Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
• apply concepts of momentum to linear motion: p = mv
• explain changes in momentum as being caused by a net force: ∆p = Fnet ∆t
• calculate torque, 𝜏 = r⊥ F
• analyse translational and rotational forces (torques) in simple structures in translational and
rotational equilibrium.
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

Note: Vector quantities are bolded.

PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS

Practical work is a central component of VCE Physics. Experiments and investigations, supported
by a practical investigation eLogbook and teacher-led videos, are included in this topic to
provide opportunities to undertake investigations and communicate findings.

EXAM PREPARATION
Access exam-style questions and their video solutions in every lesson, to ensure you
are ready.
9.1 Overview
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Watch Engage with Answer questions
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9.1.1 Introduction
Have you ever seen somebody parachuting down from a skydive
FIGURE 9.1 BASE jumpers use a high
or BASE jump? They can land without injury as the force of the
point such as a cliff to launch themselves.
air resisting the motion of the parachute is large enough to slow The forces involved in the jump must be
them to a safe speed. carefully calculated to allow the parachute
to open in time.
This explanation stems from the concept of forces, which
are central to our understanding and analysis of motion. In
his groundbreaking book Philosophia Naturalis Principia,
published in 1687, Sir Isaac Newton proposed three laws of
motion. These laws accurately explain the motion of objects
on Earth and throughout the universe. In this topic we will
use Newton’s laws to explore the nature of forces and their
relationship to motion.

LEARNING SEQUENCE
9.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 368
9.2 Forces as vectors ............................................................................................................................................................................ 369
9.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion .....................................................................................................................................................382
9.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion .............................................................................................................................................. 385
9.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion ................................................................................................................................................... 395
9.6 Forces in two dimensions ............................................................................................................................................................ 400
9.7 Momentum and impulse ...............................................................................................................................................................410
9.8 Torque .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 421
9.9 Equilibrium ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 424
9.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 432

Resources
Resourceseses
Solutions Solutions — Topic 9 (sol-0795)

Practical investigation eLogbook Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 9 (elog-1578)

Digital documents Key science skills — VCE Physics Units 1–4 (doc-36950)
Key terms glossary — Topic 9 (doc-36967)
Key ideas summary — Topic 9 (doc-36968)
Exam question booklet Exam question booklet — Topic 9 (eqb-0077)

368 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

9.2 Forces as vectors
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• apply the vector model of forces, including vector addition and components of forces, to readily observable
forces including the force due to gravity, friction and normal forces
• model the force due to gravity, Fg , as the force of gravity acting at the centre of mass of a body,
F on body by Earth = mg, where g is the gravitational field strength (9.8 N kg−1 near the surface of Earth)
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.2.1 Describing a force

A force is an interaction between two objects that can cause a change, commonly
force an interaction between two
a push, pull or twist applied to one object by another, measured in newtons (N). objects that can cause a change;
Some types of force require contact. For example, the force applied by your hand commonly a push, pull or twist
on a netball or basketball when shooting a goal requires contact between your applied to one object by another,
measured in newtons (N); it is a
hand and the ball. Some forces do not require contact. For example, the force of vector quantity
gravity applied on your body by Earth is present even when you are not in contact centre of mass the point at
with Earth. which all of the mass of an object
can be considered to be situated
In diagrams showing forces, such as figure 9.3, a labelled arrow should be drawn
from the centre of mass of the object upon which the force acts (this is not
included in figure 9.2 for the sake of simplicity). The length of the arrow should indicate the relative size
of the force.
To fully describe a force, you need to specify its direction as well as its magnitude or size. A quantity that can
be fully described only by specifying a magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity. Force is a vector
quantity.

FIGURE 9.2 Contact and non-contact forces at work FIGURE 9.3 Force is a vector quantity.
A vector quantity in this text is represented
a. b. by symbols in bold italic font.

Non-contact force Non-contact force

c.
Non-contact force
Air resistance (R)
R
upwards
= Fon apple by air

Force due to
gravity (Fg )
Fg downwards
= Fon apple by Earth

Contact force

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 369

 Describing and writing vector quantities
A vector quantity can be described in words — for example, 100 N upwards — or by a labelled arrow in a
diagram. If a symbol is used to represent a vector quantity, it should have one of the following:
• an arrow above it, pointing to the right; for example, a⃗
• a ‘squiggly’ line below it; for example a
~
• bold italic font (used in this text to represent vectors); for example, a.

When labelling forces, it helps to describe the force as Fon A by B ; for example, the arrow representing the force
due to gravity on the apple in figure 9.3 is labelled Fon apple by Earth .
The SI unit of force is the newton (N) and 1 N = 1 kg m s–2 . The force of gravity on a 100-gram apple is about
1 N downwards. A medium-sized car starting from rest is subjected to a forward force of about 4000 N.
Quantities that can be described without specifying a direction are called scalar quantities. Mass, energy, time
and temperature are all examples of scalar quantities.
The present understanding of our universe posits that there are four fundamental forces or interactions (see
figure 9.4).

FIGURE 9.4 The four fundamental forces

a. b. c. d. Energy

H
UT Ecl Radiation
SO iptic
TH
NOR
Sun
Radioactive atom

Earth Particle

Electromagnetic Gravitational Strong nuclear Weak nuclear

force force force force

While these four forces or interactions are fundamental to our understanding of the physics of interactions in the
universe, only gravity is useful for describing and analysing everyday motion at a human scale. The following
sections introduce some everyday categories of forces.

9.2.2 Force due to gravity (F g )

The apple in figure 9.3 is attracted to Earth by the force due to gravity.
force due to gravity the force
The force due to gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any pair of objects applied to an object due to
gravitational attraction
that have mass. These two objects do not need to be in contact with one another.

The force on an object due to the pull of gravity is usually given the symbol Fg . In simple scenarios where
objects of relatively small mass (e.g. humans, buildings, whales) are in close proximity to a very massive
object (e.g. Earth), the force due to gravity can be represented by:

Fg = mg

where:
m = the mass of the smaller object in kg
g = the gravitational field strength in N kg−1 due to the larger object.

370 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 The gravitational field strength is defined as the force of gravity on a unit of mass.
gravitational field strength (g) the
Gravitational field strength is a vector quantity. The direction of the force due to force of gravity on a unit of mass
gravity on an object is towards the centre of the source of attraction (e.g. the centre
of Earth).
The magnitude of gravitational field strength at Earth’s surface is, on average, 9.8 N kg−1 . The magnitude of g
decreases as altitude (height above sea level) increases. It also decreases as one moves from the poles towards
the equator. Table 9.1 shows the magnitude of g at several different locations.

TABLE 9.1 Variation in gravitational field strength

Magnitude of g
Location Altitude (m) Latitude (N kg−1 )
Equator 0 0° 9.780
Sydney 18 34°S 9.797
Melbourne 12 37°S 9.800
Denver 1609 40°N 9.796
New York 38 41°N 9.803
North Pole 0 90°N 9.832

The magnitude of g at Earth’s surface will be taken as 9.8 N kg−1 throughout this text. At the surface of the
Moon, the magnitude of g is 1.60 N kg−1 .

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 Calculating the force due to gravity

tlvd-3783

What is the force due to gravity acting on a 50-kilogram student:

a. on Earth
b. on the Moon?

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall the formula for force due to gravity. a. Fg = mg

2. Substitute the values to determine the force Fg = 50 × 9.8

due to gravity. = 490 N downwards
3. State the solution. The force due to gravity acting on a
50-kilogram student on Earth is 490 N
downwards.
b. 1. Recall the formula for force due to gravity. b. Fg = mg

2. Substitute the values to determine the force Fg = 50 × 1.60

due to gravity. = 80 N downwards
3. State the solution. The force due to gravity acting on a
50-kilogram student on the Moon is 80 N
downwards.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 371

 PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
a. What is the difference between the force due to gravity by Earth acting on a 70-kilogram person at
the North Pole and at the equator?
b. A hospital patient is very accurately measured to have a mass of 64.32 kilograms and the force due
to gravity by Earth acting on them is 630.08 N. In which of the locations in table 9.1 could the
patient be?

EXTENSION: Weighing in
Bathroom scales are designed for use only on Earth. Fortunately (at this point in time), that’s where most of
us live.

If a 60-kilogram student stood on bathroom scales on the Moon, the reading would be only about 10 kilograms.
Yet the mass of the student remains 60 kilograms. Bathroom scales measure force, not mass.

However, scales are designed so that you can read your mass in kilograms. Otherwise, you would have to divide
the measured force by 9.8 to determine your mass. The manufacturer of the bathroom scales saves you the
trouble of having to do this.

The 60-kilogram student experiences a force due to gravity from Earth of about 588 N. However, on the Moon
the force due to gravity from the Moon is only about 100 N. The reading on the scales will be 100 N divided by
9.8 N kg−1 , giving the result of 10.2 kilograms.

The term weight is often used in high-school Physics texts in order to draw a distinction between the force due
to gravity on an object and its mass. However, the accepted definition of the term weight in Physics is more
complex than this, and there are different conventions for how it is defined. Confusion that this may cause is
further compounded by inconsistent use of the term weight in everyday life. As such, the term weight is not used
in this text or the VCE Physics Study Design.

INVESTIGATION 9.1
elog-1766
The relationship between mass and the force due to gravity
tlvd-3784
Aim
To examine the relationship between mass and the force due to gravity

372 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 9.2.3 Friction (F fr )
Friction is a force that surfaces exert on each other when
FIGURE 9.5 This scanning electron
they ‘rub’ together. The magnitude of the friction force
micrograph shows a magnified metal
depends greatly on the nature of each of the two surfaces. surface.
Smooth surfaces experience smaller friction forces than rough
surfaces. However, even very smooth surfaces are rough on a
microscopic scale.
It is this roughness that is mostly responsible for the resistance
to motion that we call friction. As two surfaces move across
each other, they intermesh, resisting the motion.
Friction can seem to be a real nuisance at times. For instance,
it causes wear and tear in car engines and can make them
overheat.
Friction is also a necessary force in many situations. If you
have ever walked on ice, you know the importance of friction
to walking.
Friction is also needed for safe driving in a car. A large friction force is needed to start moving, change direction
and stop. The rubber tyres of a car have a deep tread to ensure that the friction force is still present on a wet road
when water forms a lubricating film between the road and the tyres. Smooth tyres would slide across a wet road,
making it difficult to stop, turn or accelerate. The deep grooves in tyres pick up the water from the road and
throw it backwards, providing a drier road surface and greater friction.

INVESTIGATION 9.2
elog-1767
Friction
tlvd-0822
Aim
To observe differences in friction when a wooden block is pulled across a surface

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Friction as a driving force (eles-0032)
Interactivity Friction as a driving force (int-0054)

9.2.4 Forces from fluid motion

The motion of an object through fluids such as air or water results in forces acting
on the object. This resistance to the motion of objects through air and water is given
.a variety of names including fluid friction, fluid resistance, drag or air resistance
friction the force applied to the
Because fluid friction increases with the speed of the object, streamlining is surface of an object when it is
particularly important in cars, planes, watercraft and bicycles (see figure 9.6). pushed or pulled against the
surface of another object
Streamlining involves creating a shape that reduces the slowing effect of collisions
air resistance the force applied
with particles of the fluid. to an object, opposite to its
direction of motion, by the air
While air resistance can be a seen as a problem, it is an absolute necessity for through which it is moving
parachutists and paragliders, who rely on it to slow their descent and land safely.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 373

 FIGURE 9.6 Racing cyclists reduce the effects of fluid
friction (air resistance) by wearing streamlined costumes
and using aerodynamically designed bicycles.

FIGURE 9.7 The

9.2.5 The normal force (F N ) normal force acts
perpendicular to
At this moment you are probably sitting on a chair with your feet on the floor. The the surface of the
material in the chair has been compressed and is pushing back up (see figure 9.7). This chair.
force is called the normal force, FN , as it acts at right angles to the surface.

9.2.6 Compression and tension in materials

Forces acting on materials, such as a concrete pillar or a steel cable, can cause the
material to experience compression or tension. These are types of loadings on a FN
material.
In a material that is experiencing compression, the atoms and molecules are pushed
closer together. In the photo of the Pole House in figure 9.8, the concrete pillar is in
compression. The house is pushing down on the pillar and the rocky hillside below is
pushing up on it, causing the pillar to be squashed in compression. An object that is in
compression will be pushing against the objects that are compressing it. Some materials
are best suited for withstanding compression, such as concrete, stone, brick and bone.

normal force the force that acts

perpendicularly to a surface as a
result of an object applying a force
to the surface

FIGURE 9.8 The Pole House located on the Great Ocean Road is supported by a concrete column
that goes several metres into the ground.

Fon house by Earth

Fon house by pillar

Fon pillar by house

Fon pillar by rock

Fon rock by pillar

374 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

Similarly, when atoms and molecules in a material are pulled further apart by a
tension a pulling force along
loading, it experiences tension. In the photo of the crane in figure 9.9, the steel the length of an object (such as
cable is in tension. The crane is pulling up on the cable and the load that it is a rope or cable) that is being
supporting is pulling down on the cable, causing it to be stretched in tension. An stretched
object that is in tension will be pulling against the objects that are stretching it.

FIGURE 9.9 Cranes use metal cables in tension to lift large loads.

Fby crane on cable

Fby cable on crane

Fby cable on mass

Fby Earth on mass

9.2.7 Free-body diagrams

A free-body diagram or force diagram is used to depict all external forces acting upon an object (see figures 9.8
and 9.9). The key to developing this skill is practice.

Steps to consider to create a free-body diagram

• Represent the object with a suitable simplified shape or, if the problem is simple enough, a single point
(e.g. a car could be represented very simply as a rectangular block).
• Identify each interaction that the object is experiencing and the force that represents that interaction
(e.g. gravitational interaction with Earth represented by the force due to gravity, Fg ).
• Represent each force with an arrow drawn at the point where it acts on the object (e.g. a friction force
on a car by the road will act where the car tyres contact the road; the force due to gravity will act at the
centre of mass of an object).
• The direction of the arrow should be in the expected direction of the force. If the direction is not
known, make an assumption (e.g. the force in a connection between a car and trailer could be either
forwards or backwards).
• The length of the arrow should represent the expected magnitude (size) of the force relative to the other
forces in the diagram. If unknown, make an assumption.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 375

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 Drawing force diagrams
tlvd-0077

Draw a force diagram for each of the following.

a. An ice skater moving at a constant velocity
b. A ball hanging straight down on a string
c. A trolley slowing down
d. A block stationary on slope

THINK WRITE
a. The only forces acting on the ice skater are the a.
normal force and the force due to gravity.
Normal force, FN

Force due to gravity, Fg

b. The forces acting on a ball hanging on a string b.

are the force due to gravity and a tension force.
Tension, T

Force due to
gravity, Fg

c. The forces acting on a trolley that is slowing c.

down are the force due to gravity, the normal Normal
force and a friction force. force, FN

Friction
Force due to
gravity, Fg

d. The forces acting on a stationary block on a d.

slope are the force due to gravity, the normal Normal
force and a friction force in the direction up force, FN
Friction
the slope.

Force due to
gravity, Fg

376 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Draw a force diagram for each of the following.
a. A falling stone
b. A mass being pulled at a steady speed
c. A piece of iron on a string, which is hanging near a strong magnet

9.2.8 The net force (F net ) or sum of forces

The net force is the result of combining all the forces into one force. You may
net force the vector sum of the
also see this referred to as the sum of forces or the resultant force. forces acting on an object

To understand whether a net force is present, consider whether an object

accelerates.
If the object is moving at constant velocity or if it is stationary then the net force is equal to zero. This does not
mean that forces are not present; it just means that if they are, then they are balanced and in opposing directions.
When more than one force acts on an object, the net force is found by the vector addition of the forces.
Figures 9.10b, c and d are examples of two forces acting in different directions, while figure 9.10a shows them
acting in the same direction. The net force, usually denoted by Fnet , is indicated in each of the examples.
It is critical to distinguish that the net force is not a particular type or category of force that acts on an object. It
is simply the combination of all forces.
To distinguish the net force vector from the vectors for the actual forces, the arrow for Fnet is often drawn in
another colour or as a dashed line. A geometric method of adding vectors uses a parallelogram, where the vector
sum is the diagonal. This is shown in figure 9.10d.

FIGURE 9.10 Adding forces together

30 N Fnet = 70 N 30 N 40 N
a. b.
40 N Fnet = 10 N

c. d.

Fnet = 50 N
30 N FB
FA + FB

40 N FA

Note that in more complex cases, it is far easier to list the x and y components of each vector, sum the
x components and sum the y components, and then use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the resultant force.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 377

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 Calculating forces and net forces acting on an object
tlvd-0078

The following free-body diagram shows the forces acting on an object.

F2 = 25 N y

F1 = 35 N 37º
x

Calculate the:
a. component of F2 that acts in the x direction
b. component of F2 that acts in the y direction
c. magnitude of the net force on the object.

THINK WRITE
adjacent
a. 1. The force F2 acts at an angle of 37° a. cos𝜃 =
from the x-axis. Its x component can be hypotenuse
found using trigonometry. F2x
cos(37°) =
25
⇒ F2x = 25cos(37°)
≈ 20 N
2. State the solution. The component of F2 that acts in the
x direction is 20 N.
opposite
b. 1. Similarly the y component of F2 can be b. sin𝜃 =
found using sin. hypotenuse
F2y
sin(37°) =
25
⇒ F2y = 25sin(37°)
≈ 15 N
2. State the solution. The component of F2 that acts in the
y direction is 15 N.

c. 1. To find the net force, consider the force c. In the x direction:

components in the x and y directions Fnet, x = F2x − F1
separately. = 20 − 35
= −15 N
In the y direction:
Fnet, y = F2y
= 15
= 15 N

2. Combining these two forces, Pythagoras’ 15 N

Fnet
theorem can be used to find the resultant
net force.

15 N

c2 = a2 + b2
Fnet2 = 152 + 152
= 450

378 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 √
⇒ Fnet = 450
≈ 21.2 N
3. State the solution. The magnitude of the net force on the object is
21.2 N.
Note: This problem only requires the
magnitude of the net force. If the direction was
required it would be necessary to calculate the
angle that the force is acting at.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3 70 N

The following free-body diagram shows the forces acting on y

an object.
45º
Calculate the magnitude of the net force acting on the 30º
x
object. 40 N

INVESTIGATION 9.3
elog-1768
Forces as a vector
tlvd-3785 Aim
a. To show that force is a vector and that the net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object
b. To analyse the forces acting on an object by resolving the forces into components

9.2 Activities
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9.2 Quick quiz 9.2 Exercise 9.2 Exam questions

9.2 Exercise
1. Describe the difference between a vector quantity and a scalar quantity.
2. Which of the following are vector quantities?
I. Mass
II. Force due to gravity
III. Gravitational field strength
IV. Time
V. Energy
VI. Temperature

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 379

 3. A car has a mass of 1400 kilograms with a full petrol tank.
a. What is the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on it at the surface of Earth?
b. What would be the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on it on the surface of Mars, where the
magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.6 N kg−1 ?
c. What is the mass of the car on the surface of Mars?
4. Estimate the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting at the surface of Earth on:
a. an apple
b. a textbook
c. your Physics teacher.
5. Estimate your own mass in kilograms and determine:
a. the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on you at the surface of Earth
b. the magnitude of the force due to gravity acting on you at the surface of Mars, where the magnitude of the
gravitational field strength is 3.6 N kg −1
c. your mass on the planet Mars.
6. Draw force diagrams for:
a. an open parachute falling slowly to the ground.
b. a thrown basketball approaching its maximum height before coming down into the basket
c. a car approaching a red light rolling slowly to a stop
d. a rocket during liftoff.
7. Draw force diagrams for each of the following figures. For the figures shown in parts a–c, show the forces
acting on the rock. For the figure shown in part d, show the force acting on the block.
a. b.

c. d.
Stretched spring

Swinging

8. A person is standing on a horizontal floor. Draw and label in the form F on A by B all of the forces acting on the
person, the floor and Earth.
9. Determine the net force in the following situations.
a. b.
2N
3N 100 N
4N
N 45°
45°
W E
100 N
S

380 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

10. In the following diagrams, the net force is shown along with all but one of the contributing forces. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the missing force.

a. b.
Fnet = 200 N
200 N
N
400 N 200 N
60° W E
200 N 30°
30°
Fnet = 0 200 N S

11. A car is moving north on a horizontal road at a constant speed of 60 km h−1 . Draw a diagram showing all
of the significant forces acting on the car. Show all of the forces as if they were acting through the centre
of mass.
12. Determine the magnitude of the horizontal components of each of the forces shown in the following
diagrams.

a. b. c.

200 N 200 N
200 N
25° 60°

9.2 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
MC A force of 3 N east is added to a force of 4 N south.

What is the magnitude of the net force?

A. 7 N
B. 5 N
C. 1 N
D. −7 N

Question 2 (2 marks)
F A = 5.0 N north and F B = 5.0 N east.

Calculate the net force when these two forces are added together. Give both magnitude and direction.

Question 3 (3 marks)
Three forces are added together: A is 8.0 N east, B is 2.0 N west and C is x N south. The net force, D, has
magnitude 7.5 N.

Calculate the magnitude of x.

Question 4 (2 marks)
For gravitational field strengths on Earth and the Moon, take gE = 9.80 N kg−1 and gM = 1.60 N kg−1 .

An object experiences a force due to gravity of 128 N on the Moon.

What would be the force due to gravity acting on it if it was relocated to the surface of Earth?

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 381

 Question 5 (3 marks)
The gravitational field strength (g) on planet X is exactly one-half of the value on Earth.

A set of bathroom scales on Earth works by first measuring the gravitational force on a person in N. Secondly,
this force value is divided by the gravitational field strength of Earth and shown on the dial as a mass in kg.

These scales correctly read a person’s mass as 50 kg on Earth. The person takes these scales to planet X and
stands on the scales.
a. Which of the following will the scales read for the mass: 25 kg, 50 kg or 100 kg? (1 mark)
b. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Fnet
• Apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
m
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.3.1 The Law of Inertia inertia the resistance of any

It is difficult to explain the motion of objects without an understanding of force and physical object to a change in its
speed or direction of motion
inertia.

CASE STUDY: Understanding inertia

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) concluded from his observations that a moving object
would come to rest if no force was pushing it. Aristotle thought that steady motion required a constant force and
that ‘being at rest’ was the natural state of matter. This view held sway for almost 2000 years, although contrary
views were expressed by philosophers such as Epicurus and Lucretius.

It was not until Galileo (1564–1642) that this explanation of motion was seriously challenged. Galileo argued that
if a ball rolled down an inclined plane gained speed and a ball rolled up an inclined plane lost speed, a ball rolled
along a horizontal plane should neither gain nor lose speed. Galileo knew that this did not really happen. He
claimed that if there was a lot of friction, the ball slowed down quickly; if there was little friction, the ball slowed
down more gradually. However, he predicted that if there were no friction at all, the ball would continue to move
with a constant speed forever unless something else caused it to slow down or stop.

Galileo introduced the concept of friction as a force and concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a
force, often friction, acts upon them. Galileo stated in his Discorsi (1638):
A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed.

Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) was able to refine Galileo’s ideas about motion. In 1687, he published his
Philosophia Naturalis Principia, which included three laws of motion.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non-zero net force.

382 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

A bowling ball rolling down a bowling alley (see figure 9.11) changes its motion because the net force on it is
not zero. In fact, it slows down because the direction of the net force is opposite to the direction of motion. The
vertical forces, gravity and the normal force balance each other. The only ‘unbalanced’ force is that of friction.

FIGURE 9.11 The changing net force on this bowling ball determines its
state of motion.

EXTENSION: Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton was one of many famous scientists who were not
FIGURE 9.12 Sir Isaac Newton
outstanding students at school or university. Newton left school at
14 years of age to help his widowed mother on the family’s farm.
He turned out to be unsuited to farming and spent much of his time
reading. At the age of 18, he went to Cambridge University, where he
showed no outstanding ability.

When Cambridge University was closed down in 1665 due to an

outbreak of the plague, Newton went home and spent the next
two years studying and writing. During this time, he developed the
laws of gravity that explain the motion of the planets, and his three
famous laws of motion. Over the same period, he put forward the
view that white light consisted of many colours and he invented
calculus. Newton’s laws of gravity and motion were not published
until about 20 years later.

Newton later became a member of Parliament, a warden of the Mint

and President of the Royal Society. After his death in 1727, he was
buried in Westminster Abbey, London, alongside many English kings,
queens, political leaders and poets.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 383

9.3 Activities
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9.3 Quick quiz 9.3 Exercise 9.3 Exam questions

9.3 Exercise
1. With reference to Newton’s First Law of Motion, explain why a smartphone sliding across a table does not
move at a constant speed.
2. When you are standing on a bus, train or tram that stops suddenly, you lurch forwards. Explain why this
happens in terms of Newton’s First Law.
3. If the bicycle that you are riding runs into an obstacle such as a large rock, you may be flung forwards over the
handlebars. Explain in terms of Newton’s First Law why this happens.
4. A removalist is pushing some heavy boxes across the floor of their van at a constant speed. They exert a force
of 125 N on the boxes. Calculate the magnitude of the friction force acting on the boxes during this motion.
5. A Physics student who is also in the circus is practicing juggling balls whilst travelling in a train. They misjudge
a throw and one of the balls goes out an open window. It quickly disappears beside the track behind the train
while the other balls remain inside. Use your knowledge of Newton’s First Law to explain why the horizontal
motion of the ball changed once it exited the train.

9.3 Exam questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
A ball that is rolling along a perfectly horizontal and very smooth surface on Earth will eventually slow down to
a stop.

Identify the forces causing this and use Newton’s First Law to explain why this is the case.

Question 2 (2 marks)
A high-altitude skydiver has reached terminal velocity and is falling at a constant velocity towards Earth. The
force due to gravity acting on them at this point in their fall is 600 N.

State the magnitude and direction of the total air resistance force acting on them.

Question 3 (2 marks)
A space probe travelling in deep space moves at a constant velocity without using any rockets or other
propulsion. Yet an aircraft on Earth cruising at constant speed must keep its engines producing thrust so that
it does not slow down.

Explain how both situations are consistent with Newton’s First Law.

Question 4 (2 marks)
A boat is pulling a raft along a river at constant speed. The retarding forces on the boat and raft are 600 N and
300 N respectively.

Calculate the driving force on the boat. Explain your reasoning.

384 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 Question 5 (3 marks)
A car is travelling quickly along the highway when it runs into an obstacle and stops abruptly. One of the
passengers is not wearing a seat belt. Describing the incident to a friend later, he says that he was thrown
forward by the collision. The friend questions how the collision could produce a forward force on the passenger.

Using Newton’s First Law, explain what happened to the passenger in the collision.

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Fnet
• Apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
m
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.4.1 The Law of Mass and Acceleration

Casual observations indicate that the acceleration of a given object increases as the net force on the object
increases. It is also clear that lighter objects change their velocity at a greater rate than heavier objects when the
same force is applied.
It can be shown experimentally that the acceleration, a, of an object is:
• proportional to the net force, Fnet , acting on it

a ∝ Fnet
• inversely proportional to its mass, m.

1
a∝
m

Thus, the relationship between force, mass and acceleration can be seen as:

Fnet
a∝
m

The SI unit of force, the newton (N), is defined such that a net force of 1 N causes a mass of 1 kilogram to
accelerate at 1 m s−2 . The value of the constant, k, is 1. It has no units.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Fnet
a=
m
Fnet = ma

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 385

 This statement of Newton’s Second Law allows you to:
• determine the net force acting on an object without knowing any of the individual forces acting on it
• deduce the net force as long as you can measure or calculate (using formulae or graphs) the acceleration of
a known mass
• determine the mass of an object. You can do this by measuring the acceleration of an object on which a
known net force is exerted.
• predict the effect of a net force on the motion of an object of known mass.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4 Application of Newton’s Second Law of Motion

tlvd-3786

A 65-kilogram Physics teacher, starting from rest, glides down a slide in the local playground. The net
force on her during the slide is a constant 350 N. How fast will she be travelling at the bottom of the
8-metre slide?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall Newton’s Second Law of Motion. Fnet = ma

2. Substitute the mass and force to find the Fnet = ma

acceleration. 350 = 65a
350
⇒a =
65
≈ 5.38 m s−2
3. As the acceleration is constant, a constant v2 = u2 + 2as
acceleration formula can be used. = 0 + 2 × 5.38 × 8
= 86.08
√
⇒ v = 86.08
≈ 9.3 m s−1
4. State the solution. She will be travelling at approximately 9.3 m s–1 at
the bottom of the slide.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. What is the magnitude of the average force applied by a tennis racquet to a 58-gram tennis
ball during service if the average acceleration of the ball during contact with the racquet is
1.2 × 104 m s−2 ?
b. A toy car is pulled across a smooth, polished horizontal table with a spring balance. The reading
on the spring balance is 2 N and the acceleration of the toy car is measured to be 2.5 m s−2 . What is
the mass of the toy car? (Note: Because the table is described as smooth and polished, friction can
be ignored.)

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Newton’s Second Law (eles-0033)

386 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 9.4.2 Applying Newton’s Second Law in real life
The practice problems presented in the previous section include assumptions and
negligible a quantity so small that
simplifications of what really happens. For instance, the table surface in part b of it can be ignored when modelling
practice problem 4 is smooth. This description was deliberately included so that a phenomenon or an event
you would know the force of friction on the toy car was negligible, which means idealisation assuming ideal
that it can be ignored and so simplifies the problem. conditions that don’t exactly
match the real situation to make
The assumptions made to answer each of the questions asked in the sample modelling a phenomenon or event
easier
problem and practice problem are called idealisations. Making reasonable
idealisations makes it possible to simplify a problem whilst also still obtaining
results that are a close approximation of what will occur in reality. However, caution is needed when making
idealisations. For example, it would be unreasonable to ignore the air resistance on a tennis ball while it was
soaring through the air at 150 km h−1 (42 m s−1 ) after the serve was completed.
Most applications of Newton’s Second Law are not as simple as those given in the practice problems in the
previous section. Some more typical examples are presented in the following sample and practice problems.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5 Applications of Newton’s Second Law of Motion and the constant
tlvd-0080
acceleration formula
When the head of an 80-kilogram bungee jumper is 24 metres from the surface of the water below,
her velocity is 16 m s−1 downwards and the tension in the bungee cord is 1200 N. Air resistance can be
assumed to be negligible.
a. What is her acceleration at that instant?
b. If her acceleration remained constant during the rest of her fall, would she stop before hitting the
water?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Calculate the force due to gravity, then a. Fg = mg
draw a diagram to show the forces acting = 80 × 9.8
on the bungee jumper. = 784 N

2. Calculate the net force. Fnet = 1200 − 784

= 416 N upwards

FT = 1200 N

Fg = mg
= 784 N

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 387

 3. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate the Fnet = ma
acceleration. 416 = 80a
416
⇒a =
80
= 5.2 m s−2 upwards
4. State the solution. Her acceleration at that instant is 5.2 m s–2 .
b. 1. If the jumper’s acceleration were constant, b. v2 = u2 + 2as
one of the constant acceleration formulae u = 16 m s−1 , v = 0, a = −5.2 m s−2 , s = ?
could be used to answer this question.
Assign down as positive for this part of
the question as the bungee jumper has a
downwards initial velocity and displacement
during the time period being considered.

2. Substitute the values into the formula and v2 = u2 + 2as

solve for s. 0 = 16 2 + 2 × −5.2 × s
0 = 256 − 10.4 s
10.4 s = 256
256
⇒s =
10.4
≈ 24 m
3. State the solution. The bungee jumper will not stop in time.
However, don’t be upset. In practice, the
acceleration of the bungee jumper would
not be constant. The tension in the cord
would increase as she fell. Therefore, the net
force on her would increase and her upwards
acceleration would be greater in magnitude
than the calculated value. She will therefore
almost certainly come to a stop in a distance
considerably less than that calculated.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A 1200-kilogram sports car is testing its brakes by driving at a constant speed of 100 km h−1 and then
braking hard. To pass the test it needs to come to a complete stop in a distance of 50 metres.
If the friction is a constant 1000 N, what force do the brakes need to apply for the sports car to pass
the test?

388 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 6 Determining net force and resistance forces
tlvd-0081

A waterskier of mass 80 kilograms, starting from rest, is pulled in a northerly direction by a

horizontal rope with a constant tension of 240 N. After 6 seconds, he has reached a speed
of 12 m s−1 .
a. What is the net force on the skier?
b. If the tension in the rope were the only horizontal force acting on the skier, what would his
acceleration be?
c. What is the sum of the resistance forces on the skier?

THINK WRITE
a. 1. A good first step is to draw a labelled force a. Fg = mg
diagram. = 80 × 9.8
The force due to gravity can be calculated = 784 N
by the formula Fg = mg. N
Normal force = 784 N

Tension = 240 N
Resistance
forces

Force due to gravity = mg

= 784 N
2. The net force cannot be determined by adding v = u + at
the individual force vectors because the 12 = 0 + a × 6
resistance forces are not given, nor is there any 12
⇒a =
information in the question to suggest that they 6
can be ignored. = 2 m s−2 north
To calculate the net force we will first need
to find the acceleration.
3. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate the Fnet = ma
net force. = 80 × 2
= 160 N north
4. State the solution. The net force on the skier is 160 N north.
b. 1. As the vertical forces cancel out, the net b. Fnet = 240 N north
force is determined by the horizontal
forces. If the tension were the only horizontal
force acting on the waterskier it would be
the net force.
2. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate the Fnet = ma
acceleration. 240 = 80a
240
⇒a =
80
= 3 m s−2 north

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 389

 3. State the solution. If the tension in the rope were the only
horizontal force acting on the waterskier, his
acceleration would be 3 m s–2 north.

c. 1. The sum of the resistance forces (friction c. Sum of resistance forces = Fnet − tension
caused by the water surface and air = 160 N north − 240 N north
resistance) on the waterskier is the difference = 80 N south
between the net force and the tension.
2. State the solution. The sum of the resistance forces on the
waterskier is 80 N south.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
A loaded sled with a mass of 60 kilograms is being pulled across a level snow-covered field with a
horizontal rope. It accelerates from rest over a distance of 9 metres, reaching a speed of 6 m s−1 . The
tension in the rope is a constant. The frictional force on the sled is 200 N. Air resistance is negligible.
a. What is the acceleration of the sled?
b. What is the magnitude of the tension in the rope?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7 Determining the acceleration using a velocity-versus-time graph

tlvd-3787

The following velocity-versus-time graph describes the

motion of a 45-kilogram girl on rollerblades as she rolls on
8
a horizontal concrete path for 6 seconds before
Velocity (m s−1)

crossing onto a rough horizontal gravel path for the

6
remaining 4 seconds.
a. What was the magnitude of the net force on the girl on
4
the concrete surface?
b. If the only horizontal force acting on the blades is the 2
friction force applied by the path, what is the value of
the following ratio?
0
2 4 6 8 10
Friction force of gravel path on rollerblades Time (s)

Friction force of concrete path on rollerblades

THINK WRITE
rise
a. 1. The acceleration of the girl while she a. a =
was on the concrete surface is given run
by the gradient of the corresponding −2
=
section of the velocity-versus-time 6
graph. −1
= m s−2
3

390 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 2. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate Fnet = ma
the magnitude of the net force on the −1
= 45 ×
girl while on the concrete surface. 3
= −15 N

3. State the solution. The magnitude of the net force on the girl on
the concrete surface is –15 N.
Friction force of gravel path on rollerblades
b. 1. If the only horizontal force acting on b.
the rollerblades is friction, the net Friction force of concrete path on rollerblades
force on the girl is the same as the Fnet on girl while on gravel
=
friction force on the blades. Fnet on girl while on concrete

2. Apply Newton’s Second Law and Fnet on girl while on gravel ma on gravel
cancel out common terms. =
Fnet on girl while on concrete ma on concrete
a (during last 4 s)
=
a (during first 6 s)
a (during last 4 s) gradient (for last 4 s)
3. Use the gradient of the graph to =
evaluate the ratio of accelerations. a (during first 6 s) gradient (for first 6 s)
( −6 )
4
= ( −1 )
3
36
=
8
= 4.5
4. State the solution. The value of the ratio is 4.5.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
If the velocity-versus-time graph in sample problem 7 was applied to a car of mass 1200 kg on two
road surfaces, what net force (in magnitude) acts on the car during:
a. the first 6 seconds
b. the final 4 seconds?

9.4.3 Falling down

Objects that are falling (or rising) through the air in the atmosphere near the surface of Earth are subjected to
two forces — the force due to gravity and air resistance. The force due to gravity of the object is effectively
constant. The magnitude of the air resistance, however, is not constant. It depends on many factors, including
the object’s speed, surface area and density. It also depends on the density of the body of air through which the
object is falling. The air resistance is always opposite to the direction of motion. The net force on a falling object
of mass m and force due to gravity Fg can therefore be expressed as:

Fnet = ma (where a is the acceleration of the object)

Fg − air resistance = ma

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 391

When dense objects fall through small distances near the surface of Earth it is usually quite reasonable to assume
that the air resistance is negligible. Thus:
Fg = ma
⇒ mg = ma (where g is the gravitational field strength)
⇒g = a

The acceleration of a body in free fall in a vacuum or where air resistance is negligible is equal to the
gravitational field strength. At Earth’s surface, where g = 9.8 N kg−1 , this acceleration is 9.8 m s−2 . The units
N kg−1 and m s−2 are equivalent.

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents Simulation of basketball throw (doc-0052)
eModelling: Skydiver spreadsheet (doc-0054)
Video eLesson Air resistance (eles-0035)

EXTENSION: Terminal velocity

Note that this content is useful if you are choosing to study option
2.3 (How do heavy things fly?) in Unit 2, Area of Study 2. FIGURE 9.13 Skydivers accelerate until
the drag force equals the force due to
Terminal velocity is reached when the forces acting on a falling gravity, at terminal velocity.
object are balanced and it stops accelerating. When considering
objects falling vertically downwards in the atmosphere near the
surface of Earth, the two forces are air resistance or drag, F D ,
acting to oppose the motion of the object, and the force due to
gravity, F g , acting vertically downwards (see figure 9.13).

The force due to gravity and air resistance are in balance when an
object is at terminal velocity.

The force due to gravity, F g , depends only on the mass of the

object, m, and the gravitational field strength, g, which can both
be assumed to be roughly constant during the fall of an object
near the surface of Earth.

The air resistance or drag, F D , acting on an object depends on a number of

factors: FIGURE 9.14 Forces
• CD is the drag coefficient, which measures the ease with which air can acting on a falling object
move over an object. In simple terms, this indicates how streamlined at terminal velocity
an object is. This is a constant value for a particular object shape and
orientation, and is often determined experimentally or via computer
analysis.
• 𝜌 is the air density measured in kg m−3 , which can be assumed to be
constant; however, in reality it will vary with altitude, temperature, humidity FD = 1 CD v2A
and pressure. 2
• v is the velocity that the object is moving through the air measured in m s−1 .
• A is the cross-sectional or reference area that is perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the object measured in m2 . For an object falling
vertically this will be the horizontal cross-section.

When terminal velocity occurs, these two forces must be in balance (net force is
zero, acceleration is zero).
FD = Fg
Fg = mg
1
CD 𝜌v2 A = mg
2

392 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 This can be rearranged to determine a relationship for the terminal velocity.
√
2mg
v=
CD 𝜌A

Provided that reasonable estimates can be made of the quantities involved, this relationship can be used to
calculate the theoretical terminal velocity of falling objects. This can provide an interesting focus for an extended
practical investigation.

If a bowling ball, a golf ball and a table tennis ball were

FIGURE 9.15 A bowling ball, a golf ball and
dropped at the same instant from a height of 2 metres in a
a table tennis ball dropped from a height of
vacuum, they would all reach the ground at the same time. 2 metres. Which one would you expect to
Each ball would have an initial velocity of zero, an acceleration reach the ground first?
of 9.8 m s−2 and a downward displacement of 2 metres.
If, however, the balls are dropped either in a classroom or
outside, the table tennis ball will reach the ground a moment
later than the other two balls.
The acceleration of each of the balls is:
Fnet
a=
m
mg − FD
= (where FD is air resistance)
m
mg FD
= −
m m
FD
= g−
m
FD
is very small for the bowling ball and the golf ball. Even though the air resistance on the table tennis ball is
m
F
small, its mass is also small and D is not as small as it is for the other two balls.
m
WARNING: Do not drop a bowling ball from a height of 2 metres indoors. If you wish to try this
experiment, replace the bowling ball with a medicine ball and keep your feet out of the way!

9.4 Activities
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Receive immediate Access Track your
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9.4 Quick quiz 9.4 Exercise 9.4 Exam questions

9.4 Exercise
1. What is an idealisation? Provide an example of an idealism that could be used to simplify a physics problem.
2. When a space shuttle takes off, its initial acceleration is 3.0 m s−2 . It has an initial mass of about 2.2 × 106 kg.
a. Determine the magnitude of the net force on the space shuttle as it takes off.
b. What is the magnitude of the upward thrust as it takes off?

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 393

 3. A 6-kilogram bowling ball and a 60-kilogram gold bar are dropped at the same instant from the third floor of
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Use Newton’s Second Law to explain why:
a. they both reach the ground at the same time
b. a 6-kilogram doormat dropped from the same location at the same time takes significantly longer to reach
the ground.
4. A bungee jumper with a mass of 70 kilograms leaps from a bridge.
a. What is the force due to gravity acting on the bungee jumper?
b. During which part of the jump is:
i. the upwards force on the jumper due to the tension in the bungee cord greater than the force due to
gravity on the jumper
ii. the force due to gravity on the jumper greater than the upward pull of the bungee cord?
c. What tension in the bungee cord is needed for the jumper to travel at a constant speed? Does this occur at
any time during the jump? Explain.
5. A car of mass 1200 kilograms starts from rest on a horizontal road with a forward driving force of 10 000 N.
The resistance to motion due to road friction and air resistance totals 2500 N.
a. What is the magnitude of the net force on the car?
b. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the car?
c. What is the speed of the car after 5 seconds?
d. How far has the car travelled after 5 seconds?
6. A train of mass 8.0 × 106 kilograms travelling at a speed of 25 m s−1 is required to stop over a maximum
distance of 360 metres. What frictional force must act on the train when the brakes are applied if the train is to
do this?
7. A short-sighted skier of mass 70.0 kilograms suddenly realises while travelling at a speed of 12.0 m s−1 that
there is a steep cliff 50.0 metres straight ahead. What frictional force is required on the skier if he is to stop
just before he skis off the edge of the cliff?
8. A Physics teacher decides, just for fun, to stand on some bathroom scales (calibrated in newtons) in a lift. The
scales provide a measure of the force with which they push up on the teacher. When the lift is stationary, the
reading on the bathroom scales is 700 N. What will be the reading on the scales when the lift is:
a. moving upwards at a constant speed of 2.0 m s−1
b. accelerating downwards at 2.0 m s−2
c. accelerating upwards at 2.0 m s−2 ?
9. A ball of mass 0.50 kilograms is thrown vertically upwards.
a. What is the velocity of the ball at the top of its flight?
b. What is the magnitude of the ball’s acceleration at the top of its flight?
c. What is the net force on the ball at the top of its flight?

9.4 Exam questions

Question 1 (3 marks)
The cable holding a lift would break if the tension in it were to exceed 25 000 N.

If the 480-kilogram lift has a load limit of 24 passengers whose average mass is 70 kilograms, what is the
maximum possible upwards acceleration of the lift without breaking the cable?

Question 2 (3 marks)
A block of mass 2.5 kg is being pulled along a rough benchtop by a horizontal string exerting a pull of 6.5 N. The
observed acceleration is 2.0 m s−2 .

Calculate the magnitude of the friction force exerted on the benchtop by the block.

Question 3 (3 marks)
In a large warehouse, a golf cart is used to pull a small trailer by means of a horizontal connecting rod.

150 kg 50 kg
Rod
30 N 20 N

394 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 The masses of the cart and trailer are 150 kg and 50 kg respectively. The retarding friction forces on the cart and
trailer are 30 N and 20 N respectively. The driving force is provided by the cart. At one time, the acceleration of
the cart and trailer is 1.5 m s−2 .

Determine the tension in the connecting rod at this time.

Question 4 (3 marks)
A student applies a pulling force of 6.0 N to a block of mass 2.0 kg on a wooden benchtop. She measures
the acceleration of the block as 2.5 m s−2 . The student comments that she had expected a larger value of
acceleration.

What is the force that the student has overlooked?

Calculate the magnitude of this force.

Question 5 (3 marks)
A car, of mass 1200 kg, is pulling a trailer, of mass 600 kg, on a straight, horizontal road using a towrope. The
total retarding force on the car is 800 N and on the trailer it is 400 N.

Calculate the tension in the towrope when the car and the trailer are both accelerating forward at 1.5 m s−2 .

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Fnet
• Apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
m
• Model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and direction), labelling these
forces using the convention ‘force on A by B’ or Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.5.1 Forces in pairs

Newton said that forces always act in pairs. Forces represent or model the interaction between two objects. Each
object acts on the other, so where there is one force by one object, there is always another force by the other
object, as illustrated in figure 9.16.
The pairing of these forces is apparent in the symmetry of their labels. If the label for one force is Fon B by A , then
the label for the other is Fon A by B . It is important to note that in these pairs of forces, the forces act on different
objects.
Newton not only identified forces acting in pairs, he also said that these two forces act in opposite directions and
are equal in magnitude or size. This statement became Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 395

 FIGURE 9.16 Forces act in pairs.

a. b. c.

Fon body by chair

A N N B

Fon A by B Fon B by A

A S N B
Fon tyre by road
Fon road by tyre Fon A by B Fon B by A
Fon chair by body

Newton’s Third Law of Motion:

If object B applies a force to object A, then object A applies an equal and opposite force to object B.
Fon A by B = −Fon B by A

This symmetry between the pair of forces can be used to identify the other of the pair if only one is given.

Action and reaction

Some texts summarise Newton’s Third Law as ‘For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
This version is not preferred and can cause confusion. The word ‘reaction’ here has a different meaning to
its use in ‘normal force’. The statement also implies one force in the pair is a response to the other, which
is incorrect.

There are four forces acting as two force pairs when you sit on a
FIGURE 9.17 Forces while sitting
comfortable chair. Earth pulls down on you, and the compressed
springs and foam push up on you. So, one force pair is the upward
Fon student by chair
push by the springs on you and the downward push by the bones
Chair pushes
in your pelvis on the chair. The second force pair is Earth pulling student
down on you and you pulling Earth upwards.
The net force on a person sitting in a chair is the vector sum of all
the forces acting on the person. The net force is zero because the
upward push by the chair, Fon student by chair , is balanced by the
downward, and of equal size, pull of the force of gravity,
Fon student by Earth .

Fon chair by student

Student pushes chair

396 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 8 Action and reaction: Newton’s Third Law of Motion
tlvd-3788
Two ice skaters, Jack and Jill, push each other away. The
figure shows the force on Jill by Jack with a black arrow.
Draw an arrow and label it to show the force on Jack
by Jill.

Fon Jill by Jack

THINK WRITE
1. Recall Newton’s Third Law of Motion. Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
2. Draw the force on Jack by Jill as an arrow of
equal length in the opposite direction.

Fon Jack by Jill

PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Draw and label arrows for the other forces in the following force pairs.
a. b.

Fon boy by girl

Fon gas by rocket

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 397

 c. d.

Fon apple by Earth

Fon ball by club

9.5.2 Moving forward

The rowing boat in figure 9.18 is propelled forward by the push of water on the oars. As the face of each oar
pushes backwards on the water, the water pushes forward with an equal and opposite force on each oar. The
force on the oars, which are connected to the boat, propels the rowers and their boat forward. A greater push
on the water results in a greater push on the oar.

FIGURE 9.18 This rowing team relies on a reaction

force to propel itself forward.

In fact, none of your forward motion — whether you are on land, water or in the air — could occur without a
Newton’s Third Law force pair.
• When you swim, you push the water backwards
with your hands, arms and legs. The water pushes in the opposite direction, propelling you forwards.
• In order to walk or run, you push your feet backwards and down on the ground. The ground pushes in the
opposite direction, pushing forwards and up on your feet.
• The forward driving force on the wheels of a car is the result of a backwards push on the road by the
wheels.
• A jet or a propeller-driven plane is thrust forwards by air. The jet engines or propellers are designed to push
air backwards with a very large force. The air pushes forwards on the plane with an equally large force.

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Newton’s laws (eles-0036)
Interactivity Newton’s laws (int-0055)

398 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

9.5 Activities
Students, these questions are even better in jacPLUS
Receive immediate Access Track your
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9.5 Quick quiz 9.5 Exercise 9.5 Exam questions

9.5 Exercise
1. Copy the following table into your workbook. Describe fully the missing half of the following force pairs.

Force 1 Pair of force 1

You push on a wall with the palm of your hand.
Your foot pushes down on a bicycle pedal.
The ground pushes up on your feet while you are standing.
Earth pulls down on your body.
You push on a broken-down car to try to get it moving.
A hammer pushes down on a nail.

2. Label all of the forces in the following figures in the form F on A by B .

a. N b.

Normal force Normal force

Friction

Tension
Resistance 30°
forces Fgy
Fgx

30°
Force due to gravity Force due to gravity

3. Identify the force pairs in the following figure.

4. Explain, in terms of Newton’s First and Third Laws of Motion, why a freestyle swimmer moves faster through
the water than a breaststroke swimmer.
5. A student says that the friction forces on the front and back tyres of a car are an example of Newton’s Third
Law of Motion. Is the student correct? Explain.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 399

 9.5 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
A car is travelling along a highway.

Identify two Newton’s Third Law pairs of forces acting on the car using the convention F on A by B .

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC Which of the following statements about Newton’s Third Law of Motion is false?
A. The two forces are opposite in direction.
B. The two forces act on the same object.
C. The two forces are equal in magnitude.
D. The two forces act on different objects.

Question 3 (1 mark)
MC A small car has a head-on collision with a very heavy truck.

How do the magnitudes of the forces from the collision on each vehicle compare?
A. There is a larger magnitude force on the small car.
B. There is a larger magnitude force on the heavy truck.
C. The forces are equal in magnitude.
D. There is insufficient information to make a comparison.

Question 4 (3 marks)
Two skaters, P and Q, are standing facing each other on smooth ice. P has twice the mass of Q. They push one
another apart and Q moves away with an initial acceleration of magnitude 3.0 m s−2 .

Calculate the magnitude of the initial acceleration of P. Show your reasoning.

Question 5 (3 marks)
Explain why a car has difficulty in accelerating forward when initially stationary on a very slippery, muddy surface.

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.6 Forces in two dimensions

KEY KNOWLEDGE
Fnet
• Apply Newton’s three laws of motion to a body on which forces act: a = , Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
m
• Model forces as vectors acting at the point of application (with magnitude and direction), labelling these
forces using the convention ‘force on A by B’ or Fon A by B = −Fon B by A
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.6.1 Vehicles on horizontal surfaces

There are many forces acting on a car, as shown in figure 9.19.
The forces acting on a car being driven along a straight, horizontal road are:
• the force due to gravity. The force applied by Earth on the car acts through the centre of mass, or balancing
point, of the car.
• the normal force. The force applied on the car by the road is a reaction to the force applied on the road by
the car. A normal force pushes up on all four wheels.

400 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 • the driving force. This is provided by the road and is applied to the driving wheels. As a tyre on a driven
wheel pushes back on the road, the road pushes forward on the tyre, propelling the car forward. The push
of the road on the tyre is a type of friction commonly referred to as traction, or grip.
• road friction. This is the retarding force applied by the road on the tyres of the non-driving wheels.
• air resistance. The drag, or air resistance acting on the car, increases as the car moves faster. As a fluid
friction force, air resistance can be reduced by streamlining the vehicle or reducing its size.

FIGURE 9.19 Forces acting on a car. The state of motion of a front-wheel-drive car on a horizontal road depends
on the net force acting on it.

Air resistance, Fon car by air

Normal force,
Fon car by road Normal force, Fon car by road

Driving force,
Road friction, Fon tyre by road Fon tyre by road

Force due to gravity, Fon car by Earth

The net force acting on the car in figure 9.19 is zero. It is therefore moving along the road at constant speed. We
know that it is moving to the right because both the air resistance and road friction act in a direction opposite to
that of motion. If the car were stationary, neither of these forces would be acting at all.
• If the driving force were to increase, the car would speed up until the sum of the air resistance and road
friction grew large enough to balance the driving force. Then, once again, the car would be moving at a
constant, although higher, speed.
• If the driver stopped pushing down on the accelerator, the motor would stop turning the driving wheels and
the driving force would become zero. The net force would be to the left. As the car slowed down, the air
resistance and road friction would gradually decrease until the car came to a stop. The net force on the car
would then be zero until such time as the driving force was restored.

CASE STUDY: Computer-controlled brake systems

An anti-lock brake system (ABS) allows the wheels to keep
rolling no matter how hard the brakes are applied. A small FIGURE 9.20 ABS on a motorcycle
computer attached to the braking system monitors the
rotation of the wheels. If the wheels lock and rolling stops,
the pressure on the brake pads (or shoes) that stops the
rotation is reduced briefly. This action is repeated up to
15 times each second. Anti-lock brake systems are most
effective on wet roads. However, even on a dry surface,
braking distances can be reduced by up to 20 per cent.

When brakes in an older car without ABS are applied too

hard, as they often are when a driver panics, the wheels
lock. The resulting sliding friction is less than the friction
acting when the wheels are still rolling. The car skids,
steering control is lost and the car takes longer to stop
than if the wheels were still rolling. Before ABS became commonplace, drivers were often advised to ‘pump’
the brakes in wet conditions to prevent locking. This involves pushing and releasing the brake pedal in quick
succession until the car stops. This, however, is very difficult to do in an emergency situation.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 401

 Since the advent of ABS, a myriad additional computer-controlled systems have been developed to improve
safety when braking. One such system, often referred to as Brake Assist, monitors the application of force to the
brake pedal to detect an emergency and apply additional brake pressure. More advanced systems use a range
of technology to monitor conditions on the road ahead and can warn the driver to apply the brakes, and in some
systems even apply the brakes automatically if there is no driver response. The development of systems such
as these over recent decades has been a vital precursor to the rapid development of autonomous cars that is
underway at present.

INVESTIGATION 9.4
elog-1769
Static, sliding and rolling friction
Aim
To compare the relative sizes of different forms of friction

9.6.2 Vehicles on inclined planes

A car left parked on a hill will begin to roll down the hill with increasing speed if it is left out of gear and the
handbrake is off. Figure 9.21a shows the forces acting on such a car. In order to simplify the diagram, all of the
forces are drawn as if they were acting through the centre of mass of the car. The forces on the car can then be
modelled as acting on a single point. The direction of net force acting on the car is down the hill. It is clear that
the force of gravity is a major contributor to the downhill motion of the car.

FIGURE 9.21 a. A simplified diagram of the forces acting on a car rolling down a slope b. Vectors can be resolved
into components. In this case, the force due to gravity has been resolved into two components. The net force is
parallel to the slope.

a. b.
Normal force
Normal force

Road friction
Road friction
and air resistance
and air resistance
Components
Force due Force due of the force
to gravity to gravity due to gravity
It is often useful to divide vectors into parts called components. Figure 9.21b shows
components parts of a vector;
how the force due to gravity can be broken up, or resolved, into two components — a vector can be resolved into a
one parallel to the slope and one perpendicular to the slope. Notice that the vector number of components, and when
sum of the components is the force due to gravity. By resolving it into these two all the components are added
together, the result is the original
components, two useful observations can be made: vector
1. The normal force is balanced by the component of force due to gravity that is
perpendicular to the surface. The net force perpendicular to the road surface is
zero. This must be the case because there is no change in motion perpendicular
to the slope.
2. The magnitude of the net force is simply the difference between the magnitude of the component of the
force due to gravity that is parallel to the surface and the sum of the road friction and air resistance.

402 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 9 Determining the magnitude of road friction on an incline
tlvd-0084

A car of mass 1600 kilograms left parked on a steep but rough road begins to roll down the hill. After
a short while it reaches a constant speed. The road is inclined at 15° to the horizontal. The car’s speed
is sufficiently slow that the air resistance is insignificant and can be ignored. Determine the magnitude
of the road friction on the car while it is rolling at constant speed.

Normal force

15° Road friction

Fgy = magnitude of normal
15° reaction force
Force due
to gravity Fgx = magnitude of road friction

THINK WRITE
1. Because the car is rolling at constant speed, Fnet = 0
the net force acting on it is zero.
2. As the net force is zero, the magnitude of the Friction = Fgx
friction must be equal to the magnitude
of the force due to gravity that is in the
direction of the slope.
Fgx
3. The force due to gravity in the direction sin(15°) =
of the slope can be calculated using the Fg
trigonometric ratio sine. ⇒ Fgx = Fg sin(15°)

4. The force due to gravity can be found using Fg = mg

the formula Fg = mg. = 1600 × 9.8
= 15 680 N
5. Substitute the force due to gravity into the Fgx = Fg sin(15°)
formula for Fgx . = 15 680sin(15°)
≈ 4058 N
The road friction on the car is 4058 N.

Note: It is useful to consider the effect on the net force

of the angle of the incline to the horizontal. If the angle
is greater than 15°, the component of the force due
to gravity parallel to the slope increases and the net
force will no longer be zero. The speed of the car will
therefore increase. The component of the force due to
gravity perpendicular to the slope decreases and the
normal force decreases by the same amount.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 403

 PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
a. A 5000-kilogram truck is parked on a road surface inclined at an angle of 20° to the horizontal.
Calculate the component of the force due to gravity on the truck that is:
i. down the slope of the road
ii. perpendicular to the slope of the road.
b. In the case of the car in sample problem 9, what is:
i. the component down the road surface of the normal force acting on it
ii. the normal force?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10 Determining the speed and distance of a rolling shopping trolley
tlvd-0085

A loaded supermarket shopping trolley with a total mass of 60 kilograms is left standing on a footpath
that is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. As the tired shopper searches for his car keys, he
fails to notice that the trolley is beginning to roll away. It rolls in a straight line down the footpath for
9 seconds before it is stopped by an alert (and very strong) supermarket employee. Find the:
a. speed of the shopping trolley at the end of its roll
b. distance covered by the trolley during its roll.
Assume that the footpath exerts a constant friction force of 270 N on the runaway trolley.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a diagram to show the three forces acting on the a. Normal force
shopping trolley. Air resistance is not included as it
is negligible. The forces should be shown as acting Friction
through the centre of mass of the loaded trolley, as in
the diagram shown. The components of the force due
30°
to gravity, which are parallel and perpendicular to the Fgy
footpath surface, should also be shown on the diagram.
Fgx
30°
Force due to gravity = mg
= 588 N
2. Calculate the net force. Fnet = Fgx − friction
= mgsin(30°) − 270 N
= 588 N × sin(30°) − 270 N
= 294 N − 270 N
= 24 N
3. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate the acceleration. Fnet = ma
24 = 60a
24
⇒a =
60
= 0.4 m s−2 down the slope
4. Use a constant acceleration formula to calculate the final v = u + at
speed. = 0 + 0.4 × 9
= 3.6 m s−1

5. State the solution. The speed of the trolley at the end of its
roll is 3.6 m s−1 .

404 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 1 2
b. 1. Use a constant acceleration formula to calculate the b. s = ut + at
distance covered by the trolley. 2
1
= 0 + × 0.4 × 92
2
= 16.2 m

2. State the solution. The trolley travels 16.2 metres before it is

stopped.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
A cyclist rolls freely from rest down a slope inclined at 20° to the horizontal. The total mass of the
bicycle and cyclist is 100 kilograms. The bicycle rolls for 12 seconds before reaching a horizontal
surface. The surface exerts a constant friction force of 300 N on the bicycle.
a. What is the net force on the bicycle (including the cyclist)?
b. What is the acceleration of the bicycle?
c. What is the speed of the bicycle when it reaches the horizontal surface?

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Motion down an inclined plane (eles-0034)
Weblink Inclined plane

9.6.3 Connected objects

In many situations, Newton’s laws need to be applied to more than one body.
Figure 9.22 shows a small dinghy being pulled by a larger boat. The forces acting on the larger boat are labelled
in red, while the forces acting on the small dinghy are labelled in green. Newton’s Second Law can be applied to
each of the two boats separately.

FIGURE 9.22 The forces acting on each of the two boats

Small boat or dinghy Large boat Normal force

Normal force Resistance

forces
Resistance
forces Tension Tension Thrust

Force due to gravity

Force due to gravity

Figure 9.23 shows only the forces acting on the whole system of the two boats and the rope joining them. When
Newton’s Second Law is applied to the whole system, the system is considered to be a single object.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 405

 The thrust that acts on the larger
boat and the system is provided by FIGURE 9.23 The forces acting only on the whole system. The system
consists of the two boats and the rope joining them.
the water. The propeller of the larger
boat pushes backwards on the water
and the water pushes forwards on Normal force
on both boats
the propeller blades. The only force
that can cause the small dinghy to Resistance System
accelerate forwards is the tension in forces on Thrust
the rope. both boats

If the tension in the rope is greater

than the resistance forces on the
dinghy, the dinghy will accelerate.
Force due to gravity
If the tension in the rope is equal
to the resistance forces on the
dinghy, it will move with a constant velocity. If the tension in the rope is less than the resistance forces on the
dinghy, it will slow down; that is, its acceleration will be negative.
The rope pulls back on the larger boat with the same force that it applies in a forward direction on the small
dinghy. This is consistent with Newton’s Third Law. Through the rope, the larger boat pulls forwards on the
small dinghy with a force that is equal and opposite to the force with which the small dinghy pulls backwards
on the large boat.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 11 Calculating the acceleration and force of a car pulling a trailer
tlvd-0086

A car of mass 1400 kilograms towing a trailer of mass 700 kilograms accelerates at a constant rate
on a horizontal road. A thrust of 5400 N is provided by the forward push of the road on the driving
wheels of the car. The road friction on the car is 800 N, while that on the trailer is 400 N. The air
resistance on both the car and the trailer is negligible. Determine the:
a. acceleration of both the car and trailer
b. force with which the trailer is pulled by the car (labelled P in the figure in the solution).

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a diagram to show the forces acting a. Direction of motion Normal force
on the car and trailer.

Normal force

P P
Driving force
Road friction Road friction

Force due
to gravity

Force due
to gravity

2. Consider the car and trailer as a system. Fnet = driving force − road friction (car)
The acceleration of the car and trailer can − road friction (trailer)
be calculated using Newton’s Second Law = 5400 N − 800 N − 400 N
if the net force on the system is known. = 4200 N

406 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 3. Use Newton’s Second Law to calculate Fnet = ma
the acceleration. 4200 = 2100a
4200
⇒a =
2100
= 2 m s−2 to the right
4. State the solution. The acceleration of both the car and trailer is 2 m s−2 to
the right.

b. 1. Calculate the force with which the trailer b. Fnet = ma

is pulled by the car, P, by considering the P − 400 = 700 × 2
net force on the trailer. ⇒ P = 700 × 2 + 400
= 1800 N
2. State the solution. The force with which the trailer is pulled by the car
is 1800 N.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
A boat of mass 2000 kilograms tows a small dinghy of mass 100 kilograms with a thick rope. The
boat’s propellers provide a forward thrust of 4700 N. The total resistance forces of air and water on
the boat and dinghy system amount to 400 N and 100 N respectively.
a. What is the acceleration of the boat and dinghy?
b. What is the net force on the dinghy?
c. What is the magnitude of the tension in the rope?

9.6 Activities
Students, these questions are even better in jacPLUS
Receive immediate Access Track your
feedback and access additional results and
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Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS

9.6 Quick quiz 9.6 Exercise 9.6 Exam questions

9.6 Exercise
1. A ball rolls down a hill with an increasing speed.
a. Draw a diagram to show all of the forces acting on the ball.
b. What is the direction of the net force on the ball?
c. What is the largest single force acting on the ball?
d. When the ball reaches a horizontal surface, it slows, eventually coming to a stop. Explain, with the aid of a
diagram, why this happens.
2. When you try to push a broken-down car with its handbrake still on, it does not move. What other forces are
acting on the car to produce a net force of zero?

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 407

 3. Redraw figure 9.19 for a car with rear-wheel drive.
4. A cyclist of mass 60 kilograms is riding up a hill inclined at 30° to the Normal force
horizontal at a constant speed. The mass of the bicycle is 20 kilograms.
The provided figure shows the forces acting on the bicycle–cyclist D
system.
10 N
a. What is the net force on the bicycle–cyclist system?
b. What is the magnitude of the component of the force due to gravity on
the system that is parallel to the road surface?
c. The sum of the magnitudes of the road friction and air resistance on 800 N
the system is 10 N. What is the magnitude of the driving force, D?
d. What is the magnitude of the normal force on the bicycle–cyclist 30°
system?
Not to scale
5. An experienced downhill skier with a mass of 60 kilograms (including skis) is moving down a slope inclined
at 30° with increasing speed. She is moving in a straight line down the slope.
a. What is the direction of the net force on the skier?
b. Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the skier. Show all of the forces as if they were acting
through her centre of mass.
c. What is the magnitude of the component of the skier’s force due to gravity that is parallel to the slope?
d. If the sum of the forces resisting the movement of the skier down the slope is 8 N, what is the magnitude
of the net force on her?
6. A skateboarder of mass 60 kilograms accelerates down a slope inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
Her acceleration is a constant 2.0 m s−2 . What is the magnitude of the friction force resisting her motion?
7. A roller-coaster carriage (and occupants) with a total mass of 400 kilograms rolls freely down a straight track
inclined at 40° to the horizontal with a constant acceleration. The frictional force on the carriage is a
constant 180 N. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the carriage?
8. A skateboarder of mass 56 kilograms is rolling freely down a
straight incline. The motion of the skateboarder is described in
the graph shown.
6
a. What is the magnitude of the net force on the
Speed (m s−1)

skateboarder?
b. If the friction force resisting the motion of the skateboarder 4
is a constant 140 N, at what angle is the slope inclined to
the horizontal?
9. What force provides the forward force that gets you moving 2
when you are:
a. ice skating
b. downhill skiing 0
2 4 6 8
c. waterskiing Time (s)
d. skateboarding
e. swimming
f. rowing?
10. Front-wheel-drive cars have a number of advantages over rear-wheel-drive cars. Compare and comment on
the forces acting on the tyres in the two different types of car while being driven at a constant speed on a
horizontal road.
11. The magnitude of the force due to air resistance, R, on a car of mass 1200 kilograms can be approximated
by the formula R = 0.6v2 , where R is measured in newtons and v is the speed of the car in m s−1 .
a. Design a spreadsheet to calculate the magnitude of the force of air resistance and the net force on a car
for a range of speeds as it accelerates from 20 km h−1 to 50 km h−1 on a horizontal road. Assume that,
while accelerating, the driving force is a constant 1800 N and the road friction on the non-driving wheels is
a constant 300 N.
b. Use your spreadsheet to plot a graph of the net force versus speed for the car.
c. Modify your spreadsheet to show how the net force on the car changes when the same acceleration from
20 km h−1 to 60 km h−1 is undertaken while driving down a road at an angle of 10° to the horizontal.

408 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

12. A well-coordinated rollerblader is playing with a yoyo while accelerating on a horizontal
surface. When the yoyo is at its lowest point for several seconds, it makes an angle of
5° with the vertical, as shown in the provided figure. Determine the acceleration of the
rollerblader.
13. A student argues that since there are friction forces on the front and back wheels of a
bicycle that act in opposite directions, the bicycle cannot move. Explain how the bicycle 5°
moves.
14. Two loaded trolleys of masses 3.0 kilograms and 4.0 kilograms, which are joined by a
light string, are pulled by a spring balance along a smooth, horizontal laboratory bench
as shown in the following figure. The reading on the spring balance is 14 N.

3.0 kg 4.0 kg

a. What is the acceleration of the trolleys?

b. What is the magnitude of the tension in the light string joining the two trolleys?
c. What is the net force on the 4.0-kilogram-trolley?
d. What would be the acceleration of the 4.0-kilogram trolley if the string was cut?
15. A warehouse worker applies a force of 420 N to push two crates across the floor as shown in the following
figure. The friction force opposing the motion of the crates is a constant 2.0 N for each kilogram.
a. What is the acceleration of the crates?
b. What is the net force on the 40-kilogram
crate?
c. What is the force exerted by the
40-kilogram crate on the 30-kilogram
crate?
d. What is the force exerted by the
30-kilogram crate on the 40-kilogram
crate?
e. Would the worker find it any easier to give
the crates the same acceleration if the
positions of the two blocks were reversed?
Support your answer with calculations.

9.6 Exam questions

Question 1 (3 marks)
A cyclist is riding his bike at constant speed along a straight, flat road. A trailer is connected to the bike by means
of a horizontal tow bar.

The cyclist and bike have a total mass of 80 kg; the trailer has a mass of 20 kg.

The driving force on the bike is 220 N.

The total retarding force on the cyclist and bike is 150 N; the retarding force on the trailer is 50 N.

Calculate the acceleration of the trailer. Show your reasoning.

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC A cyclist is moving forward at constant speed. The friction force on the rear tyre is 40 N forward. The
retarding force of friction on the tyres is 10 N.

Which of the following is the best estimate of the drag force on the bike and rider?
A. 50 N
B. 40 N
C. 30 N
D. 10 N

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 409

 Question 3 (1 mark)
MC The box on the ramp in the provided figure shown has a weight of 98 N. It is sliding at
a constant speed down the slope.

Which of the following best gives the magnitude of the normal reaction force exerted on the 98 N
box by the ramp?
40°
A. 49 N
B. 63 N
C. 75 N
D. 98 N

Question 4 (1 mark)
MC A bike is moving forwards at constant speed.

What is the friction force of the road on the rear tyre?

A. Backwards
B. Forwards
C. Upwards
D. Downwards

Question 5 (1 mark)
MC A box sits at rest, on a slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The mass of the box is 4.0 kg.

Which of the following is the best estimate of the normal reaction force on the box?
A. 19.6 N
B. 22.6 N
C. 33.9 N
D. 39.2 N

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.7 Momentum and impulse

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• Apply concepts of momentum to linear motion: p = mv
• Explain changes in momentum as being caused by a net force: ∆p = Fnet ∆t
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.7.1 Momentum
How difficult is it to stop a moving object? How difficult is it to make a stationary
momentum the product of the
object move? The answer to both of these questions depends on two physical mass of an object and its velocity; it
characteristics of the object: is a vector quantity
• The object’s mass
• How fast the object is moving, or how fast you want it to move.

The product of these two physical characteristics is called momentum.

The momentum, p, of an object of mass m with a velocity v is defined as:

p = mv

Momentum is a vector quantity and has SI units of kg m s−1 .

410 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 12 Calculating the momentum of a train
tlvd-3789

What is the momentum of a train of mass 8 × 106 kilograms that is travelling at a speed of 15 m s−1 in
a northerly direction?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for momentum. p = mv
2. Substitute the mass and velocity in to find the p = mv
momentum. = 8 × 106 × 15
= 1.2 × 108 kg m s−1

3. State the solution. The momentum of the train is 1.2 × 108 kg m s−1
north.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
A car of mass 1200 kilograms travels east with a constant speed of 15 m s−1 . It then undergoes a
constant acceleration of 3 m s−2 for 2 seconds. What is the momentum of the car:
a. before it accelerates
b. at the end of the 2-seconds acceleration?

9.7.2 Impulse
Making an object stop, or causing it to start moving, requires a non-zero net force. The relationship between
the net force acting on an object and its momentum can be explored by applying Newton’s Second Law to the
object.
Fnet = ma
( )
Δv
⇒ Fnet = m
Δt
⇒ Fnet Δt = mΔv

The product Fnet Δt is called the impulse of the net force. The impulse of any
impulse the product of the force
force is defined as the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. and the time interval over which it
Impulse is a vector quantity with SI units of N s. acts; it is a vector quantity

mΔv = m(v − u)
= mv − mu
= pf − pi

where:
pf = the final momentum of the object
pi = the initial momentum of the object.
Thus, the effect of a net force on the motion of an object can be summarised by the statement:

Impulse = change in momentum

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 411

 In fact, when translated from the original Latin, Newton’s Second Law reads:
The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and is in the direction
of the net force.

This is expressed algebraically as:

Δp
Fnet =
Δt

The effect of a net force on the motion of an object can be summarised by

the statement:

Impulse = change in momentum

Fnet Δt = mΔv

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13 Calculating the change in momentum and impulse of a ball

tlvd-0088

A 30-gram squash ball hits a wall horizontally at a speed of 15 m s−1 and bounces back in the opposite
direction at a speed of 12 m s−1 . It is in contact with the wall for an interval of 1.5 × 10−3 seconds.
a. What is the change in momentum of the squash ball?
b. What is the impulse on the squash ball?
c. What is the magnitude of the force exerted by the wall on the squash ball?

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Change in momentum is calculated from a. pi = mu pf = mv
the initial and final momentums. Consider = 0.03 × 15 = 0.03 × −12
towards the wall as the positive direction. = 0.45 kg m s−1 = −0.36 kg m s−1
(Note: This decision is arbitrary — you could
Δp = pf − pi
choose the positive direction to be away from
the wall and your answer will have the same = −0.36 − 0.45
magnitude but opposite sign.) = −0.81 kg m s−1
2. State the solution. The change in momentum of the squash ball is
0.81 kg m s –1 away from the wall.
b. 1. Impulse of the net force on the squash ball b. I = Δp
= change in momentum of the squash ball = −0.81 N s
2. State the solution. The impulse on the squash ball is 0.81 N s
away from the wall.

412 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 Δp
c. 1. Recall the formula for the net force. c. Fnet =
Δt
Δp
2. Substitute the change in momentum and Fnet =
change in time into the equation to find the Δt
−0.81
net force. =
1.5 × 10−3
= 540 N
3. State the solution. The magnitude of the force exerted by the wall
on the squash ball is 540 N.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
During a crash test a 1400-kilogram car travelling at 16 m s−1 collides with a steel barrier and
rebounds with an initial speed of 4.0 m s−1 before coming to rest. The car is in contact with the barrier
for 1.4 seconds. What is the magnitude of:
a. the change in momentum of the car during contact with the barrier
b. the impulse applied to the car by the barrier
c. the force exerted by the barrier on the car?

INVESTIGATION 9.5
elog-1770
Impulse, momentum and Newton’s Second Law of Motion
tlvd-3790 Aim
To measure and record the velocity of the trolley (or glider) at two separate instants as the load is falling

9.7.3 Determining impulse through graphical analysis

The force that was determined in sample problem 13 was actually the average force on the squash ball. In fact,
the force acting on the squash ball changes, reaching its maximum magnitude when the centre of the squash ball
is at its smallest distance from the wall. The impulse (I) delivered by a changing force is given by:

I = Fav Δt

If a graph of force versus time is available, the impulse can be determined from the area under the graph.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 413

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 14 Determining the magnitude of an impulse using velocity-versus-
tlvd-3791
time graphs

The following graph describes the changing horizontal force on a 40-kilogram ice skater as she begins
to move from rest. Estimate her velocity after 2 seconds.

400

300

C
Force (N)

200
A

100 B

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)

THINK WRITE

1. The magnitude of the impulse on the skater Magnitude of impulse = area A + area B + area C
can be determined by calculating the area 1
under the graph. = × 1.1 × 400 + 0.9 × 200
2
1
+ × 0.9 × 200
2
= 220 + 180 + 90
= 490 N
2. Use the formula for impulse to calculate the I = Δp
change in velocity. = mΔv
490 = 40Δv
490
⇒ Δv =
40
= 12.25 m s−1
3. State the solution. As the skater started at rest, her velocity after
2 seconds will be equal to the change in velocity.
The skater’s velocity after 2 seconds is 12.25 m s−1 .

414 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 PRACTICE PROBLEM 14
Consider the motion described in sample problem 14.
a. Estimate the velocity of the skater after 1.1 seconds.
b. What is the acceleration of the skater during the first 1.1 seconds?
c. What constant force would produce the same change in velocity after 2.0 seconds?

EXTENSION: Linking back to velocity-versus-time graphs

You might recall that the displacement of an object can be determined by calculating the area under its velocity-
versus-time graph, and displacement = vav ∆t. Similarly, the change in velocity of an object can be determined by
calculating the area under its acceleration-versus-time graph, and change in velocity = aav ∆t.

9.7.4 Follow through

Players of ball games are often advised to ‘follow through’. The force is then applied to the ball by the bat,
racquet, club, stick or arm for a larger time interval. The impulse, FΔt, is larger and the change in momentum,
Δp, is therefore larger. Consequently, the change in velocity of the ball as a result of the applied force is greater.

9.7.5 Protecting that frail human body

The human body does not cope very well with sudden blows. The
FIGURE 9.24 Golfers are advised
skeleton provides a fairly rigid frame that protects the vital organs
to ‘follow through’. The force is
inside and, with the help of your muscles, enables you to move. A applied to the ball for a longer time,
sudden impact to your body, or part of your body, can: giving it more momentum.
• push or pull the bones hard enough to break them
• tear or strain the ligaments that hold the bones together
• tear or strain muscles or the tendons that join muscles to bones
• push bones into vital organs like the brain and lungs
• tear, puncture or crush vital organs like the kidneys, liver and
spleen.
The damage that is done depends on the magnitude of the net force and
the subsequent acceleration to which your body is subjected. In any
collision, the net force acting on your body, or part of your body, can be
expressed as:

Δp
Fnet =
Δt

The symbol Δp represents the change in momentum of the part of your

body directly affected by that net force. The magnitude of your change
in momentum is usually beyond your control. For example, if you are
sitting in a car travelling at 100 km h−1 when it hits a solid concrete
wall, the magnitude of the change in momentum of your whole body
during the collision will be your mass multiplied by your initial speed. When you land on a basketball court after
a high jump, the magnitude of the change in momentum of each knee will be its mass multiplied by its speed
just as your feet hit the floor. You have no control over your momentum.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 415

You do, however, have control over the time interval during
FIGURE 9.25 Gloves make it possible for
which the momentum changes. If Δt can be increased, the
wicketkeepers to catch a solid cricket ball
magnitude of the net force applied to you will be decreased. You travelling at high speed without severe
can do this by: pain and bruising.
• bending your knees when you land after jumping in sports
such as netball and basketball. This increases the time
interval over which your knees change their momentum,
and decreases the likelihood of ligament damage.
• moving your hand back when you catch a fast-moving ball
in sports such as cricket. The ball changes its momentum
over a longer time interval, reducing the force applied to it
by your hand. In turn, the equal and opposite force on your
hand is less.
• wearing gloves and padding in sports such as baseball,
softball and gridiron. Thick gloves are essential for
wicketkeepers in cricket, who catch the solid cricket ball
while it is travelling at speeds up to 150 km h−1 .
• wearing footwear that increases the time interval during
which your feet stop as they hit the ground. This is particularly important for people who run on footpaths
and other hard surfaces. Indoor basketball and netball courts have floors that, although hard, bend a little,
increasing the period of impact of running feet.

CASE STUDY: Don’t be an egghead

After bicycle helmets became compulsory in Victoria in July 1990, the

number of head injuries sustained by cyclists decreased dramatically. FIGURE 9.26 Helmets save
Bicycle helmets typically consist of an expanded polystyrene liner about lives and prevent serious injury
2 centimetres thick, covered in a thin, hard, polymer shell. They are in many activities.
designed to crush on impact.

In a serious bicycle accident, the head is likely to collide at high speed

with the road or another vehicle. Even a simple fall from a bike can result
in the head hitting the road at a speed of about 20 km h−1 . Without the
protection of a helmet, concussion is likely as the skull decelerates and
collides with the brain because of the large net force on it. If the net force
and subsequent deceleration is large enough, the brain can be severely
bruised or torn, resulting in permanent brain damage or death. The effect
is not unlike that of dropping a soft-boiled egg onto a hard floor.

Although a helmet does not guarantee survival in a serious bicycle

accident, it does reduce the net force applied to the skull, and therefore
increases the chances of survival dramatically. The polystyrene liner of
the helmet increases the time interval during which the skull changes its
momentum.

Helmets used by motorcyclists, as well as in horse riding, motor racing, cricket and many other sports, all serve
the same purpose — to increase the time interval over which a change in momentum takes place.

416 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

CASE STUDY: Buckle up
Seatbelts are a relatively new introduction to vehicles, with Victoria being one of the first places in the world to
make wearing them compulsory in 1970. Their introduction and the increasing emphasis on vehicle safety over
recent decades has drastically reduced the number of fatalities.

In a collision a car comes to a stop rapidly. An occupant not wearing a seatbelt continues at the original speed
of the car (as described by Newton’s First Law) until acted on by a non-zero net force. An unrestrained occupant
therefore moves at speed until:
• colliding with part of the interior of the car, stopping even more rapidly than the car itself, usually over a
distance of only several centimetres
• crashing through the stationary, or almost stationary, windscreen into the object collided with, or onto the
road
• crashing into another occupant closer to the front of the car.

An occupant properly restrained with a seatbelt stops with the car. In a typical suburban crash, the acceleration
takes place over a distance of about 50 centimetres. The rate of change of the momentum of a restrained
occupant is much less. Therefore, the net force on the occupant is less.

The addition of airbags to complement seatbelts has further improved occupant safety. Airbags provide an
additional means of restraining the occupant and reducing the force experienced.

As well as increasing the time interval over which the occupant comes to a stop, the combination of seatbelts
and airbags:
• spreads the force over a larger area of the body
• reduces the likelihood of a collision between the body and the interior of the vehicle
• keeps the occupant in an aligned position, reducing injuries to vulnerable areas such as the neck, as well as
stopping them from crashing through the windscreen.

CASE STUDY: Computer crash modelling

Automotive engineers use computer modelling during the
design and development of new vehicles to investigate the FIGURE 9.27 Engineers use computers
effectiveness of safety features. This sort of crash modelling to model collisions in order to design and
takes place long before the first prototype is built and the first develop features that improve the safety
physical crash tests take place (see figure 9.27). characteristics of cars.

Computer crash modelling has resulted in improvements to

front and side structural design, and to internal safety features
such as seatbelt and airbag systems. Modelling crashes
allows the investigation of a wide range of collision types,
including full frontal, offset frontal, angled frontal and pole or
barrier; collisions between trucks and cars; and rear impacts.
The possibilities are endless. The computer models are then
verified with the crash testing of real vehicles.

During side-impact modelling, the computer is used to test

thousands of combinations of seatbelt, cushioning and airbag
designs. For each test, the computer can be set up to calculate the forces acting on occupants, estimate the
severity of injuries and compare results with other design solutions.

One aspect of design that can be tested is the sensor that triggers airbags to inflate. Complex calculations
and comparisons are performed by a microprocessor within the sensing module before it ‘decides’ whether or
not to trigger the airbags. The crash events that are modelled to develop the airbag sensors include high- and
low-speed collisions, full-frontal and angled-frontal impacts, and pole- or tree-type collisions.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 417

 CASE STUDY: Cars that crumple
Modern cars are designed to crumple at the
front and rear. This provision increases the FIGURE 9.28 A vehicle that has undergone a roof crush test
time interval during which the momentum
of the car changes in a collision, further
protecting its occupants from death or
serious injury.

Even though the front and rear of the car

crumple, the passenger compartment is
protected by a rigid frame. The engine is
also surrounded by rigid structures that
prevent it from being pushed into the
passenger compartment. The tendency of
the roof to crush is currently being reduced
by increasing the thickness of the windows,
using stronger adhesives and strengthening
the structure of the roof panel and pillars.

The inside of the passenger compartment is also designed to protect occupants. Padded dashboards, collapsible
steering wheels and airbags are designed to reduce the rate of change of momentum of occupants in the event
of a collision. Interior fittings like switches, door knobs and handbrakes are sunk so that the occupants do not
collide with them.

9.7 Activities
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9.7 Quick quiz 9.7 Exercise 9.7 Exam questions

9.7 Exercise
1. A 1400-kilogram car travels at 60 km h−1 east. Calculate the momentum of the car.
2. Make an estimate to one significant figure of the magnitude of each of the following.
a. The average net force on a car while it is accelerating from 0 to 40 km h−1 in 3.2 seconds
b. The magnitude of the air resistance on an 80-kilogram skydiver who has reached a terminal velocity
of 200 km h−1
c. The momentum of an Olympic class athlete participating in the 100-metre sprint event
d. The momentum of a family car travelling at the speed limit along a suburban street
e. The impulse that causes a 70-kilogram football player who is running at top speed to stop abruptly as he
collides with a goal post that he didn’t see
f. The impulse applied to a netball by a goal shooter as she pushes it up towards the goal at a speed
of 5 m s−1
g. The change in momentum of a tennis ball as it is returned to the server in a Wimbledon final

418 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

3. A 60-gram tennis ball is bounced vertically onto the ground. After reaching the ground with a downwards
velocity of 8.0 m s−1 , the ball rebounds with a velocity of 6.0 m s−1 vertically upwards.
a. What is the change in momentum of the tennis ball?
b. What is the impulse applied by the tennis ball to the ground? Explain how you obtained your answer
without any information about the change in momentum of the ground.
c. Does the ground actually move as a result of the impulse applied by the tennis ball? Explain your answer.
d. If the tennis ball is in contact with the ground for 2.0 × 10−3 s, what is the average net force on the tennis
ball during this interval?
e. What is the average normal force during this time interval?
4. A 75-kilogram basketballer lands vertically on the court with a speed of 3.2 m s−1 .
a. What total impulse is applied to the basketballer’s feet by the ground?
b. If the basketballer’s speed changes from 3.2 m s−1 to zero in 0.10 seconds, what total force does the
ground apply to his feet?
c. Estimate the height from which the basketballer fell to the court.
5. A car with a total mass of 1400 kilograms (including occupants) travelling at 60 km h−1 hits a large tree and
stops in 0.080 seconds.
a. What impulse is applied to the car by the tree?
b. What force is exerted by the tree on the car?
c. What is the magnitude of the deceleration of the 70-kilogram driver of the car if he is wearing a properly
fitted seatbelt?
6. Airbags are fitted to the centre of the steering wheel of many new cars. In the event of a sudden
deceleration, the airbag inflates rapidly, providing extra protection for a driver restrained by a seatbelt.
Explain how airbags reduce the likelihood of serious injury or death.
7. Joggers are advised to run on grass or other soft surfaces rather than concrete paths or bitumen roads to
reduce the risk of knee and other leg injuries. Explain why this is so.
8. The following graph shows how the horizontal force on the upper body of each of two occupants of a car
changes as a result of a head-on collision. One occupant is wearing a seatbelt while the other is not. Both
occupants are stationary 0.10 seconds after the initial impact.

Occupant without seatbelt Occupant with seatbelt

10 000
Horizontal force on
occupant (N)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Time (s)

a. What is the horizontal impulse on the occupant wearing the seatbelt?

b. If the mass of the occupant wearing the seatbelt is 60 kilograms, determine the speed of the car just
before the initial impact.
c. Is the occupant who is not wearing the seatbelt heavier or lighter than the other (more sensible) occupant?
d. Write a paragraph explaining the difference in shape between the two curves on the graph.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 419

 9. The following graph shows how the upward push of the

Upward push of court floor (N)

court floor changes as a 60-kilogram basketballer jumps
vertically upwards to complete a slam dunk. 1600
a. What is the impulse applied to the basketballer by
the floor? 1200
b. With what speed did the basketballer leave the
ground? 800
c. What was the average force exerted on the
basketballer by the floor during the 0.10-second
interval? 400
d. Explain why the initial upward push of the floor is
not zero. 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Time (s)
10. A well-known politician makes the suggestion that if cars were completely surrounded by rubber ‘bumpers’
like those on dodgem cars, they would simply bounce off each other in a collision and passengers would be
safer. Discuss the merits of this suggestion in terms of Newton’s laws of motion.

9.7 Exam questions

Question 1 (3 marks)
A small test vehicle has a mass of 50 kg. It is travelling at 12 m s−1 east when it collides head-on with a barrier
and is brought to rest in a time of 0.60 s.
a. What is the change in momentum of the vehicle? (2 marks)
b. What is the impulse on the barrier? (1 mark)

Question 2 (3 marks)
An object, with mass 4.0 kg, is moving in a straight line. It has an initial speed of 6.0 m s−1 and then experiences
a change in momentum of 20 kg m s−1 .

Calculate the final speed of this object.

Question 3 (3 marks)
A force of 10 N west acts for 4.0 s. An unknown force, F X west, acts for a further 6.0 s. The total impulse of these
two forces is 130 N s west.

Calculate the magnitude of the force F X .

Question 4 (4 marks)
A ball of mass 0.20 kg is travelling north at 30 m s−1 . It then strikes a wall and rebounds directly backwards at
20 m s−1 . The duration of the impact is 0.025 s.

Calculate the average net force on the ball during the impact. Show your working.

Question 5 (4 marks)
An object has a mass of 2.5 kg. The net force on the object is a constant 5.0 N east for 8.0 s then a constant
3.0 N west for the next 20 s.

Calculate the change in velocity of the object. Show your working.

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

420 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

9.8 Torque
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• Calculate torque: 𝜏 = r⊥ F
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.8.1 Torque or the turning effect of a force

So far the explanation of forces and motion has treated objects as if they are a single point, or as if the force
acts through the middle of the object; that is, its centre of mass. However, reality is more complicated than this.
Friction acts at the rim of the front tyre of a bike to make it roll. Other actions involving rotation and a force
making an object turn include a billiard cue hitting the bottom edge of a ball to make it spin backwards, the wind
blowing over a tree, or pulling on a handle to open a door.
The turning effect of a force is called a torque. The symbol for torque is 𝜏, the Greek letter tau. Torque is always
measured about a particular point. In some situations, the point about which an object will rotate is obvious
(such as in a seesaw), and it may be referred to as a pivot or fulcrum.

FIGURE 9.29 Examples of torque being applied

r⊥ Wheel rolls forward

Friction resists sliding

The size of a torque about a point or pivot is determined by the product of two factors:
• The size of the force, F
• The perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the point, r⊥ .

𝜏 = r⊥ F

As a product of force and distance, torque has the units of newton metre (N m). It is also a vector, but
because its effect is rotation, the direction of the vector is set by a rule.
The rule is:
If the rotation in the plane of the page is clockwise, the direction of the vector is into the page. If the
rotation in the plane of the page is anticlockwise, the direction of the vector is out of the page.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 421

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 15 Calculating force using torque and perpendicular distance
tlvd-0090

A torque wrench is used to tighten nuts onto their bolts to a specific tightness or force. A torque
wrench has a handle (black in the photo shown) on one end and a socket that fits over a nut on the
other end. In between is a scale that gives a reading in newton metres.

The scale on a torque wrench has a reading of 30 Newton metres. If the hand applying the force is
30 centimetres from the end, what is the size of the force by the hand on the wrench?
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for calculating torque. 𝜏 = r⊥ F

2. Substitute the torque and perpendicular 30 = 0.3 × F

distance into the equation to find the force 30
applied. ⇒F =
0.3
= 100 N
3. State the solution. The force by the hand on the wrench is 100 N.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 15
The handle of a torque wrench is hollow so an extension rod can be inserted. If you can exert only
30 N of force, how far along the extension rod from the handle should you place your hand to achieve
a torque of 30 N m?

9.8 Activities
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9.8 Quick quiz 9.8 Exercise 9.8 Exam questions

9.8 Exercise
1. A mechanic applies a force of 200 N to a wheel nut using a shifter. The perpendicular distance from where
they apply the force to the nut is 25 centimetres. What torque are they applying to the nut?
2. A mechanic applies a force of 200 N to a wheel nut using a shifter. The perpendicular distance from where
they apply the force to the nut is 25 centimetres, but they are unable to loosen the nut using the torque
applied. Suggest two ways in which they could increase the torque in this situation.

422 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

3. A lever is used to apply a torque of 20 N m about a pivot point. The perpendicular distance is 0.25 metres
between the application of the force and the pivot point. What is the applied force?
4. There are myriad examples of everyday situations where we use devices that have a lever of some form to
increase the torque that we apply. Examples include door handles, car steering wheels, electric motors,
pushbike pedals, wrenches, wheelbarrows and bottle lids. For one of these examples, or another that you can
identify, estimate the force applied and the perpendicular distance to calculate an estimate of the torque
involved.
5. Sam is standing at the right-hand end of the seesaw shown in the
following figure. He places a bag on the seesaw and then begins walking
up the plank to the left. Describe what happens as he walks towards,
and then beyond, the fulcrum.

9.8 Exam questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
MC Two children are opening a door by pushing at right-angles to the
door (from the same side of the door).
One child applies a force of 20 N at the edge of the door, 0.70 m from the
hinges. The other child pushes with a force F at a distance of 0.30 m from
the hinges. The net torque about the hinges is 26 N m.

Which of the following best gives the magnitude of F?

A. 12 N
B. 14 N
C. 40 N
D. 50 N

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC A force F is applied at an angle of 90° to a lever at a distance r from the pivot.
Which of the following changes would decrease the clockwise torque?
A. Increase the distance r r
F
B. Increase the angle between the force and the lever
C. Increase the force F Pivot
D. Double the distance r and halve the force F

Question 3 (1 mark)
MC Consider a rod pivoted at point P and able to rotate in the vertical plane.

9N
6N
P
0.8 m 0.6 m

A force of 9.0 N upward is applied on the right-hand side of the bar, 0.6 m from P. A second force of 6.0 N is
applied to the left-hand side of the bar, a distance 0.8 m from P.

What is the best estimate of the magnitude of the net torque on the bar about P?
A. 10.2 N m
B. 5.4 N m
C. 4.8 N m
D. 0.60 N m

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 423

 Question 4 (3 marks)
Consider a crane boom 5.0 m long pivoted at point P. A load of 200 N hangs from the Q
point Q at the end of the boom. Load
200 N
5m
Point Q is 4.0 m horizontally to the right of P and 3.0 m vertically higher than P.
3m
Calculate the torque about the point P. Show reasoning and give direction. P
4m

Question 5 (3 marks)
The figure provided shows a rod pivoted at point P. F 40 N
A force of 40 N acts upward at a point 3.0 m to the right of P, providing an
anticlockwise torque. A second force, of magnitude F, acts upwards at a P
point 2.0 m to the left of P. 2.0 m 3.0 m
The net torque is 40 N m clockwise.

Calculate the magnitude of the force F. Show your reasoning.

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

9.9 Equilibrium
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• Analyse translational and rotational forces (torques) in simple structures in translational and rotational
equilibrium
Source: VCE Physics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.

9.9.1 Equilibrium or keeping still

Earlier in this topic, ‘keeping still’ meant not moving. If the net force
FIGURE 9.30 A zero net force can
was zero and the object was at rest, it would stay still. The forces
cause rotation.
were considered as acting on a single point. However, if the forces
act at different points on the object, it is possible to have a net force
of zero, but the object can still spin. In figure 9.30 the force upwards Nozzle

equals the force downwards, so the net force is zero, but the sphere
Steam
rotates. In this case there is a net torque. The torques of the two Pivot
forces about the centre add together.
In cases such as car engines and electric motors, the production of
a torque is essential for rotation and movement. But torque, and the Steam rises
through tubes
rotation and movement it causes, can be detrimental. In bridges and
buildings, the torque effect of a force can’t be avoided, but needs to Water heated
be controlled if the structure is to remain standing. Such structures
need to be designed so that not only is the net force equal to zero, but
the net torque is also zero, and importantly this is true about every
point in the structure.
For a structure to be in equilibrium, two conditions need to apply:
1. Translational equilibrium: net force = zero
2. Rotational equilibrium: net torque about any point = zero

424 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 9.9.2 Strategy for solving problems involving torque
Questions regarding torque will often involve determining the value of two forces, so the solution will require
generating two equations, which can then be solved simultaneously.

1. Draw a diagram with all the forces acting on the structure. Label each force. If its size is given in the
question, write the value; for example, 10 N. If the size of the force is unknown, use a symbol such
as F or R.
2. Using translational equilibrium: net force = zero.
It is easier to break this into two simpler tasks such as:
a. sum of forces up = sum of forces down
b. sum of forces left = sum of forces right
3. Using rotational equilibrium: net torque about any point = zero.
Choose a point about which to calculate the torques.
Any point is acceptable; however, it can make solving the problem easier if you choose a point through
which an unknown force acts. The torque of this force about that point will be zero as its line of action
passes through the point, so that unknown will be effectively eliminated from this equation.

sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques

4. Now you will have two equations with two unknowns: one equation from the net force and one from the
net torque. You can then solve the equations simultaneously to determine the unknown quantities.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 16 Determining the equilibrium of a seesaw

tlvd-3792

Where should person 1 sit to balance the seesaw?

Person 1 Person 2

Fg2
600 N
Fg1
800 N
d 2m

THINK WRITE
1. To satisfy equilibrium, both the sum of Fnet = 0
the forces acting on the seesaw and the 𝜏 net = 0
sum of the torques must equal zero.
2. Consider the net force equilibrium. The R = 800 + 600
sum of the upwards forces must equal the = 1400 N upwards
sum of the downwards forces.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 425

 3. Consider the net torque, taking the torques 𝜏 net = 0
about the fulcrum at the centre. ⇒ Sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
600 × 2 = 800 × d
1200
⇒d =
800
= 1.5 m
4. State the solution. To balance the seesaw, person 1 must sit 1.5 metres to
the left of the fulcrum.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 16
The following seesaw is balanced. Calculate the mass of person 1.

R
Person 1 Person 2

Fg2
600 N
Fg1
3.2 m 2.0 m

SAMPLE PROBLEM 17 Determining the magnitude of reaction forces

tlvd-0092

Consider the painter’s plank supported between two trestles

shown. The plank behaves as a simple bridge or beam and
the weight of the painter must be transferred through the R1
plank to the two trestles. The mass of the beam is R2

40 kilograms, the mass of the painter is 60 kilograms and

she is a quarter of the distance from trestle 1. What is the
magnitude of the reaction forces R1 and R2 ? Fgp

Fgb
Trestle 1 Trestle 2
L

THINK WRITE
1. For the structure to be stable, the sum Fnet = 0
of the forces and the sum of the torques 𝜏 net = 0
must both equal zero.
2. Consider the net force. The sum of the R1 + R2 = 40 × 9.8 + 60 × 9.8
upwards forces must equal the sum of the = 980 N
downwards forces.

426 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 3. Consider the net torque, taking the torques 𝜏 net = 0
about trestle 1. ⇒ Sum of clockwise torques = sum of anticlockwise torques
1 1
40 × 9.8 × L + 60 × 9.8 × L = R2 × L
2 4
1 1
40 × 9.8 × + 60 × 9.8 × = R2
2 4
196 + 147 = R2
⇒ R2 = 343 N
4. Substitute the value of R2 into the equation R1 + R2 = 980
for the net force. R1 + 343 = 980
⇒ R1 = 980 − 343
= 637 N

5. State the solution. The magnitude of R1 is 637 N and R2 is 343 N.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 17
A eucalyptus tree, 15 metres high and with a 200-centimetre diameter, was pulled over until it failed.
The applied load was 6.0 kN m about the base of the tree.
a. If the root ball of the tree has an average depth of 0.80 metres, what is the size of the force by the
soil on the root ball at the point of failure?
b. If the rope pulling on the tree was attached halfway up the tree, calculate the size of the force at the
point of failure:
i. in the rope (assuming the rope is horizontal)
ii. by the ground at the base of the tree.

9.9.3 Types of structures: cantilevers

A cantilever is a beam with one end free to move.
FIGURE 9.31 A diving board is an example of a
A diving board, a flagpole and a tree are examples
cantilever.
of cantilevers.
R1 (compression)
The diving board in figure 9.31 is supported by
an upward force, R1 , from the bracket. The force
due to gravity acts down through the middle of the
board at a point further out. If these were the only
forces on the diving board, the board would rotate Tension
anticlockwise. To prevent this rotation, the other
end of the bracket pulls down on the diving board. Force due to gravity, mg
The board is bolted to each end of the bracket.
The tree in figure 9.32 is buffeted by winds from
the left. The soil on the right at the base of the tree is compressed and pushes back to the left. The combination
of these two forces pushes the roots of the tree to the left, and the soil to the left of the roots pushes back to
the right.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 427

 FIGURE 9.32 A tree buffeted by winds is a
cantilever.

Force on tree by wind

Force on tree
by surface

Force on tree (roots) by soil

9.9 Activities
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9.9 Quick quiz 9.9 Exercise 9.9 Exam questions

9.9 Exercise
1. A truck crosses a concrete girder bridge as shown in the following figure. The bridge spans 20 metres and is
supported at each end on concrete abutments.

20 m

12 t

a. Describe what happens to the reaction at each abutment as the truck moves across the bridge from left to
right.
b. The force due to gravity acting on the truck is 12 kN. Calculate the reaction at each support when the
centre of gravity of the truck is 4 metres from the right abutment.

428 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

2. A person standing on the outside edge of a cantilevered balcony, shown in the following figure, walks inside.

a. Explain what forces are necessary to support the balcony.

b. As the person walks across the balcony, describe what happens to the reaction at the support.
3. The truck crane in the following figure is able to lift a 20-tonne load at a radius of 5 metres.
5m

1.8 m 1.8 m

20 t

If the mass of the truck is evenly distributed, how heavy must the truck be if it is not to tip over?
4. The pedestrian bridge spanning the creek in the following figure has a force due to gravity acting at its centre
of mass of 2 kN.
5.0 m
4.0 m
2.0 m

600 N 200 N
800 N

6.0 m

Calculate the reaction at each end when the three people are in the positions shown.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 429

 5. The plank in the following figure is 6 m long and extends 2 m beyond the support at the edge of the boat. The
forces due to gravity acting at the centre of mass of the plank and Pirate Bill are 800 N and 500 N respectively.

6m
4m

500 N

800 N

How far beyond the edge of the boat can Pirate Bill walk along the plank before it tips and he falls into
the water?

9.9 Exam questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
Two children are trying to balance themselves on either side of a seesaw. The first child sits 0.75 m from the pivot
point and has a force due to gravity acting on them of 150 N. The second child has a force due to gravity acting
on them of 190 N.

How far should they sit on the other side of the pivot point to balance the seesaw?

Question 2 (1 mark)
MC The two ends of a beam rest on supports P and Q that are 4.0 m apart. The mass of the beam can
be neglected.

A load that has a force of gravity acting on it of 80 N is placed 3.0 m from support P, as shown in the following
figure.
4m

3m

80 N
P Q

Which of the following best describes the magnitude of the reaction force of support Q on the beam?
A. 60 N
B. 80 N
C. 107 N
D. 120 N

430 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

 Question 3 (7 marks)
A beam of length 8.0 m has a force due to gravity acting at its centre of mass, C, of 2000 N.

8m
5m
4m Load
C

Fg
A B

a. A load with a force due to gravity acting on it of F g stands at the far end of the beam. The pillar B exerts an
upward force of 2400 N on the beam.
Calculate the force due to gravity, F g , acting on the load. (3 marks)
b. The load is now removed and replaced with a different load with a force due to gravity acting on it of 2000 N.
Specify fully the force now exerted by the pillar A on the beam. (4 marks)

Question 4 (3 marks)
A uniform beam rests at its ends on two supports, A and B, 8.0 m apart. The force due to gravity acting at the
centre of mass of the beam is 200 N.

A load of 400 N rests on the beam at a distance 2.0 m from support A, as shown in the following figure.

8.0 m
4.0 m
2.0 m

400 N
A B

Calculate the magnitude of the force applied to the beam by support A. Show working.

Question 5 (4 marks)
A uniform beam of length 12 m is attached to two supports, A and B. The force due to gravity acting at the centre
of mass of the beam is 1000 N. The two supports are 8.0 m apart, so the beam overhangs by 4.0 m. The centre
of mass of the beam is at its midpoint. A load of 1200 N acts at the free end of this cantilevered beam.

12 m
8.0 m
6.0 m
C

1000 N 1200 N
A B

Calculate the force on the beam applied by the support A. Give magnitude and direction.

More exam questions are available in your learnON title.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 431

9.10 Review
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9.10.1 Topic summary

Force due to gravity

Contact and Fg
non-contact forces

Friction
Magnitude and
Ffr
direction

Air resistance
Identifying forces or drag

Forces as Normal force

vectors FN

Free-body diagrams Compression and

tension in materials

Net force or
sum of forces
Fnet

Newton’s laws First Law

Second Law
Fnet
a=
m

Third Law
Fon A by B = –Fon B by A

Horizontal surface
Forces in Forces in two
Vehicles
action dimensions
Inclined planes

Connected objects

Momentum
p = mv

Momentum and Impulse = change

impulse in momentum

Impulse = area
under F∆t graph

Torque
τ = r⊥F
Translational:
net force = 0
Equilibrium
Rotational:
net torque = 0

432 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

9.10.2 Key ideas summary

9.10.3 Key terms glossary

Resources
Resourceseses
Solutions Solutions — Topic 9 (sol-0795)

Practical investigation eLogbook Practical investigation eLogbook — Topic 9 (elog-1578)

Digital documents Key science skills — VCE Physics Units 1–4 (doc-36950)
Key terms glossary — Topic 9 (doc-36967)
Key ideas summary — Topic 9 (doc-36968)
Exam question booklet Exam question booklet — Topic 9 (eqb-0077)

9.10 Activities
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9.10 Review questions

1. As part of a practical investigation, a Physics student rolls objects horizontally off the edge of a table and
records the motion of their fall onto the floor below. Identify the forces that will be acting on these objects
during their fall to the floor. For each force you identify, describe the interaction it represents and the likely
direction of the force.
2. A rear-wheel-drive car is accelerating forwards along a horizontal road surface. Draw and label a complete
diagram of all external forces acting on the car.
3. A child pulls along a toy on a piece of string at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. They apply a force
of 25 N along the string. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of this force.
4. The following forces are acting on ropes used in a four-way tug of war (as viewed from above) as part of a
school athletics carnival.
3400 N
North

15° 10°
2500 N 3000 N

2400 N
5°

Resolve all of the forces into north–south or east–west components and determine the size and direction of
the net force.

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 433

 5. A sports car of mass 1645 kilograms accelerates at 9.6 m s−2 . Determine the net force that would be required
to produce this acceleration.
6. The Falcon Heavy rocket produces approximately 2.2 × 106 N of thrust during the first moments of liftoff. If
the acceleration of the rocket at this instant is 1.57 m s−2 , calculate its mass.
7. A piano is falling through the air near the surface of Earth. It has a mass of 410 kilograms.
a. At a particular instant during its fall, the force of air resistance acting to oppose its fall is 2400 N.
Calculate its acceleration at this instant.
b. Determine the magnitude of air resistance force that would be required for the piano to reach a constant
velocity during its fall.
8. A removalist is pushing two heavy boxes across the floor of their truck. The horizontal forces acting on the
boxes are shown in the following diagram.

Push by removalist
Box B
Box A 50 kg 175 N
25 kg
Total friction from floor
40 N

a. Calculate the acceleration of the boxes.

b. Calculate the compression force acting between the two boxes.

9. A tennis ball is travelling at 65 m s−1 towards a player’s racquet an instant before it collides with it.
A moment later, the ball leaves the racquet travelling at 33 m s−1 in the opposite direction. Assume that the
ball has a mass of 57 grams.
a. Determine the change in momentum that the ball experiences during this collision.
b. Assuming that the collision duration is 0.0020 seconds, determine the average force applied by the
racquet on the ball during the collision.
10. The following graph is a simplified representation of the force applied by a trampoline on an acrobat over
the duration of a single rebound.

1200
Force (N)

0 0.15 0.3

Time (s)

Use this graph to determine the impulse applied to the acrobat.

434 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

9.10 Exam questions
Section A — Multiple choice questions
All correct answers are worth 1 mark each; an incorrect answer is worth 0.

In answering the following questions, assume the magnitude of the gravitational field strength near Earth’s surface
is 9.8 N kg−1 .
Question 1

Which of the following is not a vector quantity?

A. Force
B. Mass
C. Acceleration
D. Momentum

Question 2

Which of the following forces would be acting on a basketball falling through the air during a game of basketball?

A. Gravity
B. Normal force
C. Net force
D. Air resistance

Question 3

Which of the following is not at rest or in a uniform state of motion?

A. A car travelling along a highway at a constant velocity using cruise control

B. A rocket sitting motionless on the launch pad
C. A ladder leaning against a wall
D. A train accelerating uniformly as it departs a station

Question 4

An object of mass 43 kilograms has a net force of 86 N applied to it.

What is its acceleration?

A. 9.8 m s−2
B. 0.50 m s−2
C. 2.0 m s−2
D. 1.6 m s−2

Question 5

Which of the following is not a Newton’s Third Law pair of forces?

A. The force of a book on a table and the force of the table on the book
B. The normal force on someone sitting in a chair and the force of gravity on them
C. The force of a car tyre on the road and the force of the road on the car tyre
D. The force due to gravity of Earth on you and the force due to gravity of you on Earth

TOPIC 9 Forces in action 435

 Question 6

A car of mass 2250 kilograms is travelling at 20 m s−1 .

What is its momentum?
A. 45 000 kg m s−1
B. 4500 kg m s−1
C. 1125 kg m s−1
D. 112.5 kg m s−1

Question 7

A tennis ball of mass 58 grams experiences a change in velocity of 155 km h−1 when struck by a racquet during a
serve.
The change in momentum it experiences is
A. 90 kg m s−1 .
B. 9 kg m s−1 .
C. 25 kg m−1 .
D. 2.5 kg m s−1 .

Question 8

A car of mass 1850 kilograms is travelling at 8 m s−1 around a carpark when it collides with a parked car. The
collision lasts 0.2 seconds, after which the car has come to a complete stop.
What is the magnitude of the average force acting on the car?
A. 9250 N
B. 74 000 N
C. 2960 N
D. 14 800 N

Question 9

Some engineering students are discussing ways to reduce the force acting on a car during a collision.
Based on your understanding of impulse and momentum, which of the following will not be effective in reducing
the force acting on the car?
A. Reduce the initial speed of the car (using more effective braking or lowered speed limits)
B. Decrease the mass of the car (through better structural design and material selection)
C. Reduce the duration (time taken) for the collision
D. All of the above will be effective.

Question 10

A student sits at the end of a pipe attached to a shifter to apply a force of 735 N at a perpendicular distance of
125 centimetres from a wheel nut that they are struggling to undo.
What is the torque applied to the nut?
A. 93.8 N m
B. 9380 N m
C. 919 N m
D. 91 900 N m

436 Jacaranda Physics 1 VCE Units 1 & 2 Fifth Edition

Section B — Short answer questions
Question 11 (1 mark)

Consider the example of a textbook at rest on a table.

Explain why the normal force acting on the book and the force due to gravity are not a Newton’s Third Law pair of
forces.

Question 12 (3 marks)

A cycle tourist is towing all of their camping equipment, clothes and food behind their pushbike in a bike trailer.
Whilst pedalling at a reasonable pace they produce a driving force of 172 N acting forwards from the rear wheel of
their bike. The road friction and air resistance opposing the motion of the bike and trailer is equal to 34 N acting
backwards (20 N on the bike and 14 N on the trailer). The total mass of the cyclist and bike is 95 kilograms. The
total mass of the trailer and all of its payload is 20 kilograms.
Determine the tension force in the link between the trailer and the bike.

Question 13 (3 marks)

A small rocket of mass 2500 kg is launched up along an inclined ramp at an angle of 42 degrees from the
horizontal. During the launch, the rocket engine provides a constant thrust of 18 000 N.
Determine the acceleration of the rocket during its launch. It is reasonable to consider air resistance and friction to
be negligible in this situation.

Question 14 (2 marks)

During a standardised car crash test, a vehicle of mass 1980 kilograms is travelling at 64.0 km h−1 when it strikes
a barrier. The car rebounds and is travelling at 12.0 km h−1 in the opposite direction immediately after the collision.
The duration of the collision with the barrier is 160 milliseconds.
Determine the average force exerted by the car on the barrier during the collision.

Question 15 (3 marks)

A truck of mass 14 500 kilograms is crossing a bridge

40 m
over a small river. The bridge span is 40.0 metres between the
two supports. The bridge has a total mass of 46 000 kilograms, 9m
with its centre of gravity exactly in the middle of its span.

Determine the reaction at each of the supports when the centre

of mass of the truck is 9.00 metres from the right-hand support.

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TOPIC 9 Forces in action 437