Unit 1

1) Write a Short note on Network Devices: Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateway, Access
Point
Answer:_

• Bridge: Connects two or more network segments, operating at the data link layer (Layer
2). It filters traffic, reduces collisions, and divides a network into smaller, more manageable
parts.

• Switch: A network device that operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) and sometimes at
the network layer (Layer 3). It connects devices within the same network, forwarding data
only to the intended recipient using MAC addresses.

• Router: Operates at the network layer (Layer 3). It connects multiple networks and routes
data between them using IP addresses, determining the best path for data transmission.

• Gateway: Acts as a bridge between different networks, often using different protocols. It
translates data from one protocol to another, enabling communication between incompatible
systems.

• Access Point (AP): A wireless device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network. It extends the wireless coverage within a local area network (LAN).

2) Explain different network topology.

Answer:-

• Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable, called a bus. Data
travels in both directions along the bus. It is simple but prone to failure if the main cable is
damaged.

• Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Data passes through
the hub before reaching its destination. It's reliable since failure of one device doesn't affect
others, but if the hub fails, the whole network goes down.

• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion where each device is
connected to two others. Data travels in one direction around the ring. Failure of one device
can disrupt the entire network unless it's a dual-ring setup.

• Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. It provides high
redundancy and reliability but is expensive and complex to install and manage.

• Tree Topology: A combination of bus and star topologies where groups of star-configured
networks are connected to a linear bus backbone. It offers scalability but depends on the main
bus cable for connectivity.
 3) Differentiate between ISO/OSI and TCP/IP reference Model
Answer:-

• Layers:

• OSI Model: Has 7 layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application).
• TCP/IP Model: Has 4 layers (Network Interface, Internet, Transport, Application).

• Development:

• OSI Model: Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

as a theoretical framework.
• TCP/IP Model: Developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) for practical
internet communication.

• Protocol Dependency:

• OSI Model: Protocol-independent, designed as a reference model.

• TCP/IP Model: Protocol-specific, built around the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• Layer Functionality:

• OSI Model: Each layer has a distinct function, and there is a clear separation between
services, interfaces, and protocols.
• TCP/IP Model: Functions are more consolidated, with some layers combining
multiple OSI layers (e.g., Application layer in TCP/IP covers OSI’s Application,
Presentation, and Session layers).

4) What is the different transmission medium in detail.

Answer:-

• Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
Commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet networks. It can be shielded (STP) or
unshielded (UTP). UTP is cheaper but more prone to interference.

• Coaxial Cable: Made of a central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer
plastic cover. Used in cable TV and older computer networks. It offers better shielding from
interference than twisted pair.

• Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers. It
provides high-speed, long-distance transmission with minimal signal loss and is immune to
electromagnetic interference.

• Radio Waves: Wireless transmission using electromagnetic waves. Used in Wi-Fi, cellular
networks, and Bluetooth. It covers a large area but is prone to interference from other
devices.
 5) Explain the following Network Architecture: Client-Server, Peer To Peer, Hybrid.
Answer

• Client-Server Architecture:
A centralized model where clients (user devices) request services or resources from a server.
The server provides resources and manages the network. Commonly used in web
applications, with high control and security.

• Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture:

A decentralized model where each device (peer) acts as both a client and a server. Peers share
resources directly with each other without a central server. Used in file-sharing applications,
with lower setup costs but less security.

• Hybrid Architecture:
Combines elements of both client-server and peer-to-peer models. Some tasks are handled by
centralized servers, while others are managed through peer-to-peer communication. This
offers a balance between control and efficiency.

Unit 2
1) Draw Manchester and Differential Manchester line Encoding for pattern 1010011100
Answer
 2) Explain FHSS with example
Answer:-

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a wireless communication technique

where the signal rapidly switches or "hops" between different frequencies within a larger
bandwidth according to a specific pattern known by both the transmitter and receiver. This
makes communication more secure and resistant to interference.

Example:

• If there is a 100 MHz bandwidth available, FHSS may divide it into several smaller
channels (e.g., 10 channels of 10 MHz each). The signal might hop between these
channels at predefined intervals, such as every 100 milliseconds, following a
pseudorandom sequence known by both the sender and receiver.
• Example hopping sequence: Channel 1 -> Channel 4 -> Channel 2 -> Channel 7...

3) Write note on WAN.

Answer

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large
geographic area, often spanning cities, countries, or even continents. It connects smaller
networks like Local Area Networks (LANs) and enables communication and data transfer
over long distances.

Key Features:

• Long-distance communication: Covers large geographical areas.

• Examples: The internet, corporate networks connecting branches in different
locations.
• Technologies used: MPLS, leased lines, satellite, or fiber optics.
• Common usage: Businesses use WANs to connect regional offices, data centers, and
remote employees.

4) Explain FDM and WDM in detail.

Answer

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

FDM is a technique used to transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single

communication channel by dividing the available bandwidth into distinct frequency bands.
Each signal is transmitted on a separate frequency band, allowing multiple transmissions to
occur at the same time without interference.

• Example: In radio broadcasting, different radio stations operate on different

frequency bands (e.g., 90.1 MHz, 101.3 MHz).
• Used in: Analog TV, radio broadcasting, and traditional telephone systems.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

WDM is a method used in optical fiber communication to transmit multiple signals
simultaneously by using different wavelengths (or colors) of light. Each signal is transmitted
on a separate wavelength, allowing for high-capacity data transmission over a single fiber.

• Example: Different wavelengths of light (e.g., 1550 nm, 1310 nm) are used to send
multiple data streams over the same fiber.
• Used in: High-speed fiber-optic communication systems, such as internet and
telecommunications networks.

5) Compare three switching techniques.

Answer

1.Circuit Switching:

• Definition: A dedicated communication path is established between two nodes for the
duration of the transmission.
• Example: Traditional telephone networks.
• Advantages: Constant, predictable bandwidth and low latency.
• Disadvantages: Inefficient use of resources during idle periods.

2. Packet Switching:

• Definition: Data is divided into packets and transmitted over the network. Each packet
may take a different route to the destination, where they are reassembled.
• Example: The internet (TCP/IP).
• Advantages: Efficient use of network resources, better handling of burst traffic.
• Disadvantages: Higher latency and potential packet loss.

3. Message Switching:

• Definition: Entire messages are sent from the source to the destination, often stored
and forwarded at intermediate nodes.
• Example: Early email systems.
• Advantages: No need for dedicated path; can handle large messages.
• Disadvantages: High latency due to store-and-forward nature; can result in delays

Unit 3
Q 1. Compare circuit switching and packet switching .

Answer:_

• Circuit Switching: A dedicated communication path is established between two

parties for the duration of the call. Example: Telephone networks.
• Packet Switching: Data is divided into packets and sent over shared networks. Each
packet may take a different path. Example: The Internet.

Key Differences:
 • Circuit Switching: Continuous connection, suitable for voice.
• Packet Switching: Efficient for data, dynamic routing, and shared bandwidth

Q 2. Write a short note on IPv4 and IPv6

Answer:-

• IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4; 32-bit address, supports around 4.3 billion unique
addresses. Example: 192.168.1.1. Limited in address space.
• IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6; 128-bit address, supports a vastly larger address space
(approximately 340 undecillion addresses). Example:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. Designed to address IPv4 limitations.
Q3. Explain what is subnetting and subnet mask.

Answer:-

• Subnetting: The process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable sub-
networks (subnets). It improves network performance and security.
• Subnet Mask: A 32-bit number used to differentiate the network portion from the host
portion in an IP address. It defines the range of addresses within a subnet. Example:
255.255.255.0
Q4 Explain Distance vector routing algorithm.

Answer:-

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm: It is a routing algorithm where each router maintains a
table (vector) of the best known distance to each destination in the network. Routers
periodically exchange these tables with their neighbors to update their routing tables.

Key Points:

• Routing Tables: Each router keeps a table of the minimum distance to each
destination.
• Distance: Typically measured in hops (number of routers).
• Updates: Periodic updates are sent to neighboring routers.
• Bellman-Ford Algorithm: A common algorithm used in Distance Vector routing.

Example Protocols: RIP (Routing Information Protocol).

Q5. Write a short note on RIP ,OSPF and BGP

Answer:-

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector routing protocol that uses hop
count as its metric. It has a maximum limit of 15 hops and is suitable for smaller networks. It
uses periodic updates.

• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state routing protocol that uses Dijkstra's
algorithm to find the shortest path. It is more scalable and efficient for larger networks than
RIP.
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A path-vector protocol used to exchange routing
information between different autonomous systems (AS) on the internet. It is the core routing
protocol for the internet.

Unit4
Q1. What are the types of socket? Explain various socket primitives used un connection-
oriented client server approach?

Answer:-

Types of Sockets:

1. Stream Sockets (SOCK_STREAM): Used for connection-oriented communication

(TCP).
2. Datagram Sockets (SOCK_DGRAM): Used for connectionless communication
(UDP).
3. Raw Sockets (SOCK_RAW): Allows access to lower-level protocols like IP.
4. Sequential Packet Sockets (SOCK_SEQPACKET): Provides message boundaries
but maintains connection (TCP-like).

Socket Primitives (for connection-oriented client-server approach):

1. socket(): Creates a socket.

2. bind(): Associates a socket with a local address (IP + port).
3. listen(): Prepares a socket to accept incoming connections (for server).
4. accept(): Accepts incoming connections and returns a new socket for communication.
5. connect(): Establishes a connection to a remote server (for client).
6. send() / recv(): Used for data transmission (send data to the server, receive from
client).
7. close(): Closes the socket after communication is done.

Q2. Write a short not on TCP header.

Answer:-

TCP Header:

The TCP header is part of the TCP segment and contains essential information for managing
the connection and data transfer. It is 20-60 bytes long and includes the following fields:

1. Source Port (16 bits): Identifies the sender's port.

2. Destination Port (16 bits): Identifies the receiver's port.
3. Sequence Number (32 bits): Tracks the position of the data in the stream.
4. Acknowledgment Number (32 bits): Indicates the next expected byte from the
sender.
5. Data Offset (4 bits): Specifies the length of the TCP header.
6. Flags (9 bits): Includes control flags like SYN, ACK, FIN, etc.
 7. Window Size (16 bits): Specifies the size of the receiver's buffer.
8. Checksum (16 bits): Verifies the integrity of the header and data.
9. Urgent Pointer (16 bits): Points to urgent data, if any.
10. Options (variable): Can include various optional parameters.
11. Padding: Ensures the header is a multiple of 32 bits.

Q3. What is difference between TCP and UDP.

Answer:-

Differences between TCP and UDP:

1. Connection:
o TCP: Connection-oriented (establishes a connection before data transfer).
o UDP: Connectionless (no connection setup, sends data directly).
2. Reliability:
o TCP: Reliable (guarantees delivery, retransmits lost packets).
o UDP: Unreliable (no guarantee of delivery, no retransmission).
3. Order:
o TCP: Ensures data arrives in order.
o UDP: No guarantee of order.
4. Speed:
o TCP: Slower due to error-checking and connection setup.
o UDP: Faster, no connection overhead.

Q4. What are the general Techniques to improve quality of service.

Answer:-

Techniques to Improve Quality of Service (QoS):

1. Traffic Prioritization: Assigning priority to critical traffic over less important traffic.
2. Bandwidth Management: Allocating sufficient bandwidth to ensure smooth data
flow.
3. Traffic Shaping: Controlling the flow of data to avoid congestion.
4. Load Balancing: Distributing network traffic evenly across servers.
5. Error Control: Implementing retransmission and error-checking mechanisms.
6. Latency Reduction: Minimizing delays through optimized routing and fast packet
delivery

Q5. Explain State transition diagram In TCP

Answer:-

State Transition Diagram in TCP:

The TCP State Transition Diagram shows the various states a TCP connection can be in
during its lifecycle. The primary states include:

1. LISTEN: Waiting for incoming connection requests (server-side).

2. SYN_SENT: Client has sent a SYN (synchronize) request to initiate connection.
 3. SYN_RECEIVED: Received a SYN request and waiting for acknowledgment.
4. ESTABLISHED: Connection is open for data transfer (both client and server).
5. FIN_WAIT_1: Waiting for the other side to acknowledge connection termination.
6. FIN_WAIT_2: Waiting for the remote side to finish closing the connection.
7. TIME_WAIT: Waiting to ensure the remote side received the final acknowledgment.
8. CLOSE_WAIT: Waiting for the application to close the connection.
9. CLOSED: No connection exists.

Unit 5
Q1. What is DNS? Explain its various resource records with one example.

Answer:-

DNS (Domain Name System) is a system that translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1), enabling browsers to load websites.

DNS Resource Records:

1. A Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.

o Example: example.com. IN A 93.184.216.34
2. AAAA Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv6 address.
o Example: example.com. IN AAAA 2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946
3. CNAME Record: Alias of one domain to another domain.
o Example: www.example.com. IN CNAME example.com.
4. MX Record: Specifies mail servers for a domain.
o Example: example.com. IN MX 10 mail.example.com.
5. TXT Record: Stores text data for various purposes (e.g., verification or security).
o Example: example.com. IN TXT "v=spf1 include:_spf.example.com
~all"

Q2. Write a short note on 1) POP 2) IMAP 3) SMTP

Answer:-

• POP (Post Office Protocol): A protocol used to retrieve emails from a mail server. It
downloads emails to the client and typically removes them from the server.

• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): A protocol for retrieving and managing
emails on a mail server. Emails remain on the server, allowing access from multiple devices.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for sending emails from a
client to a server or between servers. It is used to send emails, while POP and IMAP are used
to retrieve them.

Q3. Explain Various FTP commands.

Answer:-

Here are some common FTP (File Transfer Protocol) commands:

 1. USER: Sends the username to the FTP server.
o Example: USER username
2. PASS: Sends the password to the FTP server.
o Example: PASS password
3. LIST: Lists files and directories in the current directory on the server.
o Example: LIST
4. CWD: Changes the current directory on the server.
o Example: CWD /path/to/directory
5. PWD: Prints the current directory on the server.
o Example: PWD

Q4. Define FTP? Can we specify file transfer in Web page? Explain with the help of suitable
example.

Answer:-

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files between a
client and a server over the internet.

File Transfer in a Web Page:

Yes, file transfer can be specified in a webpage using an HTML form with the FTP protocol.
However, this is usually done indirectly through an HTML form that allows the user to
upload files to a server via HTTP.

Example using an HTML form:

<form action="ftp://ftp.example.com/upload" method="post" enctype="multipart/form-

data">

<input type="file" name="fileToUpload">

<input type="submit" value="Upload File">

</form>

In this example, the form sends the file to an FTP server (though in practice, HTTP/HTTPS is used
more commonly for file uploads on web pages).

Q5. Write A short note on DHCP

Answer:-

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used to automatically

assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters (like subnet mask, gateway,
and DNS servers) to devices on a network. It simplifies network management by eliminating the
need for manual IP address configuration.