VOL 11 ISSUE 2 APRIL 2024 MAGAZINE

COLUMNS: TECHNICAL ARTICLES:

Data dilemma Diagnosis for cast-resin
transformers
Books on
transformers in Magnetic fluxes and
English II losses in shunt reactors
Improving efficiency in
INTERVIEW: distribution transformers
Helmut Bockshammer Magnetic shunts on
650 MVA transformers
Safekeeping HV
transformers II
Superior life-cycle performance

Our EnCompass™ Agreements pave the way for sustainable and

resilient end-to-end support, covering products, and systems, and
accessing specialized services tailored to your needs

EnCompass™ Frame EnCompass™ Service

When time is critical, EnCompass Frame is your vehicle Your agreement of choice to ensure that your energy system
for faster and easier access to services you need now. performance requirements are fulfilled now and in the future.

Benefits Benefits

• Accelerated response • EnCompass™ Frame benefits

• Simplified administration • Priority expert assistance
• Financial security • Established On-Site Response
• Established point of contact • Single point of contract management
• Continuous technical assistance • Customizable services

Components Components
Easy contracting and procurement
EnCompass™ Frame Agreement components

Terms & Conditions Rates & Pricebook

On-Site Assistance Technical Remote Support
A pre-agreed framework Get access to clear, fixed
ensuring all our transactions hourly rates for any When you need us in person, Benefit from immediate,
our Hitachi Energy Technicians professional help through
run smoothly and swiftly, additional services, deliver fast on-site help. Costs phone or AR tools. Our yearly
with no surprises. providing transparency are transparent, based on service 'hour bank' gives free
and predictability. rates and spare parts availability. support, ensuring swift
troubleshooting responses.
ISSN 1849-7268 (Digital)

Discussing the future energy

Round-the-clock access
to expert support Shopping Cart of Additional Included Services
24/7 Customer
Flexibility is key. Choose additional services during your
Contract Manager Connect Center agreement period. Enjoy the freedom of choice with the
assurance of stable pricing.
A dedicated expert is Anytime access to our
assigned to manage all your expert tech support team.

system with Helmut Bockshammer

service agreement needs, Each request gets a unique
ensuring personalized reference for easy follow-up
and efficient interactions. and quick resolution. Assess & Secure Train & Develop Parts & Maintain

from Hitachi Energy

▪ Longer-lasting electrical equipment ▪ Data-driven predictive maintenance ▪
▪ Sapient Asset Insights ▪ Shunt reactors for future grid ▪
▪ Efficiency, safety, and reliability of transformers ▪ Technology neutrality ▪
Wherever You
Power, There’s a
For decades, Ergon has earned the reputation as a leader in the mineral insulating fluids
industry. In order to meet our customers’ needs and offer more solutions for unique insulating
applications, HyVolt is introducing a line of natural and synthetic esters to complement our
already strong portfolio of mineral insulating oils. And we’ll continue to serve you with the
outstanding customer service and support you’ve come to expect from Ergon and HyVolt.

VISIT HYVOLT.COM FOR MORE

INFORMATION AND EXPLORE YOUR
OPTIONS WITH HYVOLT.
 CONTENTS

INTERVIEW:

Shaping the future

energy system
HELMUT BOCKSHAMMER
Global Product Group Manager for Components & Services for
Hitachi Energy’s Transformers Business
In the interview with Helmut Bockshammer, a Global Product
Group Manager for Components & Services for Hitachi Energy’s
Transformers Business, we discussed the global energy sector
transformation caused by decarbonization—the shift from
fossil-based power generation to renewable and carbon-
10 neutral alternatives. This process also significantly impacts the
transformer industry.

COLUMN: DATA DILEMMA

Tony McGRAIL
What do you do when one test says there seems to be no me-
chanical deformation in a transformer, and another says there
definitely is? Check out how the use of the golden ABC rule
can pay dividends. Rember ABC stands for Assume nothing,
Believe nobody, Check everything.

24
COLUMN: BOOKS ON TRANSFORMERS IN ENGLISH II
P. RAMACHANDRAN, Vitaly GURIN
In this second part of the column about the books on pow-
er transformers, we explore two books from the early 1900s.
Those are The Alternating Current Transformer by Frank George
Baum, published in 1903, and Transformer Practice, Manufac-
ture, Assembling, Connections, Operation and Testing by Wil-
liam T. Taylor, published in 1909. These exciting books are a
testament to the historical development of transformer tech-
36 nology.

Coiltech
Pordenone Augsburg Novi, MI
Italy Germany USA
18-19 Sept. 9-10 April 11-12 June
2024 2025 2025
pdc216525

International Coil&Winding Exhibition

T he l e a din g c o il w in din g event • I n the hea r t of the m a r ket

At the show

www.quickfairs.net

w w pdc216525
w . t ra n- Ha
sfo r m e198x66
Factory r s - maggio
m a g2024.indd
a z i n e .1co m 05/04/24 14:36 3
CONTENTS

SHUNT REACTORS
18 FOR FUTURE GRID
As utilities worldwide invest in modernizing their transmission
infrastructure to meet the evolving demands of the energy transi-
tion, the importance of shunt reactors in enhancing grid reliability
cannot be overstated. Shunt reactors, manufactured by industry
leaders like BEST Transformer, are passive devices that are strate-
18 gically placed along transmission lines to absorb excess reactive
power and stabilize grid voltage levels.

DATA-DRIVEN PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE OF

30 TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are designed to last for 30 – 40 years, but numerous
factors can cause them to age prematurely and fail. If you could
predict the future, you might be able to plan better, make your
maintenance plan more effective, and avoid transformer failure
that could affect your business. Check out the latest COMEM
30 solutions for data acquisition, monitoring, and predictive
maintenance tailored for the transformer industry.

SAPIENT ASSET INSIGHTS

40
Sapient Asset Insights is an advanced software application built
by Camlin’s team of asset experts. It is designed to maximize in-
vestments in monitoring programs and guides users through the
entire asset assessment journey. Users can make informed deci-
sions based on real-time data, while actionable insights and pre-
scriptive analytics can give operators the confidence to make the
40 right choices for their assets.

DIAGNOSIS FOR CAST-RESIN

44 TRANSFORMERS
Carlo Maria ROGGERO, Vander TUMIATTI, Michela TUMIATTI
KDGA is a well-established, standardized, and widely used
diagnostic method for oil-type transformers’ condition
assessment. However, an equivalent method does not exist for
the dry-type transformers simply because they do not use oil
as insulation material. A study reported in this article aims to
44 develop a diagnostic method for dry-type cast-resin transformers
based on physiochemical measurements.

LONGER-LASTING
60 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Ganz is a customer-focused company with more than 145 years
of experience, delivering high quality with the best technical
and economic solutions for its customers. Due to a 60%
projected increase in EU energy demand by 2030, Ganz focuses
on digital solutions to extend the life of power transformers,

60 combating long lead times and enhancing system reliability

with advanced maintenance strategies.

MAGNETIC FLUXES AND LOSSES

64 IN SHUNT REACTORS
Anastasia V. BASOVA and Viktor F. IVANKOV
This article aims to present the development of a methodology
for the analytical calculation of magnetic fluxes based on nonlin-
ear magnetic equivalent circuits. It also presents the basics of the
stray losses calculation in the magnetic systems of shunt reactors
64 containing legs with nonmagnetic gaps.

4 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

CONTENTS

CONTRIBUTING TOWARDS THE EFFICIENCY,

76 SAFETY, AND RELIABILITY OF TRANSFORMERS
Weidmann provides top-quality transformer insulation compo-
nents globally. Their Lead Exits offer customizable solutions for
safety and efficiency, enduring mechanical and thermal stress-
es for longevity and reliability. Find out more about their opti-
mal solutions tailored for diverse applications.
76
IMPROVING ENERGY AND MATERIAL EFFICIENCY
80 IN DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
Angelo BAGGINI, Bruno De WACHTER, Fernando NUÑO
The EU ecodesign regulation for power transformers is current-
ly under revision. What impact could stricter minimum energy
performance standards have on costs and material use? The
European Copper Institute conducted a quantitative compari-
80 son between various scenarios and design strategies.

TECHNOLOGY NEUTRALITY
88 Müge ÖZERTEN, Stephane ISLER
Transformer technologies have evolved from a complex mix of
solving dielectric, thermal, mechanical, and magnetic challeng-
es. Today, we are witnessing a new challenge posed to the trans­
former design: technological neutrality. Find out how Hitachi
Energy, with a combined heritage of more than 250 years and the
88 largest base of installed transformers, is addressing this require-
ment.

94 MAGNETIC SHUNTS ON 650 MVA TRANSFORMERS

Ramazan ALTAY, İrem HAZAR, Necmettin Mert KOÇANALI,
Caner ADIŞEN, Mahmut AKSOY
In this paper, stray loss distribution in three-phase, three-limb
power transformers is analyzed based on proposed simulation
models and proposed finite element analysis (FEA) models. First,
stray loss distribution and maximum total loss are analyzed by pro-
94 posed 3D finite element stray loss models. In addition, the effects of
different tank magnetic wall shunt combinations are investigated.

SAFEKEEPING HV TRANSFORMERS II
104 K. K. MURTY, J. J. L. KAPIL, S. K. CHATURVEDI, Santosh DUBEY
The HV/EHV-level transformers are the most expensive equip-
ment in any substation / switchyard of transmission / generating
utilities or industries. The premature failure of the power trans-
former causes a colossal loss. This article provides guidance and
best practices for handling transformers from the moment they
104 arrive at the site ad throughout the life cycle.

WHAT’S NEW AT CWIEME 2024

116
Join us at CWIEME - the most significant global gathering of
industry professionals from the coil winding, electric motor,
transformer, generator, and e-mobility sectors. It will take
place from May 14 to 16, 2024, at Messe Berlin. This year, the
event anticipates hosting more than 6,000 attendees and 600
116 exhibitors. Discover the latest opportunities and initiatives at
CWIEME Berlin.

6 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 CONTACT US
Australasia:
Carlos Gamez
[email protected]
M: +61 (0) 432 683 051
Brasil
Antonio Carlos Jacomini
[email protected]
Tel: +55 11 4961 0350
Canada:
Barry Mirzaei
[email protected]
Tel: +1 647 309 1258
France & Belgium:
Laurent Courdavault
[email protected]

Subscribe now!
Tel: +33 679 98 89 68
Germany & Netherlands:
Tomas Arenius
[email protected]
Tel: +49 1717328152
Subscribe to Transformers Magazine and India:
keep track of the latest news and trends in Ashutosh Kumar Govil
[email protected]
the power transformer industry. Tel: +91 99 750 975 34
P.R. Chithambaran
[email protected]
Tel: +91 76 250 990 91
Italy:
Each USD 130 / one year/ 4 issues Ales Bertuzzi
[email protected]
Discount 10% for more than 10 pcs. Tel: +39 327 761 7581
Nordic Countries:
Tomas Arenius
[email protected]
Tel: +49 1717328152
Panama:
Ramses Antillon
[email protected]
Individual digital subscription: Tel: +507 6337-2377
USD 60 People`s Republic of China:
Eric Chen
[email protected]
Tel: +86 139 9821 2358
Corporate digital subscription S:
Russian Federation:
USD 190 (for companies up to 30 employees) Alexander Drobyshevski
[email protected]
Tel: +79 03 618 33 42
Corporate digital subscription M: South Korea:
USD 320 (for companies with 30 to 100 employees) Eugene Jang
[email protected]
Tel: +82 10 8267 7067
Corporate digital subscription L: Southern Africa:
Peter Busch
USD 590 (for companies over 100 employees) [email protected]
Tel: +27 82 559 9970
Southeast Asia:
Randy Maulana
[email protected]
Tel +62 812 1009 9424
Online full subscription: Turkey:
Sinan Ozcan
USD 20 [email protected]
Tel: +90 554 482 0041
USA:
Alonso Castillo
Online free subscription: [email protected]
Tel: +1 (404) 444-2420
FREE
EMEA:
Tomas Arenius
www.transformers-magazine.com [email protected]
Tel: +49 1717328152
ROW:
www.facebook.com/transformersmagazine [email protected]
www.twitter.com/TransformersMag Tel: +385 1 7899 507
www.linkedin.com/groups/Transformers-772397
 EDITORIAL MESSAGE

TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE
ISSN 1849-3319 (Print) ISSN 1849-7268 (Digital)

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief:
Mladen Banovic, PhD, Merit Services Int., Croatia
[email protected]
Dear readers,
EXECUTIVE EDITORS

A
Michel Duval, PhD, Hydro Quebec, Canada he April edition brings a collection prematurely, affecting business operations.
Jean Sanchez, PhD, EDF, France We bring you an article on data collection
of articles which convey the dynamic
Michael Krüger, PhD, OMICRON electronics, Austria
Jin Sim, Jin Sim & Associates, Inc., USA evolution of the transformer indus- and predictive maintenance solutions de-
Juliano Montanha, SIEMENS, Brazil try amidst the energy sector’s shift towards signed to prevent such failures, as well as an
Craig Adams, TRAFOIX, Australia sustainability, highlighting innovations in article on digital solutions to meet the rising
Arne Petersen, Consulting engineer, Australia
Zhao Yongzhi, Shandong Electrical Engineering & Equip- diagnostics, maintenance, and design to im- energy demands, aimed at extending the life
ment Group Co., Ltd, China prove reliability and efficiency. of power transformers through advanced
Barry M. Mirzaei, LargePowerTransformers Inc., Canada
The transformation of the global energy sec- maintenance strategies.
Bhaba P. Das, PhD, Hitachi Energy, Singapore
tor towards renewable sources, coupled with The challenge of technology neutrality in
EDITORS shortages of materials and skilled labour, is transformer design is also at the forefront
Daosheng Liu, Jiangxi University of Science and Techno- having a profound impact on the transform- of this edition. The latest bushing design is
logy, China
er industry. This shift requires the moderni- presented as an example of innovation in
Mislav Trbusic, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Mohammad Yazdani-Asrami, University of Strathclyde, sation of the transmission infrastructure electrical field optimisation, safety, and me-
United Kingdom worldwide, primarily transformers, but also chanical properties, suitable for both new
Dr. Shuhong Wang, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China installations and upgrades.
shunt reactors, which are critical for absorb-
Nam Tran Nguyen, PhD, Hitachi Energy, USA
ing excess reactive power and ensuring grid
ASSISTANT EDITOR voltage stability. Therefore, the development The energy transition re­
Pedro Henrique Aquino Barra, MSc,
EESC/USP – University of São Paulo, Brazil
of methods for calculating magnetic flux- quires modernisation of
es and stray losses in shunt reactors is dis-
Art Director: Momir Blazek cussed. Research into stray loss distribution the transmission infra­
Photo: Shutterstock.com
Front page image: Hitachi Energy
in transformers using simulation and finite structure worldwide, pri­
element analysis models aims to provide in-
Language Editor: Ena Tomičić
sights into loss reduction strategies, empha-
marily transformers, but
ADVERTISING AND SUBSCRIPTION sising the role of tank magnetic wall shunt also shunt reactors
+385 1 7899 507 combinations in increasing efficiency.
[email protected] DGA is a standard diagnostic tool for oil-­
The revision of the EU Ecodesign Regulation
SUBSCRIPTION RATES: immersed transformers, but there has been
for power transformers may impose stricter
Print edition: $130 (1 year, 4 issues) no equivalent for dry-immersed transform-
energy performance standards, prompting
Digital edition: $60 (1 year, 4 issues) ers due to their different insulation mate-
a reassessment of costs and materials by the
Online edition - full access: $20 (1 year, 4 rials. We bring you an article on research
issues) European Copper Institute.
aimed at filling this gap by developing diag-
Online edition - free access: free of charge for
nostic methods based on physico-chemical
r­egistered users
www.transformers-magazine.com The transformation of the measurements for dry-type cast resin trans­

TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE global energy sector to­ formers.

We also write about high quality transformer
Transformers Magazine is published quarterly by Merit wards renewable sources, insulation components, in particular their
Media Int. d.o.o., Setaliste 150. brigade 10, 10 090 Zag-
reb, Croatia. Published art­i­cles do not represent official coupled with shortages of customisable lead exits, highlighting the
position of Merit Media Int. d.o.o. Merit Media Int. d.o.o.
is not responsible for the content. The responsibil­ity for materials and skilled la­ importance of safety and efficiency in trans-
former design.
articles rests upon the authors, and the re­sponsibility
for ads rests upon advertisers. Man­uscripts, photos and bour, is having a profound Finally, I look forward to meeting you at
other submitted docu­ments are not returned.
impact on the transformer some of the upcoming trade shows and con-
REPRINT
Libraries are permitted to photocopy for the private use
industry ferences.
We hope you enjoy reading.
of patrons. Abstracting is permited with credit to the
source. A per-copy fee must be paid to the Publisher, The industry also faces challenges in diag-
contact Subscription. For other copying or republication nosing transformer conditions, where con-
permis­sions, contact Subscription. All rights reserved.
Yours sincerely,
trasting tests can lead to confusion. In this
Publisher: Merit Media Int. d.o.o.
Setaliste 150. brigade 10,
context, Dr. Tony McGrail writes about how
10 090 Zagreb, Croatia the golden ABC rule - Assume nothing, Be-
Contact: +385 1 7899 507 lieve nobody, Check everything - can guide
VAT number: HR09122628912
thorough and effective inspections. The need
www.transformers-magazine.com
Bank name: Revolut for predictive maintenance is emphasised by
Bank IBAN: LT343250038251836452 the potential for transformers to age and fail Mladen Banovic, Editor-in-Chief
SWIFT / BIC: REVOLT21
Intermediary BIC: CHASDEFX
Director: Mladen Banovic, PhD

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 9
INTERVIEW

Shaping the future

energy system
A discussion with
HELMUT BOCKSHAMMER
Global Product Group Manager for Components & Services for
Hitachi Energy’s Transformers Business

D
ecarbonization is transforming logical solutions that incorporate sustain- On the component side, my focus is
global energy systems; it is ability across all their value chains. on regionalizing the company’s capa-
accelerating the shift from bilities and ensuring a more globalized
fossil-based power generation A few weeks ago, we had a conversa- manufacturing footprint. This keeps
to renewable and carbon-neutral alterna- tion with Helmut Bockshammer from us closer to our customers, equips us
tives. Hitachi Energy, discussing the evolu- with the right portfolios, and enhances
tion and challenges faced by the trans- our ability to provide a great customer
In the global power system of 2050, we will former industry in advancing a more experience.
need around four times the power genera- sustainable, carbon-neutral future.
tion capacity and we will need to transfer Here is an excerpt from our talk. A few notable recent examples are new
up to three times as much electrical ener- service centers in the UAE and India; in-
gy compared to 2020. Electricity will be vesting in service workshops in Norway
Hello Helmut, thank you for
the backbone of the entire energy system and Australia; and starting AirRIP®
and the urgent energy transition requires joining us. You have been flex dry bushing production in
us to collaborate across stakeholders and in the transformer industry China, India, and Brazil. In this
sectors. To meet the rapidly increasing de- for many years now. Tell period, we also released new
mand for electrification by many new and us a little about yourself, products and services, such as
existing segments like transportation and your background, and any the EasyDry® paperless bush-
industry, the grid as it is today needs to ex- recent transformers-related ing portfolio, EnCompassTM
pand and evolve. service agreements, and the
initiative. TXpert TM HUB with
The energy transition requires the ac- Indeed, time flies! I started my career in CoreTec TM 5, the latest
celeration of new investments, collabo- the Medium and Low Voltage businesses addition to our TXpertTM
rations, and business models to expand in 2008, working in various roles such as Digital Ecosystem.
the grid and enable greater access to sus- Product Marketing and Sales, Business
tainable electricity. It is also incumbent Development and Product Management Therefore, to say the
upon OEMs and manufacturers to boost – including assignments to India and sev- least, we have been
innovation, technology, and their capaci- eral years in China – before joining the keeping busy in the
ty to cater to the growing demand for key Transformers business unit in 2018. Since past years – and giv-
equipment such as transformers. There- then, my focus has been on scaling up our en the future trajec-
fore, leading manufacturers like Hitachi service business by driving the company’s tory of the indus-
Energy are developing their offerings to global capability to offer and deliver a try, this may only
meet the demand for sustainable techno- wide range of life-cycle services. be the beginning!

10 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 The energy transition
requires the accelera­
tion of new investments,
collaborations, and busi­
ness models to expand
the grid and enable
greater access to sus­
tainable electricity

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 11
INTERVIEW

Hitachi Energy, as a pioneering leader in the customers and partners, take on to real-
ize this opportunity.
industry, fully understands the critical role
energy plays in our society today and in the For example, the energy transition needs
to be accelerated, demanding tremendous
future effort from regulators and authorities to
create the right conditions for this to oc-
You have closely observed Hitachi Energy, as a pioneering leader in cur. With renewable energy increasingly
the evolution of the the industry, fully understands the critical entering the grid, the existing grid needs
role energy plays in our society today and to be expanded – not only with new trans-
power grid over the years, in the future. formers but also by upgrading existing
specifically the change in ones with the newest technologies to cope
the transformers industry. I believe this moment is a great oppor- with all the related changes.
What are the key challenges tunity for all stakeholders to contribute
to the much-needed decarbonization On the one hand, the existing infrastruc-
that operators, asset process and enable a more sustainable ture is aging while maintenance budgets are
managers, and transformer energy future by driving electrification not necessarily rising. On the other hand,
manufacturers currently face for society. Of course, the challenges novel challenges are continuously emerg-
all over the world? vary according to the roles we, or our ing, such as ensuring cybersecurity, em-

12 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 1

2 | 2024
bedding EV charging, or making grid con- As a “one-stop-shop,” we want our customers
nections for new players like data centers.
to feel confident that they can always find a
On the manufacturing side, we are facing a
demand surge in some regions while expect-
reliable and innovative range of solutions
ed lead times for deliveries remain the same,
and this requires investments for capacity
enhancement. At the same time, the pan- We know that Hitachi Energy full engineering-to-order solutions, cus-
demic and the recent geopolitical conflicts is serving its customers both tomized bundling solutions and simpli-
have placed a lot of stress on the supply chain. fied and cost-effective customer procure-
as a transformer manu­­facturer ment and logistic processes. For more
A common challenge for everybody in and services provider. But than a century, we have been a trustworthy
the industry is the shrinking skill pool and a part of your responsibility partner to all our customers, and our aim
availability of people, as many technical is also the transformer com­ is to continue to earn this trust with hu-
experts are in their retirement years. This ponents, and we would like to mility in every interaction and delivery
makes it more important for all stakehold- explore this area further. while continuing to invest and grow.
ers to ensure good knowledge manage-
ment and to work with reliable partners Can you provide an overview Having said that, it is also clear that as an
like Hitachi Energy. of the components portfolio industry, we cannot continue to work as
and how it adds value to your we did in the past, especially when all the
customers? challenges I mentioned earlier are consid-
ered. All stakeholders will have to collab-
As you correctly said, Hitachi Energy is orate more closely, going from transac-
not only a transformer manufacturer, but tional business toward relationships and
we also have a strong focus on providing partnerships, timely and more automated
an integrated service offering for our cus- data interchange within value chains, and
tomers. In addition, in the transformer driving open innovation and co-creation
business we offer a comprehensive port- for the development of new products or
folio of power and distribution trans- services. Without this collaboration, it
former components, which can be used will be extremely difficult, if not impossi-
by our customers, suppliers, and other ble, to reach the speed and scale needed to
transformer manufacturers as well. The enable the energy transition.
portfolio includes bushings, tap-changers,
insulation materials and kits, and conven-
Speaking of the energy
tional and digital accessories.
transition – what is your view
Having such a broad and comprehen- on the existing infrastructure
sive portfolio allows us a wider perspec- and the role of services?
tive when thinking about our customers’
needs. It is Hitachi Energy’s aim to provide As I mentioned earlier, a big part of decar-
a 360-degree product range and holistic bonization will be the electrification of so-
support to customers, helping them reduce ciety, meaning electricity will be the back-
the complexity of their daily operations. bone of the future energy system. And, of
course, the future system must be built on
As a “one-stop-shop,” we want our cus- the existing one.
tomers to feel confident that they can al-
ways find a reliable and innovative range The current infrastructure, like the
of solutions. fleets of transformers in grids, are
aging, and this is a concern espe-
Our teams of experts, distributed across all cially in developed countries where
our manufacturing locations, have the ex- the average age of the installed fleet
perience and expertise to offer customers is the highest, and where the ener-

Condition assessments and consulting, with

and without digital technology, are becoming
more important and are capturing the interest
of customers, and we support them in analyzing
the health of their transformers
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 13
INTERVIEW

Sustainable energy integration increases power system complexity, cre­

ating the need to optimize energy both locally and system-wide, leading
to a complex “system of systems” that must be integrated and managed

gy transition is happening the fastest. currences. Last but not least, condition the future grid is not just set to become
Therefore, service plays a major role in assessments and consulting, with and larger but much more complex.
supporting our customers and partners in without digital technology, are becom-
their journey to make their infrastructure ing more important and are capturing Sustainable energy integration increases
and operations ready for the future. Tradi- the interest of customers, so we support power system complexity, creating the
tionally, our service centers were contact- them in analyzing the health of their need to optimize energy both locally and
ed to tackle unforeseen outages, repairs, transformers – single, critical ones, or system-wide, leading to a complex “sys-
spares, or to support maintenance activ- the whole fleet – to identify the actions tem of systems” that must be integrated
ities, and we continue to offer all those necessary and prioritize the maintenance and managed.
services. work for the coming years.
Digitalization is crucial to manage this
But what is becoming more significant now complexity, simplifying the contextual-
Can you elaborate further on
– partly due to regulations, sustainability ization of massive amounts of data. But
considerations as well as lead times – are the role of digitalization in the this must be balanced with managing and
upgrades, retrofits, and midlife refurbish- energy transition and how optimizing today’s operations. Hitachi
ments that extend the expected lifetime of digital technologies can help Energy is helping its customers navigate
the transformer considerably. This can be in practical terms? this increasingly complex energy land-
done, for example, by replacing oil bush- scape. We have the right combination
ings with dry bushings, upgrading from When we discuss the energy transition, of connected products, software-based
conventional to vacuum tap-changers, we often focus on the energy generation solutions, and digitally enabled services to
replacing secondary systems like gaskets, shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy solve such challenges.
valves, and pumps or equipping the trans- sources. This is certainly important, and
former with digital capabilities. because of the integration of renewables Other opportunities are in maintenance
and the electrification of society, by 2050, practices - for example, enabling a shift
We are entering into service agree- the electrical power grid will need to in- from time-based to condition-based cy-
ments with select customers to provide crease in size and transmit three times cles, and the ability to monitor remote or
regular support and enable rapid re- the amount of electricity compared to to- offshore assets with high voltage energi-
sponse action in case of unforeseen oc- day. It is however often overlooked, that zation levels with sensors, or conducting

14 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

The TXpertTM ecosystem is designed with an open, scalable, secure, and
vendor-agnostic approach, and our aim was to enable our customers’
digital journeys, not limiting them to only our own transformers

camera-based and robotic inspections. of digitalization lie in obtaining insights transformers but also to upgrade existing
Coupled with IoT-services, such moni- on remaining asset life and avoiding un- transformers with digital capabilities or
toring systems can help identify trends foreseen outages. The “Transformer re- provide components with corresponding
and prevent failures, hazards, or harm to liability survey” from CIGRE Working monitoring systems.
human-health. Group A2.37, in 2015, found that the top
three locations of faults in transformers Leveraging our domain expertise on
Digitalization will also change the way we are its windings, tap-changers, and transformers, the TXpertTM ecosystem is
work as traditional service offerings (such bushings. Failure of bushings can lead designed with an open, scalable, secure,
as spare parts) will be procured through to transformer tank rupture and explo- and vendor-agnostic approach. Our aim
self-service portals; over-the-phone sup- sions, resulting in millions of dollars in was to enable our customers’ digital jour-
port can be enriched with virtual-­reality; repairs and settlement costs, while the neys and avoid limiting them to only our
workforce-dispatch is effortless with cost of replacing a high-voltage bushing own transformers. We wanted to give
software-­powered tools; and customer would have been a mere fraction of that them the opportunity to flexibly deploy
support agents will utilize AI-copilots to amount. the ecosystem in new transformers or in
solve problems for customers in any lan- transformers of their existing fleet from
guage worldwide. This is why the TXpertTM digital ecosys- Hitachi Energy or other manufacturers.
tem has been released and is continu- There is a wide range of options available,
Taking the focus back to transformers ously developed. This ecosystem enables from simple hot spot monitoring with
specifically, some of the major benefits us not only to deliver TXpertTM-enabled on-premises analytics to a full-fledged

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 15
INTERVIEW

Digitalization is a clear trend and can unlock a lot of benefits, and we

will continue to develop and deploy the TXpertTM ecosystem to support
our customers’ digitalization journey

system including the DGA, tap-changer, the transformer digitally capable is only to a lack of expertise, poor data strate-
and bushing monitoring, with cloud the first step. gies, inefficient tools, or a combination
connectivity and remote monitoring. of these factors. Building on digitalized
CoreTecTM 5, which is the heart of the assets, Hitachi Energy provides services
What would be the next step
TXpertTM HUB has been certified in ac- and software to support its customers
cordance with the latest cybersecurity after obtaining digitalized and partners in the next steps in their
standards. Multiple vendor devices, such assets? digitalization journeys.
as DGAs, have been integrated; our focus
is not so much on selling specific devices The data must first be analyzed and in- For instance, Lumada APM (Asset Per-
but is a bid to gain the flexibility to deliv- terpreted to derive actionable insights. formance Management) can be deployed
er a customized system that matches our This sounds simple, but in practice this is as an Edge solution not only with a sin-
customers’ needs. But of course, making where many organizations struggle: due gle, or small number of transformers, but

16 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 We talked about advancing
a sustainable energy future
for all: what about the people
needed to achieve this vision?
People are of utmost importance. As
discussed earlier, with the expansion of
manufacturing capacity and an aging
workforce, it is crucial that we continue
to develop our existing workforce in ad-
dition to absorbing and nurturing new
talent. The younger generation must not
only take ownership of the existing know-
how but also question the status quo and
exercise an innovative mindset that will
carry us all forward.

As a pioneering technology leader, Hita-

chi Energy has to keep evolving. As the
world keeps on turning, we need to find
new ways of working and innovating, and
with the right people to advance a sustain-
able energy future for all.

In this context, we recognize the impor-

tance of diversity, equity, and inclusion
– for the appropriate working conditions
and environment, and also as a lever
for innovation. I firmly believe true in-
novation comes through collaboration
with diverse colleagues, people from
different walks of life, genders, ages, and
cultures – to bring fresh ideas, to ques-
tion the status quo, and to challenge us
with their unique perspectives with the
right motivation, skills and experience
to thrive in our dynamic and environ-
ment. I know this sounds theoretical, but
my Global Product Group management
team is a great example – not only be-
cause of the outstanding female leaders
but also because of the diverse age and
also as a full-fledged on enterprise level. Of course, the more consistently digital cultural composition of the team, with
This will enable our customers to gather technologies are deployed, the higher people from various countries like India,
data from their entire installed base (not the benefits: we are used to performing Germany, Sweden, Brazil, or Canada (to
just transformers but all digitally enabled analysis from data extracted only by crit- name a few). The only challenge is that
assets) into a central system, establishing ical transformers in a specific time range sometimes it can be tricky to find a suit-
a clear overview of their health status, (once per year or so), while having dig- able time slot to come together in a virtu-
and supporting maintenance planning. italized assets allows us to have continu- al meeting (laughs).
In this way, they can make well-in- ous real-time monitoring of entire fleet of
formed, data-driven decisions and opti- transformers. Such continuous monitor- Overall, our company culture continues
mize costs and resources. ing helps avoid unforeseen outages, prior- to be organically shaped by over 40,000
itize work, and thus optimize operations, talented colleagues and friends who work
Alternatively, we can provide analytics at extend asset life, and reduce life-cycle and think globally and provide technical
the Edge, or simply offer support to an- costs. solutions that span cities, countries, and
alyze offline data with our transformer continents. We connect the world’s largest
experts and define a “health plan.” When To summarize, digitalization is a clear wind farms, bring energy to mass trans-
it comes to deriving actionable insights trend and can unlock a lot of benefits, and portation systems, and protect our biggest
from asset data, there are different op- we will continue to develop and deploy cities from blackouts. Such purposeful in-
tions available to match the specific re- the TXpertTM ecosystem to support our novation fuels our purpose of advancing a
quirements of our customers. customers’ digitalization journey. sustainable energy future for all.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 17
TECHNOLOGY

Shunt reactors
for future grid
Enhancing grid reliability
18 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024
 Advertorial

One of the critical challenges facing modern grid operators is the

management of voltage stability and reactive power flow, especially
as grids become more interconnected and variable renewable energy
sources integrated at scale

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 19
TECHNOLOGY

Shunt reactors, manufactured by industry pose to a power system, helping to dispel

grid integration myths and mispercep-
leaders like BEST Transformer, are passive tions that inhibit large-scale deployment
devices that are strategically placed along [3]. To bolster grid reliability, utilities
increasingly turn to advanced grid tech-
transmission lines to absorb excess reac­ nologies, including shunt reactors, to op-
timize voltage levels and mitigate the risk
tive power and stabilize grid voltage levels of voltage instability.

I
Shunt reactors, manufactured by indus-
n the dynamic landscape of global integrated at scale. According to a guide- try leaders like BEST Transformer (www.
energy, investments in transmission book for practitioners by the National besttransformer.com/en), are passive de-
infrastructure play a pivotal role in en- Renewable Energy Laboratory [2], these vices that are strategically placed along
suring the reliability and efficiency of issues are organized into four broad top- transmission lines to absorb excess re-
electricity grids. As highlighted in the re- ics: new renewable energy generation, active power and stabilize grid voltage
cent “World Energy Investment 2023” re- new transmission, increased system flex- levels. If there is excessive reactive power,
port by the International Energy Agency ibility, and grid integration of renewable the voltage will increase in the system,
(IEA), new transmission line investments energy. When considering grid integra- and if there is a lack of reactive power, the
are gaining momentum worldwide, driv- tion, policymakers, regulators, and sys- voltage will decrease. Shunt reactors are
en by the need to integrate renewable en- tem operators consider various factors, the most used device for reactive power
ergy sources, enhance grid resilience, and such as uncertainty, variability, balancing compensation. To absorb reactive pow-
meet growing electricity demand [1]. area, capacity value, flexibility, demand er, reactors can be directly connected to
response, and storage. Grid integration the power line or a tertiary winding of a
One of the critical challenges facing mod- studies examined the challenges and three-winding transformer [4]. Shunt re-
ern grid operators is the management of potential solutions for integrating signif- actors can be permanently connected or
voltage stability and reactive power flow, icant variable renewable energy genera- switched via a circuit breaker. They can
especially as grids become more inter- tion in the electricity grid. These studies also have a variable rating to improve
connected and variable renewable ener- illuminate the obstacles and opportuni- the adjustment of the consumed reactive
gy sources like solar and wind power are ties that wind and solar integration could power – called Variable Shunt Reactors

Figure 1. Grid stability is a challenging topic of today and the future

20 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Figure 2. Testing a reactor is another challenging topic for manufacturers. Linearity tests require AC voltages up to 800 kV

Shunt reactors offer several benefits to grid operators and utilities, such
as enhanced grid efficiency, increased renewable energy integration
ability, as well as grid resilience, and reliability

(VSR). Using shunt reactors in compen- ment in grid infrastructure, driven by ity by dynamically regulating reactive
sation panels offers several advantages, various factors, including modernizing power flow [5].
including improving the power factor, aging grids, accommodating the inte-
reducing energy consumption, prevent- gration of renewable energy sources, Increased Renewable Energy Integra-
ing energy losses, reducing voltage fluc- and bolstering overall system reliability. tion: As renewable energy penetration
tuations, and enhancing energy quality. A pivotal driver of this investment trend continues to rise, shunt reactors play a
The VSR has become well established, is the widespread adoption of smart grid critical role in supporting the integration
and several are in successful operation technologies, encompassing advanced of variable renewable energy sources into
in Türkiye, Europe, and North America. metering infrastructure, distribution the grid. Shunt reactors enable smoother
By injecting capacitive reactive power automation, and grid monitoring sys- and more reliable grid operations by sta-
into the system when voltage levels are tems. Shunt reactors help the grid with bilizing voltage levels and mitigating the
low and absorbing reactive power when this renovation. By optimizing voltage impact of intermittent generation.
voltage levels are high, shunt reactors levels and reducing line losses, shunt
help maintain grid stability and prevent reactors contribute to overall grid effi- Grid Resilience and Reliability: In an
voltage fluctuations. ciency, allowing utilities to deliver elec- era of increasing climate-related disrup-
tricity more reliably and cost-effectively tions and extreme weather events, grid
In addition to improving voltage stabili- to consumers [1]. Shunt reactors are in- resilience is paramount. Shunt reactors
ty, shunt reactors offer several other ben- tegral components of smart grid equip- help improve grid resilience by main-
efits to grid operators and utilities: ment such as Static VAR Compensa- taining voltage stability and minimizing
tors (SVCs) and Static Synchronous the risk of voltage collapse during distur-
Enhanced Grid Efficiency: Central to Compensators (STATCOMs), which bances, ensuring uninterrupted power
this imperative is the escalating invest- enhance grid stability and power qual- supply to end-users. Some risks, such as

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 21
TECHNOLOGY

As utilities worldwide invest in modernizing their transmission infra­

structure to meet the evolving demands of the energy transition, the
importance of shunt reactors in enhancing grid reliability cannot be
overstated

voltage Instability, equipment overload- in potential damage. Transformers are Loss of transmission capacity is another
ing, transmission capacity loss, and volt- particularly vulnerable to overloading consequence of reactive power imbal-
age collapse, could damage the grid and with reactive power. When a transformer ance, as it reduces the ability of power
cause blackouts. is subjected to excessive reactive power, lines to carry active power efficiently.
it experiences increased heating due to Reduced capacity can lead to congestion
Voltage instability occurs when rapid the flow of reactive currents through its on transmission corridors and limit the
and significant voltage-level fluctuations windings. These overloads can lead to in- electricity transmitted from generation
occur across the grid. Reactive power sulation degradation, accelerated aging, sources to consumers. In severe cases,
imbalance can cause voltage fluctua- and, ultimately, failure of the transformer. voltage collapse can occur, causing wide-
tions and instability in the grid, leading Overloading with reactive power can spread blackouts and system-wide fail-
to voltage sags or swells that can dam- also cause thermal and mechanical stress ures that can have significant economic
age sensitive equipment such as motors, on other transformer components, such and social impacts [8].
transformers, and control systems and as the core and cooling system, further
disrupt operations [6]. increasing the risk of failure. Capacitors, In severe cases, reactive power imbal-
commonly used for reactive power com- ance can result in voltage collapse, where
Overloading any equipment with reac- pensation in power systems, can also be voltage levels across the grid drop signifi-
tive power occurs when there is an ex- overloaded if they cannot handle the ex- cantly, causing widespread blackouts and
cessive demand or generation of reactive cess reactive power demand. Overload- system-wide failures [8].
power in the grid, leading to increased ing the capacitors can cause overheating,
stress and strain on various components loss of capacitance, and even rupture or As utilities worldwide invest in modern-
of the electrical infrastructure. Reac- explosion in extreme cases. Other equip- izing their transmission infrastructure to
tive power is necessary for maintaining ment, such as circuit breakers, switches, meet the evolving demands of the energy
voltage levels within acceptable limits in and busbars, may also experience in- transition, the importance of shunt reac-
alternating current (AC) power systems, creased thermal stress and mechanical tors in enhancing grid reliability cannot
but when there is an imbalance between wear when subjected to excessive reac- be overstated. With their proven track re-
reactive power demand and generation, tive power flows, reducing reliability and cord of performance and reliability, BEST
equipment can be overloaded, resulting potential failure [7]. Transformer’s shunt reactors are trusted

Figure 3. World record silent reactor: Silentformer™

22 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

by utilities worldwide to optimize grid
operations and ensure reliable electricity
BEST Transformer’s test laboratory, a state-
supply to communities and industries. of-the-art facility and the first and biggest
As an expert in tailor-made products,
HV transformer test laboratory in Türkiye
BEST Transformer is the first choice in can do such tests up to 800 kV AC levels
reactor procurement. Some key refer-
ences for reactors are as follows:

• Our 525 kV level reactors have been Utilities can pave the way for a more [4] E. Csanyi, “Shunt Reactor Funda-
in operation for nearly ten years, resilient, efficient, and sustainable en- mentals: Connections in the Substa-
balancing reactive power up to 180 ergy future by leveraging cutting-edge tion, Switching and Protection Practice,”
MVAr. technologies like shunt reactors and www.electrical-engineering-portal.com,
• Monophase reactors are usually pre- making strategic investments in trans- May 20, 2022. https://electrical-engi-
ferred because they are easier to back mission infrastructure. As we navigate neering-portal.com/shunt-reactor-sub-
up with a single monophase unit in- the complexities of the energy transition, station-connections-switching-protec-
stead of a complete 3-phase one. Also, partnerships between utilities, manufac- tion (accessed Feb. 16, 2024)
they are space-saving in some cases. turers, and technology providers will be
• BEST Transformer has been deliver- crucial in driving innovation and shap- [5] S. Borlase, Smart Grids: Advanced
ing reactors to the EU since 2011. ing the grid of tomorrow. Technologies and Solutions. Boca Raton:
• Our world-record most silent reactor Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017
has created its brand as Silentform-
References
er™; please see further details: Silent- [6] P Kundur, N. J. Balu, and M. G. Lau-
Former | BEST Transformer [1] IEA, “Overview and key findings – by, Power system stability and control.
• The total power of produced units World Energy Investment 2023 – Anal- New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994
sums up to 20 GVAr! ysis,” IEA, 2023. https://prod.iea.org/
• More than 200 units delivered to 4 reports/world-energy-investment-2023/ [7] T. A. Short, Electric power distribu-
continents. overview-and-key-findings (accessed tion handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press,
• Our physically largest reactor was Feb. 16, 2024). Taylor & Francis Group, 2014
a magnetically controlled shunt re-
actor; further information at BEST [2] J. Katz and I. Chernyakhovskiy, “Vari- [8] Turan Gonen, Electrical Power
Transformer Delivers its Largest able renewable energy grid integration Transmission System Engineering. CRC
Magnetically Controlled Shunt Re- studies: a guidebook for practitioners,” Press, 2011
actor | BEST Transformer. We pub- Jan. 2020. Accessed: Feb. 16, 2024. [On-
lished many articles on this topic, too. line]. Available: https://www.nrel.gov/ [9] R. H. Miller and J. H. Malinowski,
docs/fy20osti/72143.pdf Power system operation. New York: Mc-
Testing these reactors, particularly the Graw-Hill, 1994
linearity test, is essential to ensure their [3] J. Katz and J. Cochran, “Integrating
reliable and efficient operation. The variable renewable energy into the grid: [10] IEEE, IEEE Standard for Require-
linearity test assesses the reactor’s per- key issues greening the grid integration ments, Terminology, and Test Code for
formance across various operating con- terminology,” May 2015. Accessed: Feb. Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected
ditions to verify its ability to provide 16, 2024. [Online]. Available: https:// Reactors. 2011
consistent reactive power compensation. greeningthegrid.org/resources/fact-
BEST Transformer’s test laboratory, a sheets/integrating-variable-renew- [11] IEC, Power transformers - Part 6:
state-of-the-art facility and the first and able-energy-into-the-grid-key-issues Reactors. 2007
biggest HV transformer test laboratory
in Türkiye can do such tests up to 800 kV
AC levels. This test involves subjecting
the reactor to varying voltage and cur- Author
rent levels, measuring its reactive power Ahmet Kerem Köseoğlu completed bachelor and masters
output, and evaluating its response char- in science at İstanbul Technical University (ITU) Turkey
acteristics. By confirming the reactor’s
in 2009 and 2017, started PhD education in engineering
linearity, utilities can ensure it meets per-
formance requirements and operates ef- at Cantabria University in 2021. Since 2011; working in
fectively under different load conditions. Best Transformers, worked as power transformer design
Comprehensive testing procedures, engineer. He was assigned as R&D Manager in 2016, and
including linearity tests, help identify MARCOM manager in 2022 still working for BEST. He
potential issues early on and ensure the is a vice president and board member in Cigre Turkey National Committee,
optimal performance of shunt reactors member of A2, NGN and some study groups in international committees,
in power systems [10-11].
Head of Cigre NGN National Committee.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 23
COLUMN

Data dilemma
ABSTRACT rule (Assume nothing, Believe nobody, Check everything)
eventually solved the problem.
The transformer under investigation was the Federal
Pioneer 230/72kV, 83 MVA autotransformer unit, which
was one of two ‘merchant’ units serving an internation-
KEYWORDS:
al tie-line. The SFRA tests were performed, and the re- SFRA, ABC rule, problem-solving, on-site measurement,
sults were inconsistent. Careful application of the ABC windings

24 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 1

2 | 2024
 Tony McGRAIL

What do we do when one

test says there seems to be
no mechanical deformation
in a transformer, and another
says there definitely is?

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 25
COLUMN

The transformer under investigation was transformer was carefully cleaned, flushed
with hot oil, and inspected after the event.
the Federal Pioneer 230/72kV, 83 MVA au­
totransformer unit, which was one of two The X1 and X2 bushings were removed,
tested and returned to service, and the X3
‘merchant’ units serving an international bushing was replaced. A 3 cm bulge was
tie-line observed in the main tank, a bulge which
had not previously been noted. With
concern for the mechanical integrity of
the unit, several electrical tests were per-
Overview The case formed, including:
What do we do when one test says there A transmission autotransformer that had
seems to be no mechanical deformation previously seen a number of faults and • Bushing C1/C2 power factor and ca-
in a transformer, and another says there animal intrusions suffered an LV bushing pacitance measurements
definitely is? What follows is but a brief failure, as shown in Figure 1. The Federal • Winding power factor and capacitance
outline of a case which was both a chal- Pioneer 230/72kV, 83 MVA autotrans- measurements, as per Table 1
lenging puzzle in ‘real time’ and an oppor- former unit was one of two ‘merchant’ • HV Single phase excitation
tunity to learn. units serving an international tie-line. The • DC winding resistance
• Turns ratio

All results were acceptable and gave no

cause for concern.

In addition, both Leakage Reactance (LR)

and Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
(SFRA) were performed for the first time
on the unit in the hope that any mechan-
ical movement within the unit would be
reflected in the results. It was not known
when the bulge had appeared in the tank,
and it may have been there from ‘day 1’.

SFRA results for each winding/phase

showed no significant variation from ex-
pected, with H-X shown in Figure 2; in
addition, the short circuit SFRA results
were also as expected.

The LR results for single phase measure-

Figure 1. Transformer during test activities ments from H to L were as expected and

Table 1. Overall power factor and capacitance measurements

Measurement mA Watts Power Factor % Capacitance pF

CH +CHT 56.174 2.036 14,900.5

CH 26.950 0.894 0.32 7,148.7

CHT (UST) 29.217 1.140 0.38 7,749.9

CHT 29.224 1.142 0.38 7751.8

CT + CHT 84.306 4.017 22,362.6

CT 55.087 2.872 0.5 14,611.7

CHT (UST) 29.217 1.143 0.38 7,749.8

CHT 29.219 1.145 0.38 7,750.9

26 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

acceptable. However, the H to T results
were strongly indicative of a severe prob-
lem either on the H1 phase or on both the
H2 and H3 phases. Given that it was the
X3 bushing which failed, there was some
surprise that the H1 phase seemed ‘differ-
ent’. In addition, the resistive element of the
results looked high for H2 and H3 but only
with reference to the tertiary, not the LV.

The results were unexpected: consistently

good across tests performed previously;
no significant indications of a problem
from SFRA; significant indications of a
problem with LR. At this, I recall the ad-
vice of my colleague Dr. Mark Lachman, Figure 2. SFRA results for H-X windings
a transformer test expert who said: “Many
obviously poor test results will be correct-
ed if you pack all of the test equipment The Leakage Reactance results of the H to
away, and then get it out again and repeat
the test”. So, we did exactly that, and on
T were strongly indicative of a severe prob­
repeating the LR tests, the results did not lem either on the H1 phase or on both the
vary from the initial results, and nor did
variations on the LR test at other voltages
H2 and H3 phases
and test arrangements. The SFRA results
did not change either – everything for maining transformer may also fail – it has damage and the transformer does not
both SFRA and all other electrical tests the same bushings and the same opera- fail catastrophically, taking out the par-
looked acceptable. tional history. allel unit and severing the tie line thus
reducing revenue to zero and the costs
So now what? As it happens, the situation At which point we get to the dilemma… of replacement and clean-up
is already causing sleepless nights for the we really have two choices: ii) extend the outage for further investi-
engineers and technicians involved as the gation and internal inspection to try
tie line is an important source of revenue i) put the unit back in service with the to find any likely causes for the test
generation, and there is a fear that the re- hope that there really is no mechanical results.

Many obviously poor test results will be corrected if you pack all of the
test equipment away, and then get it out again and repeat the test

Table 2. Leakage Reactance Measurements

Leakage Reactance Per Phase H-L

Inductance Resistance Impedance Resistance

Phase Voltage Current Watts PF
Henry Ohms Ohms Ohms

H1-H0 234.0 3.517 29.774 3.618 0.176 2.407 66.487 66.443

H2-H0 235.0 3.507 29.639 3.596 0.178 2.409 66.981 66.937

H3-H0 240.0 3.547 27.629 3.245 0.179 2.196 67.630 67.595

Leakage Reactance Per Phase H-T

Inductance Resistance Impedance Resistance

Phase Voltage Current Watts PF
Henry Ohms Ohms Ohms

H1-H0 211.0 2.038 16.947 3.941 0.275 4.080 103.679 103.599

H2-H0 245.0 1.999 101.494 20.718 0.318 25.386 122.407 119.746

H3-H0 249.0 2.041 104.601 20.582 0.317 25.109 122.284 119.679

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 27
 COLUMN

The choice made was to extend the outage: Conclusion

accept the test results as ‘inconsistent’ and The key learning point I took away from
the event was a reminder that everything
‘unexplained’ and perform a more detailed between the test lead attachments to the
test object is part of the measurement: in
internal inspection this case, the LR measurement is not just
‘looking’ at the leakage flux but is also
looking at anything connected to the
What would you do? moved, the transformer was successfully windings such as the CTs. And, of course,
returned to service later that day. There the use of ABC can pay dividends.
I’m sure some readers will be as mystified was no definitive data to connect the
as we were on site at the time. And I’m bulge in the main tank to the bushing fail-
Acknowledgement
sure some readers will already have an ure, and as the bulge may well have been
idea what they might do, or would do, and there for many years, it was left as an un- With thanks to Dr. Mark Lachman and
why, but in ‘real time’ under strong opera- solved mystery. Richard Aguilar.
tional pressure, we have to be sure to make
a rational decision which we can later jus-
tify. The choice made was to extend the
outage: accept the test results as ‘incon-
sistent’ and ‘unexplained’ and perform a
more detailed internal inspection.

We also started to look more deeply, not

just at the results of the tests but also at how
those tests were made and what is included
in the ‘test object’. What is there about the
tertiary which might make it ‘different’?
Nothing obvious, we were thinking, as we
looked at the nameplate, Figure 3.

Then, either in a mo­

ment of clutching at
straws or a moment of
inspiration, a question
came to mind: what if
the CTs aren’t shorted?

Then, either in a moment of clutching at

straws or a moment of inspiration, a ques-
tion came to mind: what if the CTs aren’t
shorted? I checked with the site team, and Figure 3. Transformer nameplate detail
they noted that all were shorted several
years ago when the transformer was in-
stalled, commissioned and put into opera- Author
tion. And that was when I had an ABC mo-
ment… Assume nothing, Believe nobody, Dr. Tony McGrail is the Doble Engineering Solutions
Check everything; and I asked for them to Director for Asset Management and Monitoring Tech-
be checked. At that time, the site team in- nology. He has several years of experience as a utility sub-
formed me almost immediately that two of station technical specialist in the UK, focusing on power
the tertiary CTs had been left unshortened,
which placed a differential burden on those transformer tests and assessments, and as a T&D substa-
phases and different LR results. tion asset manager in the USA, focusing on system reli-
ability and performance. Tony is a Fellow of the IET and a
At this point, the LR kit was, once again, Member of IEEE, CIGRE, IAM and ASTM. He has a degree in Physics with a
taken out and applied, and all results fell
neatly into line! With the dilemma re- subsequent PhD in Applications of AI to Insulation Assessment.

28 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

DIAGNOSTICS

Data-driven predictive
maintenance of
transformers

Introducing eDOC:
oil diagnostics device for smart transformers

30 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Advertorial

Just like proactive and regular healthcare for humans, proactive and
predictive maintenance is fundamental for improved life quality and
significantly increased transformer lifespan

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 31
DIAGNOSTICS

By identifying and preventing premature transformer failures through

monitoring, you can ensure business continuity and significantly
reduce operational costs

T
ransformers are essential as- retrofit for existing installations, monitor- Transformer monitoring has the po-
sets in power grids, industrial ing is the ideal solution to keep your assets tential to deliver*:
plants, data centers, and oth- under control.
er consumer sites. They are • 75% reduction in repair costs due to
designed to last for 30 – 40 years, but Investing in transformer monitoring can early detection
numerous factors, such as overloading, be a significant change for your business. • 60% reduction in revenue loss due
overheating, moisture, dissolved gases, It gives you the power to track the health to unanticipated problems or outages
and several others can cause them to of your assets in real time, providing you • 50% reduction in risk of cata-
age prematurely and fail. with immediate information about any strophic failures
potential issues. • up to 2% annual cost savings of the
Just like proactive and regular health- price of a new transformer
care for humans, proactive and pre- When transformers fail prematurely, the
dictive maintenance is fundamental cost of damage can far exceed the cost of *CIGRE, Technical Brochure 248
for improved life quality and signifi- replacement.
cantly increased transformer lifespan. Predictive maintenance is a significant
By identifying and preventing premature change in asset management. By regularly
We highly recommend you make deci- transformer failures through monitor- collecting and evaluating data, you can de-
sions on transformer healthcare based on ing, you can ensure business continui- termine which transformer is most likely
relevant data analysis, which consists of ty and significantly reduce operation- to fail soon. This approach empowers the
monitoring, testing, and consulting ser- al costs. end-user to schedule proper maintenance
vices. A digital transformation journey or replacement of the asset and ensure it is
moves from a process-defined world to a Real cases with a substantial impact still in the best condition, leading to sig-
data-driven world. on people and industry: nificant cost savings and increased power
reliability.
Transformer monitoring is vital be- • A transformer fault in Paris in De-
cause it helps to prevent failures, extend cember 2022 caused a blackout for
the lifespan of the assets, and reduce op- 65,000 households.
erational and maintenance costs. You can • Two transformer failures in Novem- As part of our MeDICA
avoid costly downtime and keep oper-
ations running smoothly. Whether you
ber 2022 at a Houston water puri-
fication plant affected two million
ecosystem, eDAC can
need a solution for new applications or a customers. collect data remotely
from various sensors
installed on the
transformer, including
COMEM eDevices and
third-party sensors,
through an integrated
4G module.

Say goodbye to guesswork and hello

to accurate, real-time insights with
eDAC.

For cost-effective predictive maintenance,

it is crucial to continuously integrate data
about the asset health collected from
transformer monitoring systems that use
multiple sensors.

32 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

The MeDICA web interface is straightforward to use and enhances your
digital experiences, making tasks simpler, navigation more intuitive,
and accessibility to virtual information seamless

eDAC, our latest data aggregator, is a de- imum current that the transformer can ensures the best efficiency, reducing
vice designed to collect and process data safely carry without overheating or caus- energy waste and costs.
from multiple sources. It presents the data ing damage or failure. • Extending asset lifespan: Overload-
in a unified view of what is happening in- ing can cause gradual insulation deteri-
side the transformer. Overloading can lead to a significant oration and lead to damage and costly
reduction in performance and efficiency repairs.
As part of our MeDICA ecosystem, it can and may even cause damage or failure.
collect data remotely from various sen- Prevention is better than cure.
sors installed on the transformer, includ- Monitoring transformer loading is essen-
ing COMEM eDevices and third-party tial for several reasons, including: Transformer monitoring can help to pre-
sensors, through an integrated 4G mod- dict faults early, allowing for timely main-
ule. • Ensuring safety: Overloaded or tenance and repair.
underloaded transformers can pose
Suppose you need to gather information a safety risk, potentially leading to With our eDAC, you can collect data
about the partial discharge in the trans- equipment damage or failure. from your installed monitoring sensors
former bushings and detect faults early, • Maximizing efficiency: Using a and measurement and safety electronic
diagnose them, and take corrective action transformer within its rated capacity devices remotely or on-site.
to ensure the smooth operation of your
transformer. In that case, we can connect
the bushing monitoring system to our ag-
gregator.

You can also use eDAC to monitor

the thermal model and overloading,
two other critical aspects that the end-user
should address to have a more compre-
hensive understanding of its asset health.

Thermal modeling is used to determine

the rise of hot spot temperature, which is
the maximum temperature occurring in
the winding insulation system.

In summary, it can help to:

• Determine the overall condition of the

transformer.
• Predict the gradual deterioration of in-
sulation.
• Avoid further damage to the trans-
former oil.
• Avoid costly repair downtime.

When a transformer is overloaded, its

current exceeds its rated capacity. The rat-
ed capacity is defined by the transformer
manufacturer and represents the max-

If you could predict the future, you might be able to plan better, make
your maintenance plan more effective, and avoid transformer failure
that could affect your business
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 33
DIAGNOSTICS

COMEM can work with you and develop a proper transformer

maintenance plan based on data-driven preventive and predictive
maintenance in order to increase the asset lifespan and optimize your
maintenance cost

To access the data flow, we developed the The MeDICA web interface is straight- Predictive maintenance
MeDICA web interface. It allows you to forward to use and enhances your dig-
control all settled sensors remotely. ital experience, making tasks simpler, If you could predict the future, you might be
navigation more intuitive, and accessi- able to plan better, make your maintenance
You can access the web interface from bility to virtual information seamless. plan more effective, and avoid transformer
your computer, smartphone, or tablet and failure that could affect your business.
get a quick overview of the asset’s health • You will not miss any alarm due to con-
status. tinuous remote monitoring.
Choose the right solution for
• You will get a medical record of your
A user-friendly interface is essential transformer in just one click. your transformer
in order to display all the data in an • You do not need any expertise to work If you need a reliable Data Aggrega-
easy-to-read and easy-to-interpret way. with the collected data. tor, choose eDAC, connect it to your

34 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 By signing a Service Agreement with
COMEM, you will receive as part of the
plan:

• A set of required sensors.

• Installation and commissioning.
• Web interface for remote access and
monitoring of your equipment.
• Warranty for the period of the agree-
ment and original spare parts.
• Dedicated assistance during the entire
period of the agreement.
• Data collection and interpretation by
our experts.

If you are interested, contact us, and our

team of experts will help you with consul-
tancy, pre-sales, and after-sales support,
from data collection to data interpreta-
tion, analytics, diagnostics, and cure pre-
scription.

Choose MeDICA and get a complete

customer solution that includes
products and services that can
enable a longer and more efficient
transformer life cycle.

installed monitoring devices, and Should you need any help in building
direct the data flow into one reliable your maintenance strategy, our service
data collection system. This system experts can support you with:
fully integrates with your transformer Monitoring Ecosystem
protection and control systems and • Data collection and integration – from for transformer Diagnostics
helps you with proper data elabora- online monitoring and offline testing with Integrated Customer
tion. • Data evaluation – to better predict and
forecast the asset health status in the future. services & Analytics
Alternatively, you can choose • Reports generation & action recom-
MeDICA and build a personalized mendations
monitoring ecosystem to unlock the
full potential of digitizing your trans- Decide if you want to buy or rent
former. MeDICA is a modular solution
that can meet specific customer needs Are you unsure whether to buy or rent? At
that vary over time. The solution in- COMEM, we are here to provide you with
cludes hardware, such as safety mon- guidance and support. We can work with
itoring devices, sensors, DGA analyz- you and develop a proper transformer
ers, a data aggregator, and services. You maintenance plan based on data-driven
can also connect third-party devices preventive and predictive maintenance Contact us & get support with
to MeDICA, making it a versatile and in order to increase the asset lifespan and the product selection:
flexible solution. optimize your maintenance cost. [email protected]

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 35
COLUMN

Books on power
transformers in English
- Part 2
1903 lation with secondary loading. Chapter 5
ABSTRACT discusses the efficiency of full load and part
In this second part of the column Frank George Baum (1870-1932), loads. Since the core losses of 5 number 1
about the books on power trans-
The Alternating Current Transformer, kV transformers were 3.5x5=17.5% against
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New 2.25% for a 5 kV rating, utilities preferred
formers, we explore two books from
York, 195 pages, 1903, available at https:// larger rated units due to the lower % of loss-
the early 1900s. Those are The Al-
books.google.com.ua/books/about/The_ es in the transformer.
ternating Current Transformer by Alternating_Current_Transformer.htm-
Frank George Baum, published in l?id=ifBOAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y
1903, and Transformer Practice,
Manufacture, Assembling, Con- The book is based on the lectures from Prof
nections, Operation and Testing by Baum at Stanford University, USA, for a
William T. Taylor, published in 1909. course on transformers. Chapters 1 and 2
These exciting books are a testa- are introductory chapters covering elemen-
ment to the historical development tary principles and transformer vector di-
of transformer technology.
agrams. Transformer parameters like mag-
netic induction, magnetomotive force, the
strength of the magnetic field, and induced
KEYWORDS emf are explained with the connecting for-
mulae derived. Chapter 3 covers a graph-
books, literature, early 1900s, effi-
ical representation of pressure relations
ciency, testing, manufacturing, in-
(the term used those days for voltage) for
sulation, technology
transformers, i.e., a vector diagram. Chap-
ter 4 derives the formula for voltage regu-

36 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 P. RAMACHANDRAN, Vitaly GURIN

In 1890, a 1/2 kW transformer had a ageing of insulation and iron core The book describes
10 % core loss, which dropped to half
by 1900. Percentage impedance was
sheets.
tests such as the ratio
3-6%. Total losses of small transform- Large transformers were assembled in & polarity, regulation
ers rated 1/2 -20 kW were 6-3 %. This cast iron boxes with oil filling. The ac-
heat was dissipated by natural air cool- tive part was dried to remove moisture (voltage drop at rated
ing, forced air cooling, or water cooling. by applying voltage to one winding. load), core loss and ex­
Temperature rise over the surrounding Large, rated units were oil-filled under
air was kept below 50°C to reduce the a partial vacuum to remove air. citing current, copper
loss, insulation with­
Transformer
Rating kW
Core Loss % of
Rating
Copper Loss % of
Rating
No-load Current
% (max) stand, and tempera­
ture rise at full load
1 3.5 3 7

5 1.5 2.25 3
Chapter 6 covers the testing of trans­
formers. Tests conducted at the factory
were ratio & polarity, regulation (voltage
10 1.4 2 2.8 drop at rated load), core loss and exciting
current, copper loss, insulation withstand,
and temperature rise at full load. The AC
50 - 1.5 -
test voltage for two kV-rated transformers
was 10 kV AC between HV-earth and

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 37
COLUMN

HV-LV insulations and 2.5 kV between ous connections employed for converting 10. Ferranti Transformers, UK
LV-core. The insurance companies insist- two-phase to three-phase power are men- 11. Ganz Co, Hungary
ed on these test voltages for the insulation, tioned, emphasising the superiority of the 12. Elektrizitäts Aktiengesellschaft,
almost ten times the working voltage! connection developed by C.F. Scott for Germany
the Niagara Project.
The systematic design of core and shell-
type transformers, used in the first decade
of the 20th century, is explained in Chap- Chapter 10 lists the sa­
ter 7. The design procedure was almost the
same or similar to the one formulated by
lient features – design
Mr. Gisbert Kapp in his books, published and constructional de­
earlier. A section of the chapter describes
a method to determine the specific loss- tails with photographs,
es (W/kg of hysteresis and eddy losses) of of transformers man­
the annealed iron sheets (14 mils 0.35 mm
thick) used in the manufacture of cores for ufactured in 1900 by
transformers. Some typical design calcula- the leading electrical
tions for shell and core-type transformers
are given. The design of induction coils companies in the US
(shunt reactors) used in HV lines (60 kV
Class transmission line, 150 miles long at
and Europe
60 c/s) is briefly mentioned. These reactors
neutralised 50% of the charging current
in long HV lines. Compensators or econ- Chapter 10 lists the salient features (de- Three-phase transformer
omy coils (also called auto-transformers) sign, constructional details with photo-
were built those days, but mentioned, “as a graphs) of transformers manufactured in 13. Brush Electrical Engineering Co, UK
transformer, this method of construction is 1900 by the leading electrical companies
very inferior in every way to two winding in the US and Europe. An Appendix extracts the rules and re-
transformers.” These were mainly used for quirements of the National Board of Fire
starting large induction motors. 1. The Converse Transformer Compa- Underwriters covering the construction
ny, Pittsburg, Pa, USA – 333 kW 80 and test requirements, installation, loca-
Some types of special transformers of kV water cooled three phase trans- tion, and grounding of low potential (LV)
those days are described in Chapter 8. former circuits.
Circuit regulators (boosters as of now) of 2. General Electric, USA – 800 kW shell
different designs were used – Stillwell reg- type, water-cooled transformer 1909
ulator by Westinghouse and GE – to inde- 3. Moloney Electric Co, St. Louis. Mo,
pendently control the sending end voltage
of individual parallel lines connected to a
USA
4. New York & Ohio Co, Warren, Ohio-
William T Taylor was a
single generator. Constant current trans- Packard Transformers consulting engineer for
formers, series transformers (current
transformers), and compensating voltme-
5. Stanley Electric Company, Pittsfield,
Mass, USA – Ao Transformers
hydroelectric power proj­
ters are also covered. 6. Westinghouse Electric & Mfg Co ects and high-voltage
Pittsburg, Pa
Chapter 9 explains the popular trans- 7. Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft, power transmission who
former connections used at the beginning Germany installed hydroelectric
of the last century. Series-parallel connec- 8. Brown Boveri Co, Switzerland
tion of windings in single phase trans- 9. Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, Switzer- projects in India (Kash­
former was standard to get multi-voltage land mir), Mexico, and South
ratios. In three-phase connections, the
Delta-delta connection was for converter America (Peru)
transformers. The delta-star connection
was standard, “to balance the loads, one
side of the transformer is usually con- William T Taylor, Transformer Prac-
nected in delta, wherever possible” (page tice, Manufacture, Assembling, Con-
137). In an AIEE paper of November 22, nections, Operation and Testing,
1901, W.L.R. Emnet advocated a three- McGraw-Hill Publishing Book Company
phase system in place of single-phase or Inc, New York, 1st edition, 191 pages 1909,
two-phase for AC distribution due to the 2nd edition, 292 pages, 1913, available at
superior aspects of three-phase signifi- https://ia904704.us.archive.org/16/items/
cantly less copper requirement for trans- transformerpract00tayluoft/transformer-
mitting a specific amount of power. Vari- 300 kW three-phase transformer pract00tayluoft.pdf

38 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

In his book, William T Taylor shows a figure with exciting current of 14 A and imped-
ance volts of 1.7 volts. It had 1300 gallons
indicating the growth in the unit rating of of oil. The size of LBH was 110x59x135
inches 30,000 +10,400 lbs.
transformers and the voltage class of trans­
formers until 1913 A 200 kW 57.5 kV 25 cycles, core type,
single phase unit had 96.7% efficiency with
Please find the Introductory chapter of losses of 2.9 +1.75 kW and impedance volts
the book. The author also shows a figure of 1.02 V from the HV side and excitation
indicating the growth in the unit rating current of 10.3 A. The size of LBH was
of transformers and the voltage class of 64x47x103 inches. It had 150 gallons of oil
transformers until 1913. The maximum and a total weight of 10,000 +3000 lbs.
size of the transformer was 15 MVA 145 kV,
and we saw similar sketches in later trans-
former books, articles, and brochures
from manufacturers.

Apart from the fundamentals, the book

had chapters for special transformers
such as auto-transformers, constant cur-
rent transformers, series transformers,
regulators, and six-phase transformers.
The title also covered transformer con-
nections, manufacturing aspects, cool-
ing alternatives, operation, and testing
details. Specifications of several typical
ratings are also given in the last chapter.
A 1000 kW 60 kV 25 cycles, single phase
shell type unit had 97.8% efficiency with
iron and copper losses of 7.3 and 9.6 kW

Authors
P. Ramachandran started his career in transformer in-
dustry in 1966 at TELK, Kerala, a Hitachi Joint venture,
in India. He worked with ABB India during 1999-2020.
He has more than 50 years of experience in the design
and engineering of power products including power
transformers, bushings, and tap-changers. He received
Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering
from the University of Kerala, India, and Master of Business Administration
William Thomas Taylor (1877-1945) Degree from Cochin University, India. He is a Fellow of Institution of Engi-
was from England (Burnley), moved to neers (India), and he represented India in CIGRE Study Committee A2 for
South Africa and later to GE, US, and transformers during 2002 – 2010.
was a Fellow of the Institute of Electri-
cal Engineers. He was a consulting en-
gineer for hydroelectric power projects Vitaly Gurin graduated from Kharkov Polytechnic
and high-voltage power transmission. Institute (1962) and graduate school at the Leningrad
He has installed hydroelectric projects Polytechnic Institute. Candidate of technical sciences in
in India (Kashmir), Mexico, and South the Soviet scientific system (1970). For 30 years he test-
America (Peru). When he was writing ed transformers up to 1.150 kV at ZTZ, including the
the preface to the first edition of this largest one of that time in Europe, and statistically an-
book, he was in Baramulla, Kashmir, In-
alysed the test results. For over 25 years he was the
dia (December 1908), and the preface to
the second edition was written at Chap- Executive Director of Trafoservis Joint-Stock Company in Sofia (the diag-
lanca, Peru (August 1913) as he was ex- nosis, repair and modernisation in the operating conditions of transformers
ecuting projects in those countries. De- 20 – 750 kV). He has authored about 150 publications in Russian and
tails below are from the book’s second Bulgarian, and is the main co-author of GOST 21023.
edition, published in 1913.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 39
TECHNOLOGY

Predict asset performance to enhance reliability, reduce O&M costs,

maximize safety and drive operational efficiency.

Sapient Asset Insights, is an advanced software

application built and supported by Camlin’s team of
asset experts. Designed to maximize investments in
monitoring programs, Sapient Asset Insights guides
users through the entire asset assessment journey,
providing actionable insights and prescriptive actions.
See beyond the surface
We go beyond simply providing visibility into asset
health. With Sapient Asset Insights users can uncover
deeper insights that are not only actionable but also
seamlessly integrate across an organization, enhancing
planning and asset management workflows. Users
can make informed decisions based on real-time data,
leading to optimized asset performance and increased
operational efficiency.

Built by the experts

Built and supported by Camlin’s team of asset experts,
Sapient Asset Insights integrates various data sources and
leverages sophisticated engineering analysis techniques
along with AI/ML analytics to convert raw data into
valuable insights and predict the performance of assets.
By leveraging the experience of the Camlin experts, our
actionable insights and prescriptive analytics are based
on 40+ well-defined failure modes, giving operators the
confidence to make the right decisions.

40 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Advertorial

Asset Health Prescriptive Actions

We combine our deep domain knowledge and Moreover, when faced with extensive data analysis,
engineering expertise to create asset-specific models Sapient Asset Insights provides prescriptive actions based
that can accurately assess the health of assets. By utilizing on asset health to automate and prioritize maintenance
sophisticated algorithms and data analysis techniques, activities. This approach helps organizations streamline
these models can calculate and establish health score their maintenance and lifecycle planning activities by
indexes that provide valuable insights into the condition defining precise action plans.
of assets. This information enables organizations to make
informed decisions, optimizing operational efficiency
and minimizing downtime.

Predictive Analytics Impact of Failure

Sapient Asset Insights leverages data from multiple Additionally, users can configure asset criticality and
sources and harnesses machine learning to predict assess the impact and costs of failure by combining
future asset performance. By analyzing data patterns, probability of failure with asset classes. This user-defined
anomalies, and trends, predictive analytics can help approach allows organizations to proactively address
identify potential issues before they occur, allowing potential risks and optimize asset management strategies.
for proactive maintenance.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 41
TECHNOLOGY

Sapient Asset Insights

enables operators to shift
from reactive to proactive
maintenance strategies,
delivering significant benefits
for energy companies
including;

Optimized capital Minimized financial & Enhanced operational

expenditure & ROI operational risks efficiency
Extending asset lifespan Sapient Optimizing preventive- Consolidated view of asset
Asset Insights enables higher maintenance activities data from multiple sources,
reliability through replacing leveraging condition-based eliminating data inaccuracies
the riskiest assets. maintenance practices. and loss of knowledge.

Reduced risk of Faster decisions, Maximized safety to

catastrophic failure confident actions protect your people
Sapient Asset Insights enables Predictive analytics provide Reduce unknown and useen
asset managers to prioritize actionable analysis and risk with the knowledge to
replacing critical assets to recommendations driving quicker safely operate the grid, while
increase system reliability. and more accurate decision-making. minimizing time spent on site.

Increased network Elevated customer

reliability & performance performance
Sapient Asset Insights enables Sapient Asset Insights
enhanced reliability with the produces increased Network
insights & data for long term reliability  alongside more efficient
scenario planning. customer facing processes.

Figure 2.

42 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Why Camlin Energy?
We know assets.
We know data.
We are the experts...

... this is what differentiates Camlin Energy.

At Camlin Energy we have a dedicated team of
asset and network experts, data scientists, and
technology specialists who collaborate seamlessly
to provide unparalleled results for our customers.
With a wealth of knowledge accumulated over
30 years in asset-intensive sectors, we possess
a deep understanding of your challenges and
business needs.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 43
DIAGNOSTICS

Introducing eDOC:
oil diagnostics device for smart transformers

Innovative solution to
diagnosis and prognosis
of defects and failures in
cast-resin transformers for
sustainable assets and risk
management
44 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024
 Carlo Maria ROGGERO, Vander TUMIATTI, Michela TUMIATTI

Up to 25% of distribution transformers are dry-type machines, but only

10% find applications in the power generation sector

and information about VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) and

ABSTRACT ozone formation (Resin Overheating and Corona Discharge),
Cast-resin transformers represent a small but significant and anomalous vibration insurgence (Mechanical Defect or Failures),
growing portion of the overall transformer market. They are and superficial temperature (Overheating and Overload) have
employed in power distribution and in scenarios where a very been collected since 2017. The aforementioned device could
low fire risk is mandatory. Evaluating operating conditions and sample surrounding air and trap organic molecules in specific
estimating the residual life of transformers helps to provide cartridges to be analyzed by mass spectrometry. Two private
sustainable solutions for Life Cycle Management (LCM) of companies (Power and Steel plants) offered to install devices
electric service, loss prevention, and environmental protection. It on-site for validation. The acquired information was put through
follows that on-site and on-line measurement and assessment data analysis and interpretation processes through an Artificial
are particularly important to anticipate potential service Generative Intelligence (AGI) to spot anomalies and obtain
interruptions, identify accumulated degradation, and schedule trends and forecasting models. Research activities are still
maintenance. Such monitoring activity was performed using ongoing and moving towards an actual industrial application
a diagnostic and prognostic system that provided information (TRL 9), which is forecasted to take place in 2024.
on conditions (pathologies) of cast-resin machines because of
several physicochemical properties. The study dates back to KEYWORDS:
2014, but research is still in progress. The results here presented
refer to an innovative device designed, developed, and patented diagnostics, monitoring system, dry-type cast-resin trans­
in 2018 (TRL 4-6) as the central component of the system. Data formers, measurements, sensors

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 45
 DIAGNOSTICS

An innovative electronic device for on-site extremely important, especially when

failure forecasting can reduce downtime,
and on-line monitoring of cast-resin trans­ direct costs, and indirect losses. Single
spot temperatures and, at times, loads are
formers was designed and constructed already monitored with probes connected
after four years of lab tests in 2017 directly to a machine; partial dis­charges
are occasionally measured in offline
mode. However, if more data, proper-
ties, and information could be collected
Introduction designed to identify thermal faults and and statistically analyzed, the average life
functional and environmental issues. span could be inferred (according to IEC
Transformers can be classified by power, Most analytical techniques on oil samples 60076-12). Environmental conditions,
voltage, and insulation type according are performed in specialized laboratories. maintenance levels, and usage intensity
to the application. Mineral oil is the pre- A limited number of on-site and on-line must be included and weighted (accord-
ferred insulation medium [1]. Other ma- analytical methods are also available, ing to IEC 60076-11).
terials are epoxy resins and polyurethane, principally DGA (Dissolved Gas Analy-
which are employed to manufacture dry- sis). However, on-site analysis of cast-resin Consequently, an effective and substantial
type transformers and related equipment. transformers is not easily realized due to improvement to the existing situation can
In general, up to 25% of distribution the impossibility of sampling parts and be achieved through the development of
transformers are dry-type machines, but components. Standards and test methods an integrated device that is able to moni-
only 10% find applications in the power for cast-resin transformers are few and tor the different properties and behaviors
generation sector (Global Market of Dry- deal mainly with installation and usage of electrical machines simultaneously.
type Transformers 2015 [2]). A dry trans- conditions. Volatile organic compounds, vibrations,
former is estimated to have a 20-year life sound, and surface temperatures may be
span, as stated in IEC 60076-12 [3], with In cast-resin transformers, the windings continuously monitored. As a result, dif-
a failure rate of up to 5% (for instance, in consist of layers of conducting foils (alu- ferent interconnected physicochemical
wind farms where stress factors are signif- minum or copper) intertwined with insu- profiles can be determined. This provides
icant) [4][5]. lation (polyester films) and bonded with a a foundation for a strong diagnostic and
blend of inorganic fillers (silica) and resin prognostic tool to forecast a transform-
Errors in design, construction, or installa- (mainly epoxy) cross-linked with suitable er’s residual life, included in a broader
tion may cause early life failures. Degra- compounds. Strong or prolonged elec- sce­nario of sustainable solutions for Life
dation of materials (thermal and electric) tric and thermal phenomena can cause Cycle Management (LCM) of electric
can be responsible for breakdown after physicochemical damage to transformer service, damage prevention, and environ-
several hours of service. components and structures [6]. Thermal mental protection.
stress can induce degradation of poly-
Compared to oil-filled transformers, dry- meric structures (even detectable by a
Experimental setup
type (cast-resin) transformers have ad- human nose if in sufficient amount) and
vantages like fireproofing, low cost, and partial discharge. For some transform- An innovative electronic device for on-
limited maintenance requirements. Dry- ers, this may promote material decay [7]. site and on-line monitoring of cast-resin
type transformers also have disadvantages, Heating polymers leads to the breakdown transformers was designed and construct-
such as no easy access for inspection of of their macromolecules. This reduces ed after four years of lab tests in 2017. It is
components’ physicochemical properties. chain length and releases smaller volatile equipped with several sensors selected to
or semi-volatile compounds. monitor properties or events as indicators
The mineral-insulating oil family is en- of existing or incipient issues (see Table 1).
dowed with technical standards and Accordingly, on-line and on-site moni- The OMD (On-line/On-site Monitoring
analytical methods (IEC and ASTM) toring of electrical transformers becomes Device) has a technology readiness level

Table 1. List of properties, events, and problems associated with cast-resin transformers.

Investigated property or event Potential problem Profile

Formation of volatile organic compounds thermal and electric degradation of

Temperature, Degradation
(VOCs) polymeric parts

Relative humidity, ambient temperature,

influence of environmental conditions External factors
pollution

Superficial temperature of the electrical

intensity of load Operative
machine

Sound and vibration presence of defects Operative, Vibration

­
46 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024
of 4-6 (technology validated in relevant Detection of VOCs was performed
environment) [8] and was patented [9].
This work must be regarded as the be- with a cluster of eight metal-oxide
ginning of a journey across the margin-
ally explored territory of cast-resin trans-
solid-state sensors (MOS) consistent in
formers toward the final goal of achieving each installed OMD device
a predictive diagnostic and prognostic
tool for transformer pathologies. Our first
relevant results from the 2018-2020 peri-
od are presented here. r­eveal the chemical nature of their sen- varying distances and orientations (out-
sors. Bibliographic and commercial in- side the trans­former’s room as well). At
Table 1 lists the investigated properties and formation reveals that said oxides have the same time, an air sampling system
associated problems. To each property- been mainly studied and employed for was included to trap organic molecules
problem pair, a characterizing profile almost 60 years [11] to detect the pres- possibly derived from the degradation of
is associated. For instance, in the case ence of small molecules for air quality resin or other polymeric parts. For each
of temperature monitoring (overheat- and safety control, yet they seem to be four-month period since the beginning,
ing), we mention a Temperature Profile, sensitive to larger and more complex cartridges from inside this last apparatus
which can be linked to an Operative Pro- molecules as well [12]. These MOS sen- underwent ultrasound-mediated ex-
file; when considering ambient tempera- sors (purchased from Figaro Sensors traction with spectroscopy-grade tolu-
ture, humidity, and pollution, we refer to and Synkera) were placed right above the ene (purchased from Thermo Scientific
an External-Factors Profile. If vibration transformer phases and at other points at Chemicals) and subsequent GC-MS/MS
and sound are taken into account, both
a Vibration Profile (mechanical stress)
and an Operative Profile are involved. Fi-
nally, the formation of organic molecules
and other compounds like ozone define a
Degradation Profile. The term Operative
can be employed whenever all proper-
ties and phenomena associated with the
working conditions are covered.

Different adaptive approaches were fol-

lowed in order to obtain meaningful re-
sults. Eight OMD devices were installed
in nine different three-phase transform-
ers. Power ranged from 2MVA to 5MVA.
Primary and secondary circuits were sep-
arated. Devices were normally installed
on the side opposite low-voltage cables,
which are subjected to higher current
flow (thus higher heat formation since
power loss is proportional to the square
of current). The OMDs were placed in a
transformer’s room at a suitable distance.
The sensors were mounted in the most
convenient position: some on devices,
others close to the electrical machine.
Additionally, Background Evaluation De-
tectors (BED) were employed for evalua-
tion and interference compensation. The
schematic experimental setup is displayed
in Fig. 1.

Detection of VOCs was performed with

a cluster of eight metal-oxide solid-state
sensors (MOS) consistent in each in-
stalled OMD device. They were selected
from the market and shaped around dif-
ferent metal oxide semiconductors, like
zinc oxide (ZnO) and tin oxide (SnO2)
[10]. Unfortunately, producers seldom Fig. 1. The experimental setup.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 47
 DIAGNOSTICS

Eight OMD devices were installed and oper­ (Gas Chromatography coupled with
Triple Quadruple Mass Spectrometry)
ated for several months (up to 24) in two in­ analysis (Thermo Fisher TSQ 8000 evo).
A 768-pixel thermal camera (purchased
dustrial facilities: a steel plant and a power from Melexis) was also attached. Ambient
plant located in the north of Italy relative humidity and temperature were
measured with another MOS (Purchased
from IST), acoustic frequencies were re-
corded with a cardioid microphone (pur-
chased from Boya), and vibration was in-
vestigated with a single-axis piezo-ceramic
crystal (purchased from TE connectiv-
ity) screwed in the lower part of trans-
formers (on the lower frame girder).
Eventually, the formation of ozone was
also investigated (sensor purchased from
SpecSensors). Ozone is not included
among VOCs but can be detected using
MOS sensors.

Eight OMD devices were installed and

operated for several months (up to 24) in
two industrial facilities: a steel plant and a
power plant located in the north of Italy.
All transformers were confined in ded-
icated rooms, subjected to different and
varying loads (in intensity and form), and
exposed to wide ranges of temperature
and relative humidity. The innovative de-
vice is pictured in Fig. 2. An industrial on-
site installation is presented in Fig. 3. In
Fig. 2. The innovative device (OMD) with its cables connected to various sensors. Fig. 2, both the on-line/on-site device and

VOC Sensor

IR Temp. Camera

Ozone Sensor

Fig. 3. Example of an installation

48 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

a BED are shown. The latter was equipped
with VOC and temperature/humidity
Eight devices were installed in eight electri­
sensors and placed outside the trans- cal rooms at a convenient distance from the
former’s room for detecting the presence
of interfering molecules coming from the electrical machines for on-site and on-line
background. monitoring carried out for more than two
In Fig. 3 the small box is OMD. The sen- years
sors for VOC detection were placed above
the gap between the primary and second-
ary windings (circled in the figure) to take Results while the others supplied different types
advantage of the chimney effect that could Eight devices were installed in eight elec- of loads (resistive, inductive, and capac-
convey organic molecules upwards. Four trical rooms at a convenient distance from itive) whose effective and precise allot-
sensors were installed in each room, one the electrical machines for on-site and on- ment could not be assessed.
on each phase and one at a certain dis- line monitoring carried out for more than
tance from the transformer. VOC sensors two years. Failure rates of a machine are higher in the
were also placed outside. From the spot early and late stages of life expectancy, re-
where the IR thermal camera was placed, The main characteristics of the transform- ferred to as “infant mortality” and “wear-out
the top half of the transformer could be ers are collected in Table 2. One trans- period” [13]. The possibility of failure is high
focused. former failed during the experiments and during or just after commissioning opera-
had to be replaced. Consequently, nine tions and when machine conditions worsen
All sensors were controlled by a single­- machines were monitored altogether. due to the intensity of use and component
board Raspberry Pi 3 computer (by Rasp- decay [14]. Obviously, harsh ambient con-
berry Pi Foundation – UK). The device The average age and power were 11 years ditions (very high or very low temperatures,
can be connected to the internet through and 3 MVA, respectively. Both AN (air salty atmosphere), hot spots, corona dis-
a dedicated router. Data were recorded at natural) and AF (air forced) types of cool- charges, partial discharges, power imbal­
fixed times and saved onto a dedicated ing methods were employed, and with ances, and abrupt thermal transients all
server for later data analysis and inter- the exclusion of transformer number 4, reduce life. Within the sample size under in-
pretation. Additionally, it was possible to all machines transformed down to 400 V. vestigation, all items survived infancy. Two
perform real-time data visualization in an The transformer with the highest second- ex­ceeded their theoretical life expectancy,
attempt to intercept potential aberrations. ary voltage (3160 V) energized furnaces, being therefore at elevated risk of failure.

Table 2. Main properties of the transformers under investigation. Abbreviations AN and AF are for air-natural and air-forced cooling methods.
Primary Primary
Age Power Secondary Secondary Temp.
# Manufacturer voltage Current Cooling Damage
(Years) (MVA) Voltage (V) Current (A) Rise
(kV) (A)

1 A 22 5 20 400 144 3608 AN/AF 100

2 A 5 3.1 21 420 68 3437 AN/AF 100

3 A 3 2.5 21 420 68 3437 AN 95

4 A 4 4.25 21 3160 116 776 AN 100

5 A 5 2 21 420 55 2749 AN 100

6 B 13 2.5 21 420 68 3437 AN 100 *

7 B 11 2.5 22 400 68 3608 AN/AF 100 *

8 B 22 2 21 400 57 2887 AN 100

9 C 13 3.15 6 420 303 4330 AN/AF 70

AVERAGE 11 3

­
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 49
 DIAGNOSTICS

One of the nine monitored transformers especially at the time of the event
(see Fig. 4).
(#6 in Table 2) experienced particularly
The ozone profile is displayed in Fig. 5.
severe damage that led to failure. Ozone can be produced by electric and
corona discharges [15], whose occurrence
is proven by the clear signs of catastroph-
During the experimental campaign, fatal device equipped with adsorbing car- ic discharges in Fig. 4. The overall signal
damage occurred in one transformer (#6 tridges. spectrum and a closeup at the time of fail-
in Table 2). A second transformer (#7) ure are shown. The highest concentration
was plagued by faulty components: the of ozone, 326 μl/l (ppm), was detected at
Gas emission
sealing end of the secondary cables (not the instant of breakdown (see expanded
on the machine itself) either because of As mentioned before, one of the nine graph where the highest peak is shown).
prolonged overheating or arching (ac- monitored transformers (#6 in Table 2) However, it is also interesting to point out
cording to the owner). The latter could experienced particularly severe damage that a few hours earlier, a couple of smaller
be brought to light by the sensors (ozone, that led to failure. A second one (#7 in Ta- peaks were detected at a normalized value
mainly). ble 2) was affected by a less critical issue of around 0.1. This was a special case with
and given a timely maintenance check. a disastrous event where the formation of
Hereafter, significant results are report- The remaining machines did not show ozone was certainly due to powerful arch-
ed and listed by sensor type or physi- any apparently unhealthy conditions. ing. Obviously, using the maximum value
cochemical property. Concerning the is not practical for real-time monitoring.
emission of volatile and semi-volatile Ozone However, through a posteriori analy-
organic compounds, the study was car- sis, it can be determined if small peaks
ried out with a two-pronged approach With reference to the failed transformer, had meaning or were just noise. In fact,
using solid-state sensors and a sampling ome interesting results were produced, considering that the standard deviation

Ozone can be produced by electric and corona discharges, whose

occurrence is proven by the clear signs of catastrophic discharges

Fig. 4. The destructive effect of an electrical fault. Catastrophic discharge destroyed the central phase and charred part of the resin. The VOC sensor
positioned above the phase was hit by the blow and failed.

50 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

is 0.039, one could be inclined to regard
those spikes as a sign of ozone formation.
The spotting of high ozone concentration
However, a broadened observation re- triggered an alert and a consequent on-
veals that 0.11 is the most recurrent and
thus probable value (mode), which weak- site verification where a problem was dis­
ens the strength of the previous proposi- covered
tion and strengthens the assumption of
that value being either noise or interfer-
ence. (The latter is from NO2 exclusively.
Nitric oxide is the principal interfering
molecule of ozone detection, as stated in
the sensor’s datasheet.) On the contrary,
the source of other peaks exceeding 0.3
could be associated with ozone forma-
tion. This implies that discharge-related
incidents might have occurred in previous
months, even though a massive presence
of NO2 cannot be excluded. A comparable
piece of information is provided by a de-
vice installed next to another transformer
(#8 in Table 2) for which the value of the
mode is 0.08, quite close to the 0.11 value
reported above.

Monitoring of the second transform-

er, which suffered damage (#7 in Table
2), reveals the formation of ozone gas
(maximum value 181μl/l). The spotting
of high ozone concentration triggered an
alert and a consequent on-site verifica-
tion where a problem was discovered, as
mentioned above. In fact, the technicians
found that the cable sealing ends on the
low-voltage side were loose and partial-
ly burnt, possibly due to overheating or
arcing. Figure 6 displays an ozone peak Fig. 5. Ozone profile from the failed transformer: on the ordinate the normalized
concentration value, on the abscissa the date of sampling. The arrow points at the
at 16:48 (blue curve) and a VOC peak at
moment of failure.
4:48 a.m.

VOCs

One behavior investigated is the degra-

dation, promoted thermally and electri-
cally, of polymeric parts and the conse-
quent release of volatile or semi-volatile
compounds. In the literature, different

VOC signal profiles

appear quite jagged,
both for sensors in­
stalled right above
phases and for those
placed at some dis­
tance from the trans­ Fig. 6. Ozone profile (blue line) and VOC profile (orange line) from the damaged transformer
on the day of the alert. Ozone concentration and VOC intensity are shown on the ordinate
former and time on the abscissa.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 51
 DIAGNOSTICS

Some volatile chemicals (pentane, acetone, external interference comparison, see

Fig. 1).
isopropyl alcohol, and an industrial degreas­
In Fig. 7 a comparison of signals from
ing mixture) were released in the air inside four equivalent MOS sensors positioned
a transformer’s room in different places is shown. Regardless of
placement right above a phase, at a certain
distance, or even outside the room, infor-
mation is the same. It follows that the air
molecules are reported to be produced In general, VOC signal profiles ap- inside and outside the room is similar and
by prolonged or excessive overheating of pear quite jagged, both for sensors marked by a high level of external pollu-
epoxy resins. There can be small molecules installed right above phases and for tion, which is recognized to contribute to
like water, formaldehyde (CH2O), carbon those placed at some distance from failures as it can create carbon deposits on
monoxide (CO), and much heavier aro- the transformer. At the beginning of accessible parts and lead to tracking and
matic compounds such as toluene (C7H8) the study, only one type of general-­ potential failure [14]. Consequently, sen-
or more complex moieties associated with purpose MOS was employed and po- sors that monitor contamination levels
cracking of curing agents for epoxy resins sitioned in different places inside and are useful and necessary.
(typically organic anhydrides) [16]. outside the room (for background and
In Fig. 7 sensors 1-3 were placed one at
each phase of transformer #2 (see Table 2).
The fourth is the external reference posi-
tioned in different places inside the room.
The profiles do not vary from curve to
curve, and only the relative intensities are
different. Normalization was performed
according to the following calculation:
(average – min)/(max-min). This was a
posteriori signal analysis, which cannot
be employed in real-time.

Nonetheless, an additional goal was to dif-

ferentiate between molecules that can be
released by a transformer from those that
can sneak in from outside. Consequent-
ly, other models of sensors (for instance,
with higher hydrocarbon sensitivity) were
selected and installed with the intention of
Fig. 7. Normalized signals of four equivalent MOS sensors creating a selective sensor cluster. To char-
acterize the in-field behavior of a 4-MOS
cluster, some volatile chemicals (pentane,
acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and an indus-
trial degreasing mixture) were released
in the air inside a transformer’s room. In
Fig. 8, a radar chart is displayed where two
curves are visible. The data cover a four-
month sampling period and are plotted in
cumulative daily aggregations (binning).
One represents the normalization ratio
between the signals of sensors 1 and 4 and
the other between sensors 3 and 2. Sen-
sors 4 and 1 are quite similar concerning
the type of gas to which they show affinity,
but their sensitivity is quite different. Sen-
sor 1 is much more sensitive. The signal of
sensor 4 can be used to compensate for
humidity and temperature variations. A
similar approach holds for the other two
sensors, which interact more with hydro-
Fig. 8. Ratios between signals of a 4-MOS cluster for transformer #2 (see Table 2). The carbons. The reciprocal ratio is shown
inner curve is the ratio between sensor 4 and sensor 1 (abbreviated as the reciprocal), to accentuate results. Both signal ratios
and the outer curve is the ratio between sensors 3 and 2 (abbreviated as the reciprocal). normally ripple within two given values,

52 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

but when sensors are exposed to chemi-
cals, a spike appears. The peak of the ra-
tio between sensor 3 and sensor 2 is less
prominent because of an almost exclusive
responsiveness to aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons.

Figure 9 shows a radar chart that displays

the same ratios as Fig. 8, but for trans-
former #7 (the one that suffered damage
to its sealing ends), Here again, the signal
ratios oscillate inside a given annulus and
exhibit a peak at a given time unmistak-
ably associated with the presence of or-
ganic molecules, either from the trans-
former or from outside the room.

Inside each trans­ Fig. 9. Ratios between signals of a 4-MOS cluster for transformer #7. The inner curve is
the ratio between sensor 4 and sensor 1 (abbreviated as the reciprocal), and the outer
former’s room, an curve is the ratio between sensors 3 and 2 (abbreviated as the reciprocal).

air sampling device

equipped with an ad­ Adsorbing cartridges purpose was to understand if any mole-
Inside each transformer’s room, an air cule could be released by the polymeric
sorbing cartridge was sampling device equipped with an ad- parts while the transformer was running.
installed to under­ sorbing cartridge was also installed. Ev- Unfortunately, the air pervading an in-
ery six months since the beginning of the dustrial site like a steel plant can be rich
stand if any molecule experimental campaign, the cartridges in organic molecules that compete with
could be released by were replaced with fresh ones and sub-
jected a few days later (allowing the time
those allegedly set off by epoxy resin
(and other polymeric components). The
the polymeric parts for delivery and processing) to GC-MS analyses revealed the presence of some
(Gas Chromatography coupled with compounds that have a high probability
while the transformer Mass Spectrometry) analyses after ad- of originating from polymeric material
was running equate extraction and purification. The for electrical applications [17]. In Table 3,

Table 3. List of molecules trapped by the adsorbing cartridge and detected through the GC-MS/MS technique.

# Trafo Compound Uses

Isopropyl Lactate
3 Solvent
Xylene

6 Unknown compound. Chemical formula: C8H11N

Isopropyl Lactate
Solvent
8 Xylene

Unknown compound. Chemical formula: C8H11N

Acetophenone Possibly from the degradation of XLPE-insulated cable

7 Phenylmaleic anhydride Possible curing agent for epoxy resin

Benzoic acid Possibly from the insulating coating of cables

­
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 53
DIAGNOSTICS

Temperature is a key feature to be monitored since it can be an

important source of damage and failure, and it is not a coincidence that
a good deal of the literature addresses temperature-related phenomena
and behavior

the detected compounds, their use and ronmental temperature, a transformer’s External factors profile
possible origin, and respective trans- emperature, and their difference.
formers are listed. The nature of the environment sur-
Regarding the transformer which suf- rounding and inside the transformer’s
fered a destructive failure, the difference room is a vital factor. Not only tempera-
Temperature profile
between the environmental temperature ture and humidity but also the presence
Temperature is a key feature to be moni- and the maximum superficial tempera- of polluted air (from chemicals, brine,
tored since it can be an important source ture measured on the side “seen” by the or conductive particles) must be con-
of damage and failure. It is not a coinci- thermal camera is shown in Fig. 10. Such sidered. The transformers monitored in
dence that a good deal of the literature ad- difference oscillated between 40°C and the steel plant were exposed to a mas-
dresses temperature-related phenomena 50°C on average, which is far below the sive buildup of dust, which originated
and behavior. Often, each transformer’s acceptable maximum overtemperature from steel production activities and
phase is equipped with a temperature (100°C), as declared by the manufactur- had a high metal content. Fig. 11 shows
probe. Unfortunately, a single sensor can er. Obviously, the internal temperature a typical situation after a few months
read the temperature in the immediate was higher, and the presence of hot spots of testing. The accumulation of large
surroundings of its housing but cannot could not be excluded. amounts of particles did not impair the
deliver knowledge about the presence correct functioning of the devices. All
of hot spots or temperatures at distant The max temperature and overtempera- transformers from #1 to #8 worked in
points. ture values for the remaining transform- this highly polluted environment (steel
ers are collected in Table 4. The highest plant). Transformer #9 was immersed
As can be inferred by looking at a trans- numbers pertain to transformer #6, in less dusty air, although the concen-
former’s specification and the standard which failed. All others did not show tration of pollutants deriving from hy-
IEC 60076-12, three temperature-related particularly high temperatures or over- drocarbon combustion was typical of
aspects are fundamental: the envi- temperatures. environments close to motorways and
thermal power plants. Cases of failures
caused by pollution and high concen-
Not only temperature and humidity but also trations of particles are reported. IEC
60076-11 [18] advises against keeping
the presence of polluted air (from chemi­ transformers in dusty or polluted envi-
cals, brine, or conductive particles) must be ronments.

considered Table 4 lists the maximum environmen-

tal temperatures and the yes-no tem-
peratures exceeding the classification
chart. In fact, according to IEC 60076-
11 [18], the cooling air inside the room
should not exceed “40°C at any time;
30°C monthly average of the hottest
month; 20°C yearly average”. The high-
est temperature values are read in the
summertime and coincide with those of
the indoor air when no forced cooling
is provided. The temperature of the air
conveyed from the outside may be equal
or a little lower or higher depending on
the location and activities around the
room.

Relative humidity never exceeded 93%

and thus did not represent a threat. In
IEC 60076-11, that is the limit value for
a warning signal.
Fig. 10. Difference in temperature between the room environment and the transformer.

54 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Mechanical vibration
and acoustic sound
monitoring are im­
portant because they
can be linked to loads,
operating conditions,
and mechanical prob­
lems

Sound and vibration

(vibration profile)

Mechanical vibration and acoustic

sound monitoring are important be-
cause they can be linked to loads, op-
erating conditions, and mechanical
problems [19]. Therefore, all devices
were equipped with microphones for
fundamental frequency detection. Only
one was provided with a vibrometer.
The most common frequencies found
by microphones were 100 Hz and 300
Hz. A transformer fundamentally vi-
brates at 100 Hz and shows harmonics
at higher frequencies.

Concerning vibrations, the most com-

mon value was 200 Hz. This observation
complies with literature information that Fig. 11. Data acquisition device after a few months in a dirty room.

Table 4. Maximum temperatures and yes-no temperatures exceeding the classification chart.

30°C monthly 20°C yearly

Max Env. 40°C Max Trafo Max Overtemp.
# Trafo Cooling average average
Temp. (°C) exceeding Temp. (°C) (°C)
exceeding exceeding

1 AN/AF 38 no yes No 65 30

2 AN/AF 42 yes yes No 47 10

3 AN 44 yes yes Yes 70 30

4 AN 39 no no No 40 5

5 AN 40 yes yes Yes 60 20

6 AN 46 yes yes Yes 100 60

7 AN/AF 50 yes yes Yes 80 50

8 AN 49 yes yes Yes 70 20

9 AN/AF 37 no yes No 70 35

­
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 55
DIAGNOSTICS
MONITORING

The ultimate objective of the study is to real­ As previously mentioned, the ultimate
objective of the study is to realize an
ize an integrated diagnostic and prognostic integrated diagnostic and prognos-
system that comprises not only an evolved tic system that comprises not only an
evolved version of an innovative device
version of an innovative device but also all but also all state-of-the-art data analy-
state-of-the-art data analysis techniques sis techniques. As such, experimental
activities are still underway and are
included in a regionally (Piedmont)
financed project named Transfoclea-
90% of the 100 Hz frequency is quenched evaluation of which molecule emits from n4OT (code 337-285) dedicated to the
in the lower part of the transformer thermally or electrically degraded poly- development of integrated systems for
where the sensor was attached, but only meric parts. diagnosis and prognosis of pathologies
20% of that for the 200 Hz component in transformers (both oil immersed and
[20]. It is also reported that a prevalence Even though monitoring sound and vi- dry). Among the partners of the project,
of 200Hz can be linked to a slacking of bration is not easy in an industrial en- Reply (an Italian consulting company)
windings [21]. vironment contaminated by spurious and Polytechnic of Turin are included
vibration, some useful information can and appointed to analyze and interpret
However, being in a real-world industri- be retrieved. all data collected through artificial gen-
al noisy environment, work needs to be erative intelligence (AGI). Derived an-
done to process signals and unmistakably The main properties and related profiles alytical models will be used to scale up
link vibration frequencies to transformer are: the technology to a readiness level close
operating conditions. to 9 (TRL 9 - Actual system proven in
1. Transformer temperature: the operational environment, com-
Pathologies (type): overheating, quick petitive manufacturing in the case of
Conclusions
temperature drops, degradation of key enabling technologies; or in space.
The pathway opened by two years of polymeric parts, cracking of resin [23]).
tests and monitoring is discernible. coatings.
Unfortunately, a much longer time is Associated Profile: Temperature and Accordingly, future results and conclu-
required to achieve robust and strong- Operative sions will be presented in due course.
ly significative results that could lead to 2. Environmental temperature, humidi-
the creation of a prognosis tool. How- ty, particles, and pollutants:
References
ever, during the experimental period, Pathologies (type): formation of con-
one fatal failure and one case of damage ductive bridges, diminished cooling [1] Digital Journal, Global Power Trans-
occurred. The former event was marked capability, ease of discharge, corro- former Market Projected to Reach USD
by harsh operating conditions, high am- sion. 34.6 Billion by 2024; http://www.digi-
bient temperatures, ozone formation Associated Profile: External Factors taljournal.com/pr/3864346; (accessed
from electrical discharges (or the pres- Profile 26th March 2019)
ence of high concentrations of nitric 3. Formation of organic compounds
oxide, i.e., corrosive pollution), and the and ozone: [2] Frost & Sullivan. August 2015. Page 50
presence of conductive dust. The latter Pathologies (type): electrical and ther-
occurred to a machine working in a mal degradation. [3] IEC 60076-12.
relatively hot environment, full of dust, Associated Profile: Degradation
with continuous inductive cycles. How- 4. Sound and vibration: [4] R. Baker, Electrical and mechanical
ever, the damage was not diagnosed on Pathologies (type): mechanical prob- services; https://www.rbaker.co.uk/trans-
the machine itself but on accessory parts lems, intensity of use, variable loads. former-life-expectancy/; (accessed 25th
(namely, on the low-voltage sealing Associated profile: Vibration and Op- March 2019)
ends). erative
[5] Power Transformer, Part 3: Life man-
Thanks to chemical analyses of adsorb- Partial Discharge (PD) was not includ- agement and extension; Carlos Gamez;
ing cartridges, a few molecules have been ed in monitoring activities because of Transformers magazine, Volume 1, Issue
isolated and attributed to thermal or the complexity of measurement in an 3, pages 162-163, 2014
electrical events occurring in the trans- industrial environment and associated
former. Not only the epoxy coating of costs. As a matter of fact, the interpreta- [6] The effect of electrical ageing on a
a transformer but also polymeric inter- tion of PD measurement results requires cast epoxy insulation, Y.Li, J. Unsworth &
connecting parts contribute to the gen- expertise. This becomes even more pro- B. Gao, Centre for Materials Technology,
eration and release of compounds. Also, found in an industrial environment, University of Technology, Sydney, Broad-
solid-state VOC sensors help to under- which is more complicated compared way, NSW 2007, Australia.
stand the level of pollution in which to laboratory offline testing chambers
transformers operate. The construction (accessibility problems, noise, and con- [7] Theoretical Study on Decomposition
of a suitable sensor array enables the nections) [22]. Mechanism of Insulating Epoxy Resin

56 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Cured by Anhydride, Xiaoxing Zhang 1,* [19] Noise Characteristics of a Dry-Type on the Finite-Element Method, D., Tong
ID, Yunjian Wu 1, Xiaoyu Chen 2, Hao Distribution TransformerTested in a Xiaomu Z., et al., Energies 2018, 11(9),
Wen 1 and Song Xiao, Polymers 2017, 9, Semi-Anechoic Room, Xiaowen W., Wei 2404.
341; doi:10.3390/polym9080341. C., et al., Materials Science and Engineer-
ing 452 (2018) 042169. [22] Overview and Partial Discharge
[8] Wikipedia, https://it.wikipedia.org/ Analysis of Power Transformers: A Liter-
wiki/Technology_Readiness_Level [20] https://www.acoustics.asn.au/con- ature Review, MD Rashid Hussain, Shady
ference_proceedings/AAS2012/papers/ S. Refaat, et el., IEEE, date of publication
[9] “Diagnostic and prognostic system for p160.pdf April 23, 2021.
thermal and functional defects in dry-
type electrical equipment”, the original [21] Analysis of Winding Vibration Char- [23] Wikipedia, https://it.wikipedia.org/
title is “Sistema diagnostico e prognostico acteristics of Power Transformers Based wiki/Technology_Readiness_Level
di difetti termici e funzionali per apparec-
IEW ED
PEER REV
chiature elettriche con isolamento a secco”,
Roggero C., Tumiatti V., Tumiatti Miche-
la, Pub. n. IT201800011052A1·2020-06-
13A. Authors
Carlo Maria Roggero was born in Turin in 1973.
[10] The tin oxide gas sensor and its appli-
Graduate in chemistry at the University of Turin (1997),
cations, J. Watson, Sensors and Actuators,
Doctor of Philosophy in Material Science at Turin
5 (1984), 29 – 42, May 17, 1983).
Engineering School (2019). Since 1999 R&D manager
[11] Forty Years of Adventure with Semi- at Sea Marconi, involved in the development of new
conductor Gas Sensors, János Mizsei, products and services. Supervisor of the R&D personnel
Procedia, Engineering, Volume168, 2016, and activities. Participant in several research projects on
Pages 221-226 national and international levels, in collaboration with
various research institutions, with regard to different sectors such as energy,
[12] Development of sensors for the on- environment, polymers, agriculture, and pharmaceutical. Co-inventor of
site monitoring of dry-type electrical ma- several patents, author and coauthor of various papers.
chines, Roggero C., Politecnico di Torino,
2019. Vander Tumiatti is the founder and owner of SEA
MARCONI TECHNOLOGIES (since 1968), Turin, Italy,
[13] https://www.researchgate.net/figure/ an international company that is involved in research,
The-bathtub-curve-when-the-machine- technologies, products, and services for energy and the
approaches-its-life-expectancy-the-prob- environment. He has developed BAT and BEP Sustainable
ability-of_fig3_348929702 Solutions for Life Cycle Management (LCM) of insulting
liquids and transformers focused on inventory, control,
[14] Failures in Dry‐Type Transformers diagnosis, decontamination, depolarization (DBDS,
for Offshore Applications, Derek R Foster,
TCS, and polar compounds) and dehalogenation/ detoxification (PCBs/
Magnetics Design, 10/15/2013.
POPs). He holds more than 40 international patents and is the author of many
international technical and scientific publications. He has been the Assistant
[15] Effects of Corona and Ozone Expo-
Secretary of IEC TC10 since 2000. He is also a member of several international
sure on Properties of Polymeric Materials
for High Voltage Outdoor Applications, groups, with major participation in technical normative activities (CEN, IEC,
Bin Ma, High Voltage Engineering De- CIGRE, IEEE). In June 2009, he received the “1906 Award”, the IEC’s award for
partment, CHALMERS UNIVERSITY “the precious contribution to the understanding of the potentially corrosive
OF TECHNOLOGY Göteborg, Sweden behaviour of mineral insulating oil used in power transformers and for his
2011. discoveries, recognised worldwide, in the development of diagnostic chemical
analyses”.
[16] Theoretical Study on Decomposition
Mechanism of Insulating Epoxy Resin Michela Tumiatti was born in Turin on 21 February
Cured by Anhydride, Xiaoxing Z., Yunji- 1977. She has a degree in Industrial Chemistry from
an W., Xiaoyu C.,Polymers, Published: 4 the University of Turin (July 2003). She has completed a
August 2017. training course with ALPI – Quality management system
(Maggio 2003), the UNICHIM Course – Auditor in Test
[17] Thermal aging of an anhydride-cured Laboratories (June 2008). She is an Approved Internal
epoxy resin, Yongming Y. Guijun X., et al., Auditor for Test Laboratories (June 2008). Her roles in
Polymer Degradation and Stability 118 the company are responsibility for quality Assurance and
(2015) 111e119 R&D projects management. She is a member of the Italian electrotechnical
Committee and International IEC TC10.
[18] IEC 60076-11

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 57
 CORPORATE
DIGITAL SUBSCRIPTION

Be ahead of the game.

Get the Corporate Subscription and educate ALL of your
employees at ONE fixed price!
Enjoy the following BENEFITS and more:
• Individual access to your own copy of the magazine anytime, anywhere
• Full access to the entire magazine archive
• Opportunity for continuing education, staying up-to-date with the latest technology
• Learning about the latest research, findings and applications

subscription S subscription M subscription L

USD 190 USD 320 USD 590

UP TO 30 31 TO 100 OVER 100
EMPLOYEES EMPLOYEES EMPLOYEES

www.transformers-magazine.com [email protected] +44 203 734 7469

TECHNOLOGY

Introducing eDOC:
oil diagnostics device for smart transformers

60 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Advertorial

The need to extend the life of existing equipment is becoming more

urgent as lead times for large power transformers can now be counted
in years

Longer-lasting electrical
equipment benefits
businesses, the grid and
the environment

T
he energy sector is undergoing lead times for large power transformers Digital solutions in the
major changes these days, and can now be counted in years. According maintenance of electrical
it is an oft-repeated saying that to the global research and consultancy equipment
new challenges bring new op- group Wood Mackenzie, the wait for
portunities. From the energy transition a new transformer has jumped to over One of these actors is Ganz Trans­
and the green reforms of the industry to two years. The Hungarian Ganz Trans­ formers and Electric Rotating Machines
changing consumer habits and growing formers and Electric Rotating Machines Ltd. In recent years, the Hungarian heavy
demands, the increasing use of digital- Ltd. report similar waiting times, with equipment manufacturer has been at the
isation and the emergence of artificial factories becoming more and more over- forefront of the energy sector, taking a
intelligence are shaping the future of the loaded due to the high order intake. leading role in promoting digitalisation
industry. efforts. Ganz’s Service Division carries
These trends and challenges affect all out planned, corrective, preventive and
The European Commission expects the players in the sector – manufacturers, condition-based maintenance in ac-
EU’s energy demand to grow by 60% by suppliers, consumers and operators of the cordance with the IEC standard and its
2030, with industrial, residential, auto- electricity system. As a result, the larger recommendations. In 2022, the manu-
motive and hydrogen needs. However, actors in the market are trying to meet facturer of high-quality and customised
while global electricity demand will only the challenges with innovative ideas or by transformers, high-performance elec-
grow by 2.2% in 2023, down from 2.4% expanding their services. In this context, tric motors, and generators launched its
in 2022, the International Energy Agen- maintenance and servicing are becoming condition monitoring system for new
cy (IEA) expects growth to be at a faster even more important, while market play- power transformers and the retrofit
rate, averaging 3.4% per year over the ers have recognised that the use of these application under the Ganz Intelligent
next three years to 2026. digital systems offer many opportunities Solutions brand. In 2023, the portfo-
and benefits, both in terms of machine lio of intelligent monitoring systems
The growing interest means that not only maintenance and sustainability. was expanded to include innovative
is the optimisation of energy systems
becoming an increasingly urgent issue,
but also that the ongoing transition to
renewable energy in the sector and the Ganz Transformers and Electric Rotating
parallel increase in consumer demand Machines Ltd, the Hungarian heavy equip­
has led to a growing need for power
transformers and other equipment to ment manufacturer, has been at the fore­
keep the electricity industry running,
and the need to extend the life of existing
front of the energy sector, taking a leading
equipment is becoming more urgent as role in promoting digitalisation efforts
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 61
TECHNOLOGY

Over the past four years, Ganz has achieved several breakthroughs,
not only having restored the reputation of its historic brand but also
strengthening its market position both in Hungary and internationally

technology for monitoring the condi- ageing assets in the managed machine development, the company is position-
tion of rotating electrical machines. This fleet. Through early identification and ing itself as a pioneer of digital solutions
retrofit can be carried out either in the planned intervention, critical asset fail- and aims to become not only a manu-
field or during transformer refurbish- ures can be avoided, overall failure rates facturer but also a service provider for
ment at Ganz factories. reduced to more acceptable levels and the transformer and electrical rotating
maintenance costs reduced, which is a machine market by expanding the tech-
Utilising the same in-house engineer- key decision factor when considering nological and geographical scope of its
ing team, sub-contractor support and asset replacement. Service Division.
advanced technologies that the com-
pany uses to manufacture new power As an Original Equipment Manufactur-
Expanding technological and
transformers and rotating machines, er (OEM), Ganz provides maintenance
the same high quality and reliability that geographical scope services to its customers in the power
Ganz customers have come to expect Over the past four years, Ganz has transmission and distribution market for
from new equipment can be offered. achieved several breakthroughs, not its own, as well as for other manufactur-
By utilising predictive maintenance only having restored the reputation of ers’ equipment, such as installation and
strategies combined with Ganz’s Intel- its historic brand but also strengthening commissioning of new units, planned
ligent Solutions, customers can have a its market position both in Hungary and maintenance, spare parts supply, field
cost-effective answer to the challenge of internationally. In the next phase of its and factory testing and refurbishment,

Ganz offers retrofit solutions to digitalize existing transformers

62 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Since 2023, Ganz Services has had a dedicated workshop for
refurbishment to increase the lifetime of existing transformers

reconstruction, troubleshooting and the Hungary. Now, the company cannot only testing, diagnostic measurements and
lifetime extension of existing assets. The advance the upkeep of its own equip- maintenance, installation of transform-
Intelligent Solutions Retrofit packages ment but also offer testing facilities for ers, rotating machines and GIS equip-
offer a faster and easier solution to uti- other companies. Furthermore, Ganz ment, and site and factory repair and
lise ageing assets – ensuring reliability, can provide online service support with refurbishment. Depending on the com-
availability, and predictability. The ap- the help of Augmented Reality Technol- plexity of the refurbishment, the lifes-
plication allows for the extension of the ogy and has a full-scale equipped oil lab- pan of the refurbished transformer can
useful lifetime of the asset, data-based oratory for all required testing, including be extended up to 10-15 years.
asset replacement scheduling and digital DP analyses. The asset fleet management
integration of ageing units. solutions available at Ganz open the Ganz is a customer-focused company
door to predictive maintenance through with more than 145 years of experience,
Since 2023, Ganz has had a dedicated expert recommendations: Asset health delivering high quality with the best
refurbishment hall, which allows us to Indexes, comparative assessments, ex- technical and economic solutions for its
bring the transformer to the factory and pert recommendations for intervention, customers. The company’s engineering
carry out the complete refurbishment. and integrated maintenance services. capability and the ability to utilise its
The maintenance of transformers can be production and engineering and testing
further supported by the test laborato- Only last year, the company carried out experts allow Ganz to provide experi-
ry that was accredited according to ISO more than one hundred service projects, ence-based analysis, which is not avail-
17025 at the end of last year in Tápiószele, including spare parts, site and factory able from traditional service companies.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 63
REACTORS

stantiated. The results of the calculation of the main and stray

ABSTRACT
losses in the magnetic system have been compared with their
The analytical methods for calculating magnetic fluxes and estimates obtained by the typical tests of the reactors.
losses in steel in one- and three-phase shunt reactors with
the location of tie rods in the middle and outside the main leg
KEYWORDS:
of the magnetic system have been developed and presented
in this article. For this purpose, finite element modelling was losses, magnetic flux density, numerical modelling, magnet-
used, and nonlinear magnetic equivalent circuits were sub- ic equivalent circuits, magnetic system, shunt reactor

64 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Anastasia V. BASOVA, Viktor F. IVANKOV

Shunt reactor is designed to provide a significant inductance to ensure

an economical and stable process of electric energy transmission

The calculation of magnetic

fluxes and losses in the
magnetic system of
high-voltage shunt reactors
1. Introduction ic resistances of a main leg with a winding When calculating the losses in steel as in [2–
A shunt reactor (ShR) is a device with a of a single-phase reactor. At the same time, 6], the known dependences on the magnetic
winding wound on a core, i.e., the magnetic it has been assumed that the solenoid flux flux density of the specific losses component
system (MS), or it can be without the mag- tubes of the magnetic field in the winding (remagnetization and eddy currents) on the
netic core. It is designed to provide a signif- region are uniform over the entire height thickness of the sheets of the correspond-
icant inductance to ensure an economical of the MS window. The protrusion of the ing ES brands have been used. As in [7],
and stable process of electric energy trans- magnetic flux in the gaps between the but with approximate constant coefficients,
mission [1,2]. In this work, we will con- main leg disks is taken into account by an the increase of losses in the corner parts of
sider high-voltage ShRs containing main increase in their cross-section. the MC has been taken into account. That
legs with nonmagnetic gaps of two designs
– with the arrangement of tie rods in the
middle of the main legs and outside them.

Losses in the MC of the ShR can make up

to 50 % of the total losses [1], and there-
fore, their calculation is an essential task
at the operational design stage [2–6].
However, the issue is complicated because
separating electrical steel losses and stray
losses in parts of the ShR structure during
measurements is practically impossible.
The losses in the core and the stray losses
are equal to the difference between total
losses and ohmic losses [1].

The model of a single-phase ShR, which

was developed using a three-dimensional
CAD design software Pro/ENGINEER
[6], is shown in Fig. 1. The main leg disks
are made using radially laminated stack
packets, the side legs and yokes are made
using planar stacking of electrical steel
(ES) sheets.

In the proposed analytical method, the

magnetic flux density values used for the Figure 1. Model of a single-phase ShR: 1 – winding, 2 – MS from a main leg with gaps,
calculation of the losses in ES have been side legs and yokes, 3 – main leg disks, 4 –electrostatic screen on the main leg, 5 –upper
determined as in [2–6] through simplified and lower core clamping plates, 6 – tank,
steady-state models based on the magnet- 7 – external cooling system

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 65
REACTORS

Numerical modelling established that if there are holes in the yokes in

the central stacks, additional eddy current losses occur

increase in the losses is due to the inhomo- been indicated. The same method was yokes between them, and there are non-
geneity of the magnetic field in the main leg used in [11] to study the three-phase ShR magnetic gaps in the magnetic circuit. A
disks, and it has been taken into account with an MS without side legs. simplified sketch of the MS in the case of
evenly with the same factor in the model. a single-phase ShR is shown in Fig. 2a.
It should be noted that analytical methods It has been assumed that the main leg of
The task becomes more complicated for are necessary and computationally effi- the MS consists of two radially stacked
three-phase ShRs – similarly to trans- cient tools for multivariable optimization outer disks and N internal disks of the
formers [8], it is necessary to take into calculations of ShR. For this, magnetic same height hk and h, with the same in-
account the increase in losses due to the equivalent circuits (MEC) can be applied. ternal d and external D diameters. There
non-sinusoidal waveforms of the mag- For the MEC model development, it is are gaps of size бk between the yokes and
netic flux and significant specific losses advisable to draw the experience [6] of the outer disks and gaps of size б between
for the fluxes that flow across the ES roll numerical modelling by finite element the inner disks. The winding has an av-
[9]. Numerical modelling established that analysis (FEA) methods. erage diameter, radial size, and height of
if there are holes in the yokes in the cen- D0, a0, H0.
tral stacks, additional eddy current losses This article aims to present the develop-
occur. They increase the overall losses in ment of a methodology for the analytical In Fig. 2(a), the following quantities are
steel and can be identified by thermal im- calculation of magnetic fluxes using non- marked: bk - the width of the channel that
aging observations, which can also create linear MEC, as well as the basics of the spreads from the main leg to the wind-
local temperature hot spots. stray losses calculation in the magnetic ing, ∆0 - the height of the winding above
systems of shunt reactors containing main the last internal gap in terms of main leg
Further improvement of loss calculation legs with nonmagnetic gaps. height, MO1 – the interaxial distance be-
methods in the MS of the ShR remains an tween the main and side leg, H0k – the
important task. For this purpose, for ex- height of the MS window, BP – the width
ample, in [10], modelling by the method
2. The design of the shunt of yoke stacking. Three-phase designs can
of finite elements in the transient analysis reactor with gaps in the core contain side legs or be without them. Tie
mode was applied, but of single-phase of the magnetic system rods can be placed in the middle or out-
ShR. At the same time, a discrepancy of side of the MS main legs. In the first case,
26 % between the analytical and numer- Geometry under consideration has vertical holes are created in the yokes by
ical calculation of the losses in steel has winding, main and side legs, legs with utilizing a special stacking method for the

Figure 2. The design of ShR with gaps in the MS main leg: (a) a calculated model of the main leg with a winding, (b) a sketch of an MS with side
legs of a three-phase reactor

66 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

sheets that allows the placement of the Geometry under consideration has wind­
main leg tie rods.
ing, main and side legs with yokes between
Fig. 2(b) shows a sketch of the most devel-
oped MS with side legs of a three-phase
them, and there are nonmagnetic gaps in
reactor with a conditional breakdown the magnetic circuit
into parts with characteristic features of
the distribution of magnetic fluxes and
losses. On the cross-section of the central between the main legs of the adjacent the distribution of the fluxes in the yokes
yoke stacking, the following are marked: phases. in the absence of their saturation allows
DV – internal disks, DK – outer disks, JB f) To a large extent, assumption a) is en- sequentially considering the MEC of
– side leg, JT –yoke, JF – interphase yoke, sured by the fact that the nominal value the main leg with the winding (primary
UG – yoke corners, JTs – end yoke-main of the magnetic flux density in the MS circuit) and the stacked MECs (second-
leg, JFs – interphase yoke-main leg. main leg is selected in such a way as to ary circuits) of the MS reactor yokes and
ensure the magnetic operating point side legs. The interaction of the specified
is in the linear region of the current-­ MECs is based on the linear superposi-
3. The calculation of the voltage characteristic of the reactor, not tion of the magnetic fluxes in the MS of
fluxes in the magnetic only in the operating modes but also at the reactor, which generates the operating
systems of reactors using fairly significant multiples of that can current in the winding, which can be used
magnetic equivalent occur in the fault conditions, such as in this case.
circuits with concentrated short circuit current [1].
parameters 3.2. Magnetic equivalent circuits
Assumptions b) – e) are formulated in of the main leg with the reactor
3.1. Basic assumptions in the this work based on the studies of the nu- winding
development of magnetic backup merical models of reactors using FEA
circuits methods. MEC is used for the calculation of the
magnetic fluxes in the region of the MS
a) The magnitude of the magnetic flux in Assumption a) on the independence of core and the winding, which is shown in
the main leg and in the winding chan- the magnetic flux in the main leg from Fig. 3. The following are marked: linear
nels does not depend on the yoke and
side leg resistance, which is justified in
the case of unsaturated yokes at the re-
actor’s operating conditions.
b) The magnetic flux in the main leg is
distributed evenly along the height
of the winding and at the ends of the
winding. The flux from the channel
winding can flow into the outer disk
and the yoke.
c) The magnetic flux in the yoke stack-
ings is distributed in proportion to the
cross-sectional area of the main leg and
the winding channel over the thickness
of the stack. The flux from the winding
channel, which is outside the thickness
of the yoke, can flow in the end region
of the stacking of the yoke. There is no
flux flowing between adjacent stack-
ings (sub-stackings).
d) In the yoke stackings of three-phase
MSs with side legs, the fluxes are redis-
tributed by taking into account the dif-
ferent magnetic resistances of the indi-
vidual sections of the branches (except
for the central stacking with holes for
the rod).
e) In the central stacking, only a part of
the flux between the adjacent main
legs can flow into the gap with holes
for the rods. The rest of the flux enters
normally to the plane of the long sheets Figure 3. MEC of the main leg with the reactor winding

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 67
REACTORS

Magnetic equivalent circuits were used for of the main leg is shown in Fig. 5(b). The
radial flux that flows from the winding
the calculation of the magnetic fluxes in the to the outer disk is closed in the channel,
region of the MS core and the winding which is located in the area where the end
of the winding exceeds the last internal
gap between the disks. It has also been
determined that the flow of the magnetic
magnetic resistances of the parts between the MS main leg at the yoke and side leg flux outside the winding can be neglect-
channels’ end of the winding and yoke is of 110 MVAr single-phase reactors. It is ed due to its insignificant values, as well
R1, between winding and main leg R2, and noticeable that the inner disks of the main as due to its closing in the MS window
between end of the winding to the end leg are loaded evenly, and the outer ones through the yokes or outside the window
disk is R3, the channel inside the main leg more intensively. Note that the magnetic (transverse axis of symmetry of the reac-
has magnetic resistance Rv, as well as the flux density value is not the same across tor), through transverse magnetic shunts
nonlinear magnetic resistances Rs of the the width of the yokes (by the stacks). to the surface of the yokes.
internal disks steel and the gaps between The loading of the radial cross-section of
them, and the resistance of steel Rk of the the main leg disks by the magnetic flux is The provided observations and the as-
outer disk that also takes into account the also uneven. The magnetic flux from the sumptions of the methods [3, 4] allow us
space between it and the yoke. ends of the winding locally loads the parts to determine the parameters of magnetic
of the yokes adjacent to the winding and resistances of the MEC in Fig. 3.
To determine the parameters of the then the side legs.
magnetic resistances of the MEC of the The magnetic linear resistance be-
main leg, we will consider the results of Fig. 5(a) shows the distribution of the tween the ends of the winding and
the numerical studies of magnetic fluxes axial magnetic flux density of the mag- the yoke is calculated according to the
in the area of the winding and the main netic field at the end of the winding. ratio of the gap between the end of the
leg of the MS of a single-phase ShR. Tak- The axial component of the field in the winding and the yoke of the magnetic
ing into account symmetry, one-eighth winding-yoke channel is maximal at the conductor to the area of the channel,
of the complete geometry can be used inner generating winding and decreas- limited by a third of the radial size of
for the analysis [6] – Fig. 4(a). Fig. 4(b) es linearly towards the outer generating the winding and the main leg-winding
shows the spatial grid of the numerical winding. Also, the axial field decreases channel, as measured from the inner
model. linearly (almost to zero) towards the sur- forming winding
face of the outer disk.
Fig. 4(c) presents the results of a numer-
ical study of the distribution of the total The distribution of the radial component
magnetic flux density in the upper part of of magnetic flux density in the upper part .

In order to develop an accurate magnetic equivalent circuit model of the

reactor, finite element method calculation and analyses were used

a) b) c)
Figure 4. Finite element modelling of magnetic fluxes in the winding and core region of a single-phase ShR: (a) geometry of the calculation model,
(b) finite element mesh, (c) the distribution of magnetic flux density in the main and side legs, yokes

68 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

An improved methodology of the stacked magnetic equivalent circuits
was used for the yoke and side leg of the single-phase reactor

The magnetic resistance of the main dependence on the magnetic flux density where ω = 2πf at industrial frequency
leg-winding channel is determined by by the permeability of the electrical steel f = 50 or 60 Hz.
the height of the winding by the coupling μ'(B) and the linear resistances of the cor-
of the turns of the winding within a third responding gaps The system (1) is nonlinear in the resis-
of the radial size of the winding from the tances Rs and Rk, depend on the corre-
inner surface of the winding, minus the sponding fluxes Φs and Φk. The solution
section of the main leg with the correction of the system of equations is determined
for the expansion of the gaps [3, 4] for a given set of points in time t = 0,∆t..1/f
with a step of ∆t. In the first step, a mag-
. netic flux of the order of 0.1 Wb is taken as
the initial value. Next, the solution of the
The magnetic resistance of the channel where Sv are the active sections of the inner linear system of equations with respect to
between the end of the winding and (v = z) and outer (v = k) disks of the main the fluxes is determined. Then, the mag-
the outer disk is calculated from the gap leg, and nz is the number of internal gaps netic permeability of steel is successively
between the outer surface of the main of the main leg. When calculating the mag- refined according to the value of the cal-
leg and the inner surface of the wind- netic resistance of the gaps between the culated induction. The values obtained in
ing, referred to as the area of the channel disks, the protrusion of the magnetic flux the previous step are taken as initial values
“winding-outer disk”, in which the end of (Fig. 5b) is taken into account with a con- in the next time step.
the winding is above the last internal gap ditional expansion of the width of the disk
by the amount ε = β / πln(1 + h / β) [3, 4]. Thus, the MEC of a main leg with a wind-
. At the same time, it is accepted that β = δ ing (Fig. 3) and the presented algorithm
for internal gaps and β = 2δk for extreme provide a determination of the magnetic
The magnetic resistance of the channel gaps. The equivalent cross-sectional areas fluxes and losses in the inner DV and in
inside the main leg is also calculated with are defined as . the outer DK disks of the main leg, as well
the correction for the expansion of the as the determination of the fluxes of the
gaps . The system of Kirchhoff equations for de- main leg with a winding, which are closed
termining the fluxes in a main leg with a to the system of the yokes and side legs.
. winding according to the MEC
3.3. Stacked magnetic equivalent
Magnetic nonlinear resistances in the circuits of the yoke and side leg of
inner and outer parts of the main leg the single-phase reactor
are calculated as a series connection of
the nonlinear resistances of the steel disks In single-phase MS, the magnetic flux Φk
of the main leg, taking into account the (1) of the outer disk of the MS main leg and

a) b)
Figure 5.Distribution of magnetic field induction: (a) axial component at the end of the winding, (b) radial component in the adjacent zones of the
upper end and inner disks of the main leg

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 69
REACTORS

The development of an appropriate equiva­ the flux Φ1 from the end of the winding
according to the circuit of Fig. 3 are closed
lent circuit by introducing magnetic resis­ in stacks of yokes and side legs propor-
tionally to the cross-sectional area of the
tance normal to the planes of the specified main leg across the width of the stack
stacks is a difficult task due to the complex (shaded in Fig. 6).

geometry in three dimensions of the yoke Since the stacks of the MS yoke have a
structure significant thickness, they must be divid-
ed into substacks for a more accurate cal-
culation of the flux distribution in these
parts of the yoke; for example, stack 2 in
Fig. 6 is divided into substacks 2/1, ..., 2/4.
A stack with the number 1 is highlighted
separately, with its width corresponding
to the size of the hole for the tie rod.

Thus, the fluxes in the i-th stack of the

yoke, taking into account the accepted
assumption c), are calculated according to
the formula ,
Figure 6.Projection of the yoke stacks on the cross-section of the main legs with the hole
at
at

where N is the number of substacks of

i i
the yoke, Sk, S1 is the cross-sectional area
of the main leg and the channel above
the winding along the i-th stack (shaded
in Fig. 6), and S10 is the channel above the
winding, which is outside the yoke.

3.4. Stacked yoke magnetic

equivalent circuits of the three-
a) phase reactor with side legs

Fig. 7 shows the results of numerical re-

search of the distribution of the compo-
nent of magnetic field induction, which
is directed along the steel rolling in the
yokes of MS three-phase reactors with a
120 MVAr capacity: (a) design with holes
for the main leg tie rods, (b) without holes.

If there are holes for the rod, only a part

of the flux between the adjacent main legs
b)
is closed through the sheets of the inter-
Figure 7. Distribution of the magnetic flux density component, which is directed along the phase part of the yoke (central stack 1
steel rolling in the yokes of MS three-phase reactors with a 120 MVAr capacity: (a) design in Fig. 6). The remaining part of the flux
with holes for the main leg tie rods, (b) without holes flows into the long sheets of the neigh-
bouring 2/1 stack, almost doubling the
magnetic flux density in them.

The magnitudes of the magnetic flux densi­ The development of an appropriate equiv-
alent circuit by introducing magnetic re-
ty in the interphase part of the yokes are de­ sistance normal to the planes of the spec-
termined by the fluxes in the MS main legs, ified stacks is a difficult task due to the
complex geometry in three dimensions of
similarly as in the case of the three-leg MS the yoke structure in the studied location.
of transformers To solve this issue, magnetic fluxes wave-

70 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

forms, which are excited by the adjacent ues of the fluxes are determined accord- are supports of k stacks of the end and in-
phases’ main legs and closed in the indi- ing to the substitution circuit (Fig. 9) at terphase parts of the yoke, side leg.
cated stacks, were analyzed. For example, the given main leg and winding fluxes
Fig. 8 shows the results of numerical stud- (ФAk, ФBk, ФCk, k=2..N) and the given fluxes T The system of Kirchhoff equations for
k
ies of the three-dimensional model of the from the sheets of the central stack (ФAB,
T
determining the fluxes in yoke stacks ac-
k
120 MVAr reactor. The fluxes of two adja- ФBC), where N is the total number of cording to the model (Fig. 9) is compiled
cent phases are marked as ΦA1 and ΦB1. The stacks and substacks of the yoke. Rjtk, Rjfk, Rkjb for nodes 1–5 and circuit 1
flux passing along the sheets between the
phases alongside the steel sheets is denot-
II
ed as ΦAB , and the flux that exits normally
T
to the sheets is denoted as Φ. It was estab-
lished that the following relations are valid
between the specified fluxes (2)

In the absence of a hole for the tie

rod, the nature of the magnetic flux cir-
cuit (Fig. 7b) makes it possible to use
the MEC of the MS stacks, which is
shown in Fig. 9. The nonlinear supports
of the i-th stack of the end and inter-
phase part of yoke, side leg are marked

i i i
where Sjt, Sjf , Sjb are the cross-sectional ar-
eas of the i-th stack of the end and inter-
phase part of the yoke, side leg, BPi is the
width of the i-th stack of the yoke.

In the stacks without the rod holes of Figure 8. The change in time of the magnetic fluxes that are excited by the main legs of
three-phase MSs with side legs, the val- the adjacent phases and that are closed in the central stacks of the yoke

Figure 9. MEC of MS stacks with side legs

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 71
REACTORS

The stacked calculation of the magnetic The loss increase factor depends on the ratio
s s
kj = Pj / p(Bj ). For the end and interphase
fluxes in the yokes determines the distribu­ part of the yoke, side leg, the averaged flux
density Bjt, Bjf, Bjb and and the coefficients
tion of flux density Bj and the corresponding kjt, kjf, kjb and are determined accordingly.
i
specific losses p(Bj ) in each stack
4.3. Losses in the main leg disks

From the calculation of the distribution

The system of equations is nonlinear, and 4. The calculation of losses of the magnetic fluxes in the main leg ac-
its solution is determined similarly to in the magnetic systems of cording to the circuit from Fig. 3, the aver-
system (2), step by step, in time intervals. shunt reactors age value of the flux density Bs in the vol-
Due to the symmetry of the load and the ume of the main leg is determined. Due to
design of the MS, the highest magnetic 4.1. Losses in the corner parts of the gaps between the disks and the pro-
flux density values for the period occur in charging with a yoke trusion of the field (Fig. 6(b)), the mag-
parts j1 and j4, j2 and j3, j5 and j6, and are netic flux density is unevenly distributed,
mutually equal, as shown in Fig. 9. In the parts of the MS yoke, as in trans- increasing towards the edges of the disk,
formers [7], the magnetic flux turns, and thus increasing the losses determined by
If there is no gap under the tie rod in the accordingly, the movement is not in the the average value due to the nonlinear de-
central stack, the values of the normal direction of the steel rolling. During the pendence of the losses on flux density.
fluxes, according to expressions in (8), transitions of the magnetic fluxes through
take zero values. In this case, the calcula- the gaps at the junction of the ES sheets, For example, Fig. 10(a) shows the inten-
tion (5) is performed for all yoke stacks, currents occur normally to the sheets, as sity of magnetic flux density in the lower
including the central. a result of which eddy currents arise in half of the main leg disk. The minimum
the planes of the sheets. In particular, for value in Fig. 10(b) is determined from
3.5. Stacked yoke magnetic an oblique joint, the losses depend on the the ratio of the geometric cross-section of
equivalent circuits of the three- grade of steel, the amplitude magnetic flux the main leg SГ to the equivalent area Sε as
phase reactors without side legs density B in the corner, the width of the Bmin= Bs SГ /Sε.
sheets b, and half of the length of the over-
The magnitudes of the magnetic flux den- lap of the sheets lk, which is determined
To study the saturation of the disk, a local
sity in the interphase part of the yokes are along the axis of the sheets. The specified
MEC was developed, in which the cylin-
determined by the fluxes in the MS main factors are taken into account by known
drical volume of the lower half of the disk
legs, similarly as in the case of the three- empirical coefficients of loss increase [7]
is divided into ring elements responsible
leg MS of transformers [7]. The non­- kUG = kpky (B,b,lk). for the conductivity in the vertical and
uniformity of the flux in stacks, caused by horizontal directions, with different non-
the non-uniform loading of the flux from 4.2.The irregularity of the flux in linear characteristics of the ES in the lon-
the main leg, is taken into account accord- the yokes gitudinal and transverse directions of the
ing to the circuit of Fig. 6. rolling [9]. A uniformly distributed flux
The stacked calculation of the magnetic from the inner gap is added to the lower
If there are holes for the rods in the central fluxes in the yokes determines the dis- nodes of the grid, and a flux from the pro-
stack, the amount of flux passing along tribution of flux density Bj and the cor- trusion zone is added to the side nodes,
and normal to the sheets is calculated ac- responding specific losses p(Bji) in each which uniformly decreases to zero in
cording to the relation (4). In the yokes, stack. In addition, the non-sinusoidal the middle of the disk height. The results
the flux that enters from the main leg and factor (16) is calculated in each stack. of applying the circuit for the disk of the
the winding channel across the steel sheets The average flux density in the cross­- 110 MVAr reactor are shown in Fig. 10(с)
returns and goes into the interphase part -section of the yoke and the averaged in the form of flux density distribution at
of the yoke. At the same time, a part of the losses are determined by the expressions the lower edge of the disk (BKP) and along
flux leaks at the end of the yoke. Numeri- the middle of the disk height BCEP.
cal research has established that the leak- .
age is about 25 %. The calculation studies of the proposed
equivalent circuit determined that with a
nominal average flux density in the main
legs of 1.2–1.5 T, while the intensity of the
highest flux density at the edge of the disk
Due to the gaps between the disks and the reaches 1.8 T. At the same time, the zone
protrusion of the field, the magnetic flux of increased flux density (Fig. 10(b)) is
determined by the amount of protrusion
density is unevenly distributed, increasing and is equal to t = ε(Bmax /Bmin -1)-1. This
towards the edges of the disk, which leads allows us to enter the coefficient of in-
crease in the losses in the disks to the loss-
to an increase in the losses es determined by the average value of the

72 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 a) b) c)

Figure 10. The distribution of magnetic flux density in core stacks: (a) the intensity magnetic flux density in the lower half of the disk, (b) the
schematic relation of flux density, (c) the results of a simulation by the MEC of the disk

flux density, according to the expression

It is known that specific losses increase
kd = (P(Bmin).(l-2t)+P(Bmax ). 2t)P(Bs) . -1
several times for fluxes in the direction op­
4.4. Losses due to the non- posite to the steel rolling, and the degree of
sinusoidal distribution of the
magnetic flux in the yokes
increase depends on the grade of steel

In the yokes of three-phase MSs with side

legs, there is a non-sinusoidal flux densi- of the magnetic flux density and the angle most disk of the main leg, and p(B) is the
ty distribution due to the branching of between the direction of the flux and the specific loss in the ES depending on the
the magnetic fluxes of different phases. rolling [9]. It is assumed that this increase flux density according to the correspond-
The maximum value Bm of the flux is 4 units on average, and it is taken into ing catalogue.
density and its harmonic components account that the flux density across the roll
Bi (i=1,2,3,...) determine the coefficient decreases linearly to zero along the height Thus, the coefficient of loss increase is
of the yoke. Therefore, the mass-specific equal to kjs= Pjs / p(Bk). In three-phase re-
losses in the yokes opposite the main leg actors, the processes in the zones opposite
as well as the empiri­c al dependence are calculated using the formula the main leg are complicated due to the
constant change in the flux direction. By
[8]. comparison with the available test results
of a reactor without rod holes in these
The coefficient of loss increase is calculat- where K is the number of flux density zones, the coefficient kT= 2 was selected
ed according to the expression. calculation points along the height of the to increase the losses Pjs in three-phase
yoke, Bk is the flux density in the outer- reactors.

4.5. The passage of the magnetic

flux in the yokes is not parallel to
the rolling of the ES

In the yoke part opposite the main leg,

there is an increase in losses due to the
passage of the flux, which is not parallel to
the rolling direction of the ES.

Thus, for a single-phase reactor of

110 MVAr, Fig. 11(a) shows the distri-
bution of flux density, which is directed
across the rolling of steel sheets, and Fig.
11(b) parallel to the sheets. It is known
that specific losses increase several times
for fluxes in the direction opposite to the Figure 11.The distribution of magnetic flux density in the yoke and side leg of a single-
steel rolling. The degree of increase de- phase reactor: (a) component directed across the rolling of ES sheets, (b) component
pends on the grade of steel, the amplitude parallel to the sheets

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 73
REACTORS

In the yokes of three-leg reactors with rod former main legs [6]. As a result of the
corresponding calculations, using the
holes, there are fluxes that are directed nor­ specified program, the amount of losses in
mally to the ES sheets of the stacks near reactor yoke stacks were obtained depend-
ing on the field frequency f, the amplitude
the rod holes, where eddy currents and cor­ of magnetic flux density b, the length L
and width H (yoke height) of the sheets,
responding losses are generated the thickness T of the central stack (with
holes): Pv = kv. kp. f2. b2. (1.2 . L - 200). H2.88. T.

4.6. Losses from eddy currents in sponding losses are generated. For exam- The coefficient kv= 2.38E-7 is obtained for
the plane of the yoke sheets with ple, Fig. 12 shows the zones of such losses the characteristic dimensions of the yoke.
holes for the main leg tie rod in stacks of the MS yoke with side legs (de- The coefficient kp= 0.03 reflects the char-
sign (a)) and without side legs (b). acter of the field change along the stack
In the yokes of three- main leg MSs with thickness, obtained from the results of
rod holes, there are fluxes (4) that are di- Note that the calculation of losses in ES numerical calculations of losses in the MS
rected normally to the ES sheets of the stacks from the magnetic flux directed yokes of a number of reactors.
stacks that are adjacent to the stacks with normally to the stack plane is performed,
rod holes, where eddy currents and corre- in particular, for the end stacks of trans- 4.7. Total losses in magnetic
systems of shunt reactors

The main losses are determined by the mass-

es of the corresponding parts of the MC,
indicated in Fig. 1b, 1c, and the above loss
enhancement factors depicted in Fig. 13.

When the tie rods are placed inside the

main legs of three-phase MCs, stray losses
due to the eddy currents are added to the
main losses.

a) 4.8. The comparison of calculated

losses in MS with their estimates
during the typical tests of reactors

During the typical electromagnetic tests

of ShR, under operating voltage condi-
tions and measured current and ohmic
resistance in the winding, the total losses
in the reactor and the active losses in the
winding and in the taps were measured.

Stray losses in the winding conductors,

tank losses, pressing core clamping plates,
b) and tie rods are determined according to
Figure 12. The zones of stray losses due to eddy currents in the MS yoke stacks: (a) design calculation methods. For this, the appro-
with side legs, (b) without side legs priate CAD TER system [5] software was
used. Based on the difference between
the measured total and all types of spec-
ified losses, losses in the MS of the reactor
are estimated, which, in principle, cor-
responds to the standard [1], we denote
their value as Ptest. For example, the table
presents the losses according to Ptest tests
and the results of the calculations of Pcalc
losses in MS of single-phase and three-
phase reactors according to the method-
ology presented in this work. In most cas-
es, the error does not exceed 10 %, which
can be considered sufficient for the practi-
Figure 13. Loss enhancement factors cal design of ShR.

74 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

The developed methodology was imple- Reactor
№ Рtest, kW Рcalc, kW Error, %
mented into the calculation software for MVAr/kV/Phase
the verification calculations of losses in the 1 29.8/36/three 33.4 31.1 -6.9
reactor’s MS, as well as in the software for
2 55.0/525/single 19.5 17.9 -8.2
multivariable optimization calculations
in the automated system of power trans­ 3 110.0/750/single 53.6 42.8 -20.1
formers and electric reactors design [6]. 4 50.0/500/three 40.8 30.6 -25.0
5 65.0/500/three 38.5 35.3 -8.3
5. Conclusion 6 70.0/500/three 82.9 81.8 -1.3
1. Sequential calculation by interconnect- 7 125.0/500/three 43.1 42.1 -2.3
ed MEC of the main leg with the winding, 8 67.0/110/three 45.0 42.2 -6.2
end, and side legs, as well as the disks of
9 120.0/330/three 52.9 49.4 -6.6
the main leg, ensures the determination of
transient magnetic fluxes in the MS of the
shunt reactor. The values of these fluxes
are necessary and sufficient for the further elktrodynamika, 2008, № 3, pp. 66-70 (in Brazil, 2009), pp. 1-16, http://www.lmn.
calculation of losses. Ukrainian) pub.ro/~daniel/ElectromagneticMod-
elingDoctoral/Other/ICS-TEAMWork-
2. In addition to the traditional calcula- [6] V.F. Ivankov, A.V. Basova, I.V. Kh- shop/problem%252021%2520fami-
tion of the main losses in steel and losses imyuk, Methods of modeling transform- ly%2520v%25202009.pdf
due to the stacking of the sheets, it is nec- ers and reactors, Nash format, Kyiv, 490
essary to consider the losses due to the pages, 2017 (in Ukrainian) [10] Tu P. Minh, Hung B. Duc, Nam P.
non-uniformity of the fluxes in the main Hoai, Trinh Tr. Cong, Minh B. Cong,
leg disks and yoke stacks, non-sinusoidal [7] A.N. Kravchenko, V.G. Rodionov, Bao D. Thanh, Vuong D. Quoc, Finite
fluxes, the flux passing across rolled steel, A.I. Shugaylo, I.Ya. Eingorn, Method for Element Modeling of Shunt Reactors
as well as the losses due to eddy currents calculating losses and no-load current Used in High Voltage Power Systems,
in the end legs of the MS. of transformers, Tekhn. elektrodinamika, Engineering, Technology & Applied Sci-
1979, № 2, pp. 45-52 (in Russian) ence Research, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2021, pp.
3. The accuracy of loss calculations in the 7411-7416, https://www.etasr.com/
MS of shunt reactors is sufficient for the [8] Z. Valkovich, P. Veshich, Calculation i n d e x . p hp / E TA SR / a r t i c l e / d o w n -
practice of their design. of a five-leg core using a digital comput- load/4271/2549/13488
er, Rade Končar, Zagreb, рр. 1-24, 1974
(in Russian) [11] Özüpak Y., Designing a Reactor for
Acknowledgments
Use in High Voltage Power Systems and
The authors thank Vitaly Gurin for pre- [9] Z. Cheng, N. Takahashi, B. Forghani, Performing Experimental and Simula-
paring the article for the editor. TEAM Problem 21 Family (V.2009). tion Analysis, Journal of Engg. Research
(International Compumag Society Online First Article, 2022, pp. 1-14,
Board at Compumag, Florianópolis, https://doi.org/10.36909/jer.17017
Bibliography
[1] IEC 60076-6: 2007 Power trans-
formers - Part 6: Reactors
Authors
[2] M.A. Biki, Design of electrical re- Anastasia V. Basova, candidate of technical sciences,
actors for high-voltage power lines on leading researcher of the calculation and research
direct and alternating current, Monolit, laboratory of PrJSC “ZTR”, Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine. Her
Dnepropetrovsk, 164 pages, 2014 (in Rus- research interests are theoretical electrical engineering,
sian) methods of electromagnetic and thermal calculations
of structural elements of power transformer equipment
[3] E.A. Mankin, Calculation of reac-
based on numerical and analytical models.
tors with a steel magnetic core with
gaps, Elektrichestvo, 1959, № 7, pp. 35-41
(in Russian) Viktor F. Ivankov, candidate of technical sciences,
Senior Researcher, ex-head of the calculation and
[4] L.V. LeItes, Electromagnetic calcula- research laboratory of PrJSC “ZTR”. His research
tions of transformers and reactors, Ener- interests are theoretical electrical engineering, methods
gy, Moscow, 392 pages, 1981 (in Russian) of mathematical modeling of electromagnetic,
thermal and mechanical processes, computer-aided
[5] V.F. Ivankov, Synthesis and calcu- design systems for power transformers and electrical
lation of electric reactors with gaps in reactors.
the magnetoconductor main leg, Tekhn.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 75
COMPONENTS

Contributing towards the

efficiency, safety, and
reliability of transformers

Introducing eDOC:
oil diagnostics device for smart transformers

76 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Advertorial

Not only are cost effectiveness and operating safety of transformers

a key design consideration but also the reduction in the space inside
modern transformers is an ongoing challenge

Weidmann is a trusted global supplier of for power and industrial transformers, board. A number of barriers, depend-
sophisticated insulation components for we ensure the best technical solution and ing on the design voltage, subdivide the
oil immersed, special fluids, dry-type, or help you avoid risks and costly failures. oil gap between the base insulation and
gas-filled transformers. Using in-depth tank wall, maximizing safety by helping
knowledge and an innovative approach, to prevent electrical faults and reduce
Weidmann Lead Exits – An
customers can be assured these high the risk of electrical breakdown of the
quality components contribute to the Innovative Design insulating system.
efficiency, safety, and reliability of the Lead Exits are current-carrying insula-
transformer. tion components connecting the trans- Lead Exit design can be adapted to meet
former’s high-voltage winding termina- customers’ electrical and mechanical re-
tions with the associated bushings. quirements. Not only are cost effective-
Project Support
ness and operating safety of transformers
As a business partner, Weidmann takes These components are available both as a key design consideration but also the re-
responsibility not only for manufacturing standard components and as a tailor-­ duction in the space inside modern trans-
but also for field studies and design assis- made solution. The design is based on formers is an ongoing challenge. Smaller
tance. Using our engineering and technical a metallic core (e.g. copper, aluminum) Lead Exits are lighter and, in turn, easier
expertise and design product knowledge insulated with a shaped Transformer- to handle with lower transport costs.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 77
COMPONENTS

Weidmann Lead Exits are designed to withstand electrical,

mechanical and thermal stresses in the transformer, which is crucial
for transformer longevity and reliability

Optimum Solution transformer size. Weidmann Lead Exits MLE Modular Lead Exit
are designed to withstand electrical,
There are many variables to consider in mechanical and thermal stresses in the The MLE400 and MLE500 are available
the design of Lead Exits, such as space, transformer, which is crucial for trans- as ‘Middle’ (assembled in the tank or tur-
voltage level, current, transportation former longevity and reliability. ret) and as ‘Top’ models. Their numerous
forces, etc., which need to be factored in fixation options, as well as two electrode
when developing a reliable solution that types (IEC and ANSI), offer multiple op-
Lead Exit Range
meets customers’ requirements. This tions in construction design. Insulation
requires proper electrical field studies, Lead Exits can be designed to meet spe- levels meet IEC 60076-3 (2013) stan-
mechanical calculations, and material cific customer requirements based on dards, and all Lead Exits are thoroughly
research, enabling a more standard- the transformer’s application, layout of tested in-house to exceed standard IEC
ized solution from stock and helping to the substation, and other factors. Mod- and ANSI test levels.
shorten delivery times and reduce trans- ular design types represent cost-effec-
former assembly time. tive solutions with shorter delivery lead W800 and W1000 Lead Exits
times and fewer geometry variation op-
Using Weidmann’s Transformer Ser- tions. The high flexibility of the standard Manufactured to meet IEC 60076-3
vices, we assist transformer manufac- range also means that transformer man- (2013) standards, these high-end Lead
turers in ensuring the Lead Exit compo- ufacturers can conveniently adapt them Exits fit into the upper system volt­
nent is the optimum design to suit the to suit their existing designs. ages of AC power systems (765 kV and

78 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

1000 kV). They are mainly used in Power
Transformers with HV center winding
exits and can be installed either inside
the tank or in a turret. Both sizes can be
adapted to different assembly designs
with various fixation and mounting sys-
tems available.

DC Lead Exits

These Lead Exits are designed to op-

erate in AC and DC applications with
considerations for fluctuating voltage
levels and ensuring proper polarity is
maintained during installation and op-
eration. Due to the wide range of DC
connections, varying dimensions and
location of the barriers, and environ-
mental factors, some Lead Exits are cus-
tomized to specific transformer designs.

Weidmann offers a comprehensive

range of solid insulation components
for power and distribution transform-
ers. Scan the QR code to view the range
or visit www.weidmann-electrical.com/
insulation-technology/components/.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 79
TECHNOLOGY

energy performance standards could (ECI) conducted a quantitative compar-

ABSTRACT
have on costs and material use. To what ison between various scenarios and de-
The EU ecodesign regulation for power extent do alternative design strategies sign strategies.
transformers is currently under revision. or a systems approach to material use
While no option for reducing energy change how this subject is viewed? And KEYWORDS:
losses can be ignored in light of the Eu- how far will a decline in energy losses
ropean Green Deal, there are concerns compensate for the extra capital invest- energy efficiency, materials, losses, cost,
about what impact stricter minimum ment? The European Copper Institute total cost of ownership, EU regulations

80 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Angelo BAGGINI, Bruno DE WACHTER, Fernando NUÑO

Improving energy
and material
efficiency in
distribution
transformers
Assessing the impact of stricter
minimum energy performance
standards on cost and material
use
Tier 3 MEPS cost-benefit to more stringent Tier 3 values. Im-
analysis proving energy efficiency, however, in-
creases unit cost and weight if all other
With its Green Deal, presented in De- parameters are kept the same. The en-
cember 2019 [1], the EU aims to fight cli- ergy transition already impacts capital
mate change and environmental degra­ costs and material use substantially,
dation while safeguarding economic which raises the legitimate question of
growth at the same time. These goals whether making transformer MEPS
can be achieved and reconciled by a shift more stringent is worth the effort, es-
from fossil fuels to low-carbon electric- pecially since transformers are already
ity and by sustained efforts to improve highly efficient.
energy efficiency. In this context, any ad-
ditional efficiency gain in the electricity A reasoned answer to this question re-
grid would be welcome. quires a life-cycle evaluation and sys-
tems perspective. In the end, what does it
The ongoing revision of the EU ecode- mean for total cost of ownership (TCO)
sign regulation for power transformers and energy system material use? Declin-
could be a good opportunity to tighten ing energy losses in a transformer trans-
its minimum energy performance stan- late into savings of material and land use
dards (MEPS) from the Tier 2 minima for generation infrastructure as well as

With its Green Deal, presented in December

2019, the EU aims to fight climate change and
environmental degradation while safeguarding
economic growth at the same time
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 81
 TECHNOLOGY

Declining energy losses in a transformer insufficient loss reduction, excessive

capital costs, or a combination of these
translate into savings of material and land drawbacks.
use for generation infrastructure as well as The study used professional design soft-
for upstream transmission and distribution ware to develop two transformer designs,
one with aluminium windings and one
networks with copper windings, for each of the
four selected Tier 3 scenarios as well as a
Tier 2 transformer, resulting in a total of
for upstream transmission and distribu- In an initial general assessment, sixteen 10 transformer designs.
tion networks. Moreover, alternative ma- different permutations were considered,
terial and design choices hold the poten- combining no-load loss reductions (A0) The results revealed the changes in vol-
tial to uncouple energy efficiency from of 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, in turn with ume for the entire transformer and in the
transformer weight. In a quantitative load loss (Ak) reductions of 0%, 5%, 10%, mass of each of the transformer materials.
comparison between various scenarios and 15%. Combining a 10% no-load loss Note that not all material masses increase
and material choices, the European Cop- reduction with a 0% load loss reduction with increasing energy efficiency. In par-
per Institute (ECI) sheds light on these corresponds to ecodesign Tier 2 and was ticular, the weight of the tank and its oil
questions. taken as the base case. content diminish in some of the scenarios
because of the reduced cooling needs as-
Following this initial assessment, four sociated with lower energy losses.
Investigating four regulatory
scenarios were selected for further in-
scenarios vestigation, corresponding to cases 3, 4, To derive the unit cost from the material
The ECI study investigated the impact 5, and 6 in Table 2. All other scenarios masses, material prices were assumed to
of stricter MEPS on a typical distribu- were ignored because a quick assess- be as in Table 3, based on in-house re-
tion transformer with nominal ratings as ment revealed an inappropriate balance search by the European Copper Institute.
shown in Table 1. between load losses and no-load losses,
To calculate the lifetime cost of the losses
in the transformer, its root mean square
(RMS) load was assumed to be 30%
Table 1. The nominal ratings of a typical distribution transformer [2, 3, 4], its lifetime 40 years [2, 3], the
electricity price €0.13/kWh [2] and the
Rated power 630 kVA annual interest rate 2%.

Rated frequency 50 Hz Cost, mass, and energy savings

Number of phases 3 In identifying the significant trends aris-
ing from the exercise, it is interesting to
Short circuit impedance 4% compare Tier 3 scenarios #3 (A0-15%,
Ak-5%, designated Tier 3a) and #6 (A0-
20%, Ak-10%, designated Tier 3b) with
MV winding Um Um ≤ 24 kV
the base case of Tier 2 (A0-10%, Ak-0%)
for both aluminium and copper designs.
LV winding Um Um ≤ 1,1 kV
Table 4 displays the main results of this
comparison for metal mass, total mass,
Type liquid-immersed

The study used profes­

Table 2. Nine different combinations of reductions in no-load losses (A0) and load losses
(Ak) that could be introduced with Ecodesign Tier 3 MEPS sional design software
Cases Ak Ak-5% Ak-10% Ak-15%
to develop two trans­
former designs, one
A0-10% Tier 2 1
with aluminium wind­
A0-15% 2 3 4 ings and one with cop­
A0-20% 5 6 7
per windings, in order
to assess cost, mass,
A0-25% 8 9
and energy savings
82 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024
Over time, this upfront
investment of a more
efficient transformer
is compensated by the
reduction in the net
present value of the
energy losses, result­
ing in a TCO that re­
mains relatively con­
stant

system mass, volume, total cost of own-

ership, and energy savings.
Figure 1. Comparing the Total Cost of Ownership between Tier 2, Tier 3a, and Tier 3b
An increase in capital costs is seen when scenarios for both aluminium and copper designs
shifting to Tier 3, mainly due to larger
quantities or higher quality of materials. Table 3. Prices of the main materials used in a distribution transformer

Over time, this upfront investment is Material Cost per kg

compensated by the reduction in the net
present value of the energy losses, result-
ing in a TCO that remains relatively con- Aluminium €6.00
stant, as seen in Figure 1. This means that
the introduction of Tier 3 MEPS would Copper €12.00
not have a significant negative economic
impact over the long term. Magnetic sheet (quality M070 = 0.70
€5.50
W/kg at 1.7 T)
Transition to Tier 3 can result in either
more or less material use in the trans- Oil €2.00
former itself, depending on the con-
ductor material used and other design Tank + cover €4.50
choices, as seen in Figure 2.

Table 4. Main results of the comparison between Tier 3 scenarios #3 (Tier 3a) and #6 (Tier 3b) with the base case of Tier 2 for both aluminium and
copper designs
Aluminium Copper
Summary for a 630 kVA Tier 2 Tier 3a Tier 3b Tier 2 Tier 3a Tier 3b
transformer
(A0-10%) (A0-15%) (A0-20%) (A0-10%) (A0-15%) (A0-20%)
(Ak) (Ak-5%) (Ak-10%) (Ak) (Ak-5%) (Ak-10%)
Mass of metals transformer (kg) 2004 2203 2295 1679 1851 2125

Total mass transformer (kg) 2370 2590 2730 1941 2131 2425
Mass of metals system
3167 3304 3335 2842 2952 3165
(transformer + wind generation) (kg)
Total mass system
10547 10332 10037 10118 9873 9732
(transformer + wind generation) (kg)
Inside volume (m3) 0.74 0.81 0.88 0.43 0.49 0.56

Total cost of ownership (€) 40822 40540 39657 42875 42678 43155
Energy savings compared to
0 444 888 0 444 888
Tier 2 (kWh/year)

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 83
TECHNOLOGY

For European policy making, the balance of material use should be

addressed at the system level, including the electricity generation
infrastructure needed to generate the energy losses to the equation and
the transformer itself

For European policy making, the balance tigation, ECI made a first step towards erties Database (REMPD) from the US
of material use should be addressed at such a systems approach, making the as- Department of Energy (DOE), which is
the system level, including the electricity sumption that losses in the transformer a consolidated data repository on wind
generation infrastructure needed to gen- are generated by onshore wind turbines. and solar plant material use.
erate the energy losses to the equation The relevant data were obtained from
and the transformer itself. In its inves- the Renewable Energy Materials Prop- The database lists the types and quanti-
ties of materials required per megawatt
(MW) of generation capacity (values
for onshore wind: steel 143 kg/kW, cast
iron 12 kg/kW, composites and poly-
mers 29 kg/kW, other metals and alloys
19 kg/kW, concrete 404 kg/kW, road
aggregate 613 kg/kW, and other mate-
rials 3 kg/kW). Assuming that onshore
wind turbines have an annual produc-
tivity of 2500 hours full load equivalent
and a lifespan of 20 years, material use
for onshore wind generation infrastruc-
ture ranges between 400 and 900 kg per
MWh per year.

Figure 3 shows the aggregated impact on

metal use when adopting such a systems
approach.

Figure 4 shows the same aggregated im-

pact, but this time taking all materials
Figure 2. Comparing the mass of metals (kg) in the transformer between Tier 2, Tier 3a,
into account. A 4% to 8% net material
and Tier 3b scenarios for both aluminium and copper designs use reduction can be observed when in-
troducing Tier 3 MEPS for transformers
compared to a continuation of Tier 2.

These figures show that a transition to-

wards Tier 3 MEPS could be compati-
ble with the potential future introduc-
tion of material efficiency requirements
(MMPS). Computed with an aggregated
EU level distribution transformer capac-
ity of 1250 GVA, the EU-wide materi-
al savings potential of Tier 3 MEPS for
transformers ranges between 0.8 and 1.6
million tonnes.

The annual energy savings for a 630 kVA

transformer would be 440 kWh for sce-
nario Tier 3a and 888 kWh for scenario
Tier 3b. Extrapolating the latter figure to
the EU level, the Tier 3b scenario rep-
resents an annual electricity savings po-
tential of 1.8 TWh.
Figure 3. Comparing the mass of metals (kg) in the entire system, including the transformer
and the generation capacity needed to supply the transformer losses, between Tier 2, Tier The findings of this design exercise
3a and Tier 3b scenarios for both aluminium and copper designs give a preliminary indication of the

84 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

The findings of this
design exercise give a
preliminary indication
of the system-wide,
long-term impact that
could be expected
when introducing Tier
3 MEPS for power
transformers

system-wide, long-term impact that

Figure 4. Comparing the mass of all materials (kg) in the entire system, including the
could be expected when introducing transformer and the generation capacity needed to supply the transformer losses,
Tier 3 MEPS for power transformers. between Tier 2, Tier 3a, and Tier 3b scenarios for both aluminium and copper designs
Since the results are largely positive, a
more far-reaching investigation assess- Authors
ing the impact of such regulatory evo-
Angelo Baggini has a PhD in electrical engineering
lution is desirable. Such an investigation
from the University consortium of Pavia, Pisa, Cagliari,
should include a sensitivity analysis of
input parameters such as material prices Firenze (Italy) in 1997. He is aggregate professor of Elec-
and the load factor, as well as a Life Cycle trical Engineering at University of Bergamo (Italy) and
Assessment (LCA). international consultant in the electrical energy sector
(ECD Pavia Italy), since 2013 he is chairman of Cenelec
TC14. He started his research work both in CESI Metro-
References logical Lab in Milan and in the Electrical Engineering
[1] European Commission, The Eu- Department of University of Pavia focusing on EMC and PQ aspects of elec-
ropean Green Deal, 2019, https:// trical measurements and electrical machines. Author of over 200 technical
commission.europa.eu/strate- and scientific papers, and of PQ Handbook (2008) and Electrical Energy Ef-
gy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/eu- ficiency (2012), both published by Wiley and Sons. Prof. Baggini is member
ropean-green-deal_en of IEC TC14, convenor of IEC TC14 AHG35, and chairman of CEI TC97.

[2] VITO for European Commission Bruno De Wachter has 25 years of experience as a
DG ENTR unit B1, Lot 2: Distribution freelance engineer-copywriter in B2B and EU advocacy
and power transformers, Task 1-7, 2011, communication. He combines his technical background
https://transformers.vito.be/sites/trans- with a passion for employing precise forms of expression
formers.vito.be/files/attachments/EuP_
and a wide-ranging knowledge of the energy transition
TransformersTask_1_7_V60.pdf
and policy-making. Since 2011 he has been an in-house
consultant and copywriter for the European Copper
[3] ISR University of Coimbra for the
Institute on topics related to renewable energy systems,
European Commission, Impact As-
transformers, motors and electrical safety.
sessment / Implementing Directive
2009/125/EC of the European Parlia-
ment and of the Council with regard to Fernando Nuño graduated as an energy engineer in
Ecodesign requirements for power, dis- Bilbao (Spain) and ENSPM School (France) in 1998. He
tribution and small transformers, 2013, worked in the development of combined heat and power
https://www.eceee.org/static/media/up- plants at Air Liquide, then he joined the French Energy
loads/site-2/ecodesign/products/distri- Regulatory Commission, where he was in charge of elec-
bution-power-transformers/lot-2-trans- tricity markets regulation. Later on, he worked in the auto-
formers-draft-report-23-oct-2012.docx motive sector at Renault powertrain division, before join-
ing the International Copper Association in 2007, where
[4] Dan Mulkey (PE, IEEE Senior Fel- he has been in charge of regulatory and technology aspects of copper-based
low), Distribution Transformer Loading, technologies, notably transformers, cables and motors. He also manages pro-
Mulkey Engineering for IEEE PES T&D motional campaigns and leads multiple publicly funded EU Horizon projects.
Panel Session #PS31, 2020
IEW ED
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m PEER REV 85
 Never stop learning
"Transformers Academy is an e-learning platform designed to make
knowledge accessible without losing the recognisable scholastic
approach of the Transformers Magazine and audience-oriented
knowledge communication of the Transformers Forum. Witness the
expertise and become part of it by visiting transformers-academy.com."

Becoming part of an exceptional knowledge community

is just one click away.

transformers-academy.com
 We publish reports on topics useful for a large
audience of transformer industry professionals

��� ��������

Take corporate subscription and ensure access for all your colleagues!
h�ps://transformers-magazine.com/books/

Subscribe, advertise or contact us for further information

[email protected]
TECHNOLOGY Advertorial

The technology
neutrality conundrum
Could dry and liquid-immersed transformers
ever become technology neutral?

Safety cannot be compromised: The inherent challenges considering

the merits of different technologies within a technology neutral
approach

88 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Müge ÖZERTEN, Stephane ISLER

Technology neutrality brings the inherent challenge of unambiguously

and appropriately accounting for the merits of the different technologies
beyond energy efficiency

Introduction In current policy debates, technology dry-type transformers provide advan­

neutrality is cited as one criterion that tages related to environmental protection,
Transformers are built to be very efficient, should be considered when informing the safety, and fire performance.
and their efficiency yields energy savings design of regulatory instruments. In the
that are spread over the course of their context of transformers, technology neu- Technology neutrality brings the inherent
typical service lifespans of 30 years or challenge of unambiguously and appro-
trality refers to considering all transformer
more. technologies as equal for establishing reg- priately accounting for the merits of the
ulations and standards. different technologies beyond energy ef-
The current set of regulations that relates ficiency, as it increases complexity when
to energy efficiency applicable to trans- Some advocates of the technology-­ performances other than losses are to be
formers is known as the Minimum Ener- neutral approach favour requiring liquid-­ considered.
gy Performance Standards (MEPS). Those immersed and dry-type transformers to
policy instruments and programs are be equally efficient. However, focusing A transformer’s fire behaviour is espe-
aimed at ensuring the adoption and use of exclusively on energy efficiency and losses cially relevant and crucial for that, as no
high-efficiency transformers. might sidestep the consideration of other approach, regulation, or standard can be
performance aspects of transformers. defined at the expense of safety.
Across the globe, multiple transformer
MEPS are in place, differing between re- Different transformer technologies pos- The technology neutrality conundrum
gions and countries such as the European sess distinct performances and merits should then first be addressed to answer
Union, the US, Canada, China, India, Ja- extending beyond energy efficiency to the question of what technology neutral-
pan, Brazil, Australia and New Zealand. be considered depending on the applica- ity really means for transformers: Is it to
The European Union’s mandatory MEPS tion. For example, while liquid-immersed equalize losses or energy efficiency? Equal-
differentiates transformers based on rated transformers generally operate with high- ize fire safety performance? Look for the
power, rated voltage, and technology. er energy efficiency for the same ratings, optimum TCO (total cost of ownership)?

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 89
TECHNOLOGY

Hitachi Energy, with a combined heritage of cludes over 2.5 million and 325 thousand
distribution and dry-type transformers,
more than 250 years and the largest base of respectively, firmly believes that advanc-
ing efficiency is a fundamental pillar of
installed transformers, firmly believes that sustainability.
advancing efficiency is a fundamental pillar
For example, the company has been ac-
of sustainability tively enabling EU policy initiatives like
the EU Green Deal, Fit for 55, and Re-
power EU in Europe.
The minimum carbon footprint? What is to equate energy efficiency across trans-
the weight of other sustainability-­related as- former categories. With an extensive track record in devel-
pects? Are there other implications, such oping different transformer technolo-
as supply chain and availability of materi- This article aims to emphasize the com- gies, their materials, and components,
als, system complexity, increased size and plexity of the issue and the significance of but also their design and manufacturing
dimensions? adopting a holistic approach to spark and processes, we actively and constantly en-
encourage discussion in the industry. gage in the design optimization of our
In light of technology neutrality and using dry and liquid-immersed transformers
reductio ad absurdum, as mathematicians to minimize their carbon footprint and
Hitachi Energy’s contribution
use to validate and develop their theories, thus contribute to a more sustainable and
we could propose to require the same fire to energy efficiency energy-efficient future while preserv-
safety performance regardless of trans- Hitachi Energy, with a combined heritage ing the reliability and availability of our
former technology, as safety is the most of more than 250 years and the largest equipment.
critical priority, instead of only attempting base of installed transformers, which in-
With safety as our first priority, we contin-
ue to dedicate our best efforts to serve our
customers and the industry while advanc-
ing our transformers’ efficiency and tech-
nical and operational performance.

Hitachi Energy’s is adopting a holistic sus-

tainability perspective, wherein we review
and assess all aspects of our value chain,
laying particular emphasis on the follow-
ing four:

• Decarbonization: the reduction of our

transformers’ carbon footprint with
emphasis on loss reduction according
to the energy mix; reduction of the
emissions associated with the whole
value chain, raw materials, suppliers,
manufacturing operations, and end
of life.

While aiming for reli­

ability, efficiency and
sustainability, one
fundamental aspect
that Hitachi Energy
never compromises is
safety, which directly
ties in with their com­
mitment to people

90 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

• Protection of ecosystems.
• Enhanced safety to protect people and
The fire safety performance of transformers
equipment, with fire safety claiming is a significant aspect to be considered
highest priority.
• The responsible use of resources, with within the technology neutrality approach,
recyclability and circularity playing an in addition to weighting other different
important role.
performances
Liquid-immersed distribution
and dry-type transformers
It is well known in the industry that there challenges efficiently. Those technologies Dry-type transformers’ high
are two main categories of transformers have been refined and optimized over fire safety standards merit
for distribution-level applications: liquid­- the years to address design, manufactur- differentiated consideration
-immersed (using mineral oil or alterna- ing, operational, and application chal-
tive fluids such as synthetic or natural es- lenges in a technical and economically While liquid-immersed transformers
ters) and dry-type. sound manner. generally operate with higher energy effi-
ciency, dry-type transformers meet Tier 2
Liquid-immersed transformers are the So, what does technology neutrality re- requirements and provide invaluable safe-
most compact and typically regarded ally mean? Is neutrality intended for use ty and fire performance advantages.
as cost-effective, while dry-type trans­ in equalizing losses (or energy efficiency)
formers are preferred in environments of two completely different concepts of These functionalities are highly valued by
where fire safety is of particular concern, transformer construction when the exist- end-users and align with the objectives
such as buildings and hospitals, under- ing efficiency regulations already set the set forth in Directive 2009/125 EC, as fol-
ground applications, metro and railway standards at a high level? lows.
stations, industries, onboard marine op-
erations, and several others, due to their Special consideration deserves to be giv- 1. Safety and fire performance
differentiated value proposition: They en to analyzing the benefits of marginal
have reduced environmental contami- improvements in the efficiency of trans- The fire risk of ester fluid-filled transform-
nation risks with zero risk of leakage of formers, especially when a very high effi- ers is lower compared to those filled with
flammable or contaminating substances, ciency level has already been set, as recog- mineral oil. Natural ester fluids are classi-
having the lowest fire load. nized by the Tier 2 European regulations. fied as “less flammable” dielectric insulat-
ing fluids, which undoubtedly improve
Both technologies are widely used, and This takes us back to the question we fire safety. It is important to emphasize
customers and end users make their sought to raise in the introductory para- that being “less flammable” means a high-
choices based on their needs and the per- graphs of this paper: As safety is of the er fire point, even if still flammable.
ceived value of the technology for the de- highest priority, should the same fire
sired application. safety performance levels be demand- In line with global standards, regulations
ed, regardless of the transformer tech- and guidelines, rigorous fire behaviour
While aiming for reliability, efficiency, nology? tests have been conducted for dry-type
and sustainability, one fundamental as- transformers for several decades to prove
pect that Hitachi Energy never compro- The argument gets even more complex their superior fire point temperatures and
mises is safety, which directly ties in with when lowering losses as it implies using lower fire loads when compared to liq-
our commitment to people. The focus larger quantities of materials like electri- uid-immersed transformers.
on safety is embedded in our compa- cal steel, copper, aluminum, carbon steel,
ny’s DNA as a socially responsible and and insulation; this requires consider- Typically, the order of magnitude of
sustainable organization. It is our duty ation from both the energy efficiency and the fire load of dry-type transform-
to offer the most suitable transformer broader sustainability perspectives. ers is one-third of the equivalent of
technology while fulfilling their require- liquid-immersed (ester fluid) transform-
ments within the requested areas of ap- Another essential aspect pertains to eval- ers. Additionally, they do not contain any
plication. uation beyond the standalone transform- liquid material, eliminating the risk of
er as an integral part of a more extensive spreading fire.
system and complex operational environ-
Concerns on the practicality,
ment, where the total cost of ownership Accordingly, dry-type transformers play
effectiveness, and possible enters into play. a critical role in ensuring fire safety across
consequences of technology various applications, including but not
neutrality Therefore, the fire safety performance is a limited to hospitals, airports, metros/sub-
significant aspect to be considered with- ways, office buildings, stadiums, nuclear
Transformer technologies have evolved in the technology neutrality approach, in power plants, hydropower plants, wind
from a complex mix of solving dielec- addition to weighting other different per- turbines and marine vessels such as cruise
tric, thermal, mechanical, and magnetic formances. ships, ice breakers, and navy vessels.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 91
TECHNOLOGY

Dry-type transformers possess distinct air-inlet duct. This test verifies that the
transformer’s contribution to feeding
benefits when compared to liquid-­immersed an external fire is negligible and that it
releases limited quantities of harmful
transformers in terms of several fire safety-­ gases and substances. During the test,
related characteristics, such as fire load, temperature levels of the transformer are
taken in several parts, and the transmis-
smoke generation, and the elimination of sion of visible light and air and gas flow
spillage rates are measured. After the test, a re-
port is prepared that provides the results
of the test and compares them with the
standards based on the rise in the tem-
2. Risk of leakage and liquid spills mersed transformers in terms of several perature of the gases and the arithmetic
fire safety-related parameters and attri- mean of the optical transmission factor
Liquid-immersed transformers present butes, such as fire load, smoke generation, of light.
the potential risk of soil and water con- and the elimination of spillage.
tamination during use and throughout This fire behaviour test emphasizes a
their lifecycle in case of leaks (manufac- The fire behaviour test defined in IEC transformer’s ability to maintain safe-
turing, transportation, and disposal). 60076-11 is the method used for the ty in the event of a fire and protect both
assessment of fire performance and lev- personnel and the surrounding environ-
While these risks are adequately man- els of emission of toxic substances and ment. Such a test is not defined for liquid-­
aged through strict industry stan- opaque smoke. The F1-class fire be- immersed transformers. Instead, to pro-
dards and high-quality manufacturing haviour test is conducted in a laborato- tect the environment, alternative methods
methods, by contrast, dry-type trans- ry test chamber under the International are commonly used for liquid-immersed
formers eliminate this risk entirely. Electrotechnical Commission’s (IEC) transformers. These methods include in-
specified conditions; they include pre- stalling firewalls and separators, utilizing
Dry-type transformers possess distinct defined dimensions, temperature lev- water-based fire protection systems, and
benefits when compared to liquid-im- els, heat sources and a chimney with an implementing lightning protection on

92 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

The focus on safety is embedded in Hitachi Energy’s DNA as a socially
responsible and sustainable organization

site. Additional devices are employed to quirements for Transformers, as it is fore- 5) M. Cuesto, M. Oliva, Kai Pollari, Driving
reduce potential transformer failure rates seen that it could require liquid-immersed down losses, Transformers Magazine 2019,
to further enhance protection. These de- and dry-type transformers to be equally Vol. 6 Issue
vices are circuit breakers or other com- efficient and also treat ester fluid-filled
ponents protecting the transformer from liquid-immersed transformers the same as Discover more about Hitachi Energy’s
earthing faults, over-current, voltage, and dry-type transformers from a safety per- distribution transformers
pressure. While some of these devices can spective, instead of weighting their respec-
also be used for dry-type trans­formers, tive performances accordingly.
they help reduce fire risk in liquid-­
immersed transformers by diminishing We suggest carefully reconsidering the
failure risks and the risk of tank rupture, technology-neutral approach to avoid
which indirectly helps to avoid explosions unintended consequences, as focusing
and oil spills. exclusively on energy efficiency and losses
might sidestep the consideration of other
However, the ultimate decision lies with relevant performance aspects of trans-
the transformer buyer or end user, who formers beyond energy efficiency, like fire Authors
must weigh their willingness to pay for the safety performance. Müge Özerten
additional installation of fire protection works at Hitachi
systems while being aware of the superior While aiming for reliability, efficiency, Energy, Trans-
safety of dry-type transformers. and sustainability, one fundamental as-
formers Business,
pect that Hitachi Energy never compro-
For the above reasons, installing dry- mises is safety, which is directly tied to our
as a Global Prod-
type transformers in locations such as commitment to people. uct Manager for
hospitals, airports, metros/subways, of- dry-type trans-
fice buildings, stadiums, nuclear power While maintaining adequate levels of en- formers. She holds a master’s degree
plants, hydropower plants, wind tur- ergy efficiency in transformers, keeping in Design and Engineering from
bines and marine vessels such as cruise proper, efficient, and differentiated tech- Politecnico di Milano, Italy and
ships, ice breakers, and navy vessels, is nological standards will facilitate the con- another master’s degree in Ener-
not just a wise choice, it is a strategic de- sideration of distinct functionalities and gy Technologies and Management
cision that prioritizes safety above any advantages while highlighting the impor-
from Sabanci University, Turkey.
other aspect. tance of continued market availability of
different, well-established transformer She joined Hitachi Energy in Tur-
technologies, ensuring the best outcomes key in 2010, where she held several
Rethinking and reinventing engineering and leadership roles in
for end-users, safety, and the environment.
the technology-neutral business R&D and Product Man-
approach for transformers agement. She is currently based in
Bibliography
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
This article has presented the complexity 1) C. Roy, R. Murillo, L. Cebrián, M. Ber-
of technology neutrality for transformers rogain, J. L. Brewer, J. Williams, Dry-type Stephane Isler
and the significance of adopting a holistic 145 kV transformers: safe indoor substa- works at Hitachi
approach to encourage discussion in the tions with improved environmental per-
Energy, Trans-
industry. formance, CIGRE 2022, Paris
formers Business,
Technology neutrality brings the inherent 2) L. Cebrian, R. Murillo, M. Cuesto, Envi-
as Global Tech-
challenge of unambiguously and appro- ronmental protection for larger onshore nology Manager
priately accounting for the merits of the and offshore wind turbine transformers, for distribution
different technologies beyond energy ef- ARWtr2016, La Toja-Spain and traction trans­­formers. He holds
ficiency, as it increases complexity when a master’s degree in Electrical En-
performances other than losses are to be 3) M. Carlen, M. Berrogain, R. Cameroni, gineering from CentraleSupelec,
considered. M, Spiranelli, Dry-type subtransmission France. He joined Hitachi Energy in
transformer: compact and safe indoor Switzerland in 2011 and held several
Hitachi Energy is strongly concerned substations, CIGRE 2014, Paris engineering and leadership roles in
about the potential adoption of a technol- business R&D. He is currently based
ogy-neutral approach as proposed within 4) IEC 60076-11: 2018, Power Transformers in Geneva, Switzerland.
the European Tier 3 Energy Efficiency Re- - Part 11: Dry-type transformer

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 93
TECHNOLOGY

Investigation of magnetic
wall shunt combinations
on 650 MVA power
transformers by finite
element methods

in high magnetic permeability and reduced performance. By improving

ABSTRACT
high conductivity of components such stray loss distribution in power trans-
Power transformer losses mainly in- as tanks, windings, and struc­ tural formers, magnetic wall shunt design
clude open circuit loss and short cir- parts. This is why the volume limit can be optimized, and the tradeoff
cuit loss. Open circuit loss is created of power transformers and the ratio of cost and performance can be bal-
in the iron core of the transformer. of stray loss in structural parts and anced.
Short circuit loss, copper loss, and the tank cannot be ignored. This has
stray loss are known collectively as led transformer manufacturers to add KEYWORDS:
“short circuit loss”. Copper loss is magnetic wall shunts to reduce stray
created in windings: current flows loss. But often, too many magnetic Stray loss, Magnetic wall shunts, Finite
through the DC resistance in windings. wall shunts are added or misplaced, Element Methods (FEM), Eddy current,
Stray loss is caused by eddy currents which results in increased cost and Thermal analysis

94 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 Ramazan ALTAY, Irem HAZAR, Necmettin MERT KOÇANALI, Caner ADISEN, Mahmut AKSOY

Technical specifications, manufacturing

costs, capitalization costs, and material
costs must be considered to optimize
transformer design

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 95
TECHNOLOGY

Controlling stray loss, and the resulting hot spots and temperature ris­
es can be the most important way to ensure the proper operation of a
transformer
1 Introduction in magnetic components of a transformer dimensions. Losses generated heat in the
Today, transformer design has been lim- [5]. thermal analysis procedure. The expected
ited by size due to field applications and results were to find the hottest region in a
transportation. As such, power trans- The literature includes research which transformer by determining the tempera-
former designers account for efficiency, determines and reduces hot spots on ture distribution in its basic components.
insulation, and cooling systems. Technical tank walls and other structural compo- Finally, the thermal field of a 650MVA
specifications, manufacturing costs, capi- nents of a transformer. To determine oil-immersed autotransformer was mod-
talization costs, and material costs must hot spots, transformer stray loss should eled in 3D and analyzed by FEM.
be considered to optimize transformer be examined. Calculation of stray loss is
design. [1] Therefore, stray loss in metal not a simple task; the transformer has a
parts cannot be ignored as the capacities nonuniform structure. The calculation is 2 Design parameters
of power transformers increase. [2] This complex because of the following: Transformer design parameters are
has led transformer manufacturers to add shown in Table 1. The voltage and num-
magnetic wall shunts to reduce stray loss. • modeling of magnetic nonlinearity, ber of turns used in the analyses are also
However, when too many magnetic wall • difficulty in calculating stray areas and given in the table. Three different cooling
shunts are added or misplaced, trans- effects quickly and accurately, stages are included, depending on the rat-
former cost increases and performance • inability to isolate certain stray loss ed power.
decreases. Therefore, the stray loss distri- components from the load under test,
bution of power transformers should be • limitations of experimental verification Controlling stray loss, and the resulting
investigated. The optimal design of mag- methods for large power transformers. hot spots and temperature rises can be
netic wall shunts can be balanced against the most important way to ensure the
cost and performance. [3] Present-day Multiple studies are conducted here to re- proper operation of a transformer. Eddy
transformer manufacturers should use duce transformer losses, and the best se- current loss is a large portion of the stray
Finite Element Methods (FEM) to ana- lected. A thermal model is proposed as a loss. Magnetic leakage and eddy current
lyze power transformers. Design can be result of the latter in order to obtain tem- loss must be examined in depth. [6-7] A
optimized when transformer operating perature distribution in a transformer. 3D geometric model of the power trans-
conditions are predicted accurately. [4] The proposed model is formulated with former is created and analyzed with FEM
ANSYS@Maxwell and ANSYS@Me- 3D. Different types of magnetic wall
In this study, ANSYS@Maxwell and AN- chanical software, which performed field shunts are used to reduce eddy current
SYS@Mechanical modules were used to analyses and solved energy equations loss in the transformer. The effects of wall
optimize the application of magnetic wall based on FEM. These values are calculat- shunts on eddy current loss are discussed
shunts and decrease the temperature rise ed using transformer characteristics and below.

Table 1. Design Parameters of the Autotransformer

Rated power 650 MVA

Connection type YNa0d11

Cooling system ONAN / ONAF I / ONAF II

Core leg type 3/0

Frequency (Hz) 50

Core material MOH-0.75

LV – TAP
HV Winding LV Winding TV Winding
Winding

Rated voltage (kV) 420 170 170 46

Number of turns 468 368 78 131

Current (A) 938.2 981.4 981.4 1514.6

96 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Figure 1. 650 MVA Autotransformer Model

3 Theory J = σE Hy and current density Jx are func-

B = μH tions of z. Complex permeability can
3.1. Stray Loss be written in the equation for this
Where: problem.
Leakage flux causes eddy currents in
transformer windings, which generates µ = permeability of material (H/m) d 2H y
= jωσμHy
heat. This power loss is called “stray loss.” σ = conductivity of material (S/m) dz2
Stray loss in the transformer tank can be
∇(∇.H) – ∇2H = ∇xJ At z = 0, Hy= Hae-mz
estimated by means of the Poynting vec-
tor. Maxwell’s equations are used to cal-
culate stray loss. [8-10] ∇2H – μσ ∂H = 0 m = √jωσμ = (1+j) ωσμ
∂t 2
Stray loss in tank walls and yoke beams Assume a structural component (see
is calculated using surface impedance Figure 2). Magnetic field intensity Where Ha is a constant and m is the prop-
boundary conditions. Magnetic wall agation constant.
shunts are modeled with nonlinear aniso-
tropic permeability; corresponding losses
are calculated by FEM. [8-10]
∇xΕ = – ∂B
∂t
∇xH = J
∇.B = 0
Where:

H = magnetic field strength (A/m)

E = electric field strength (V/m)
B = flux density (T)
J = current density (A/m2)
D = electric flux density (C/m2)

Two constitutive equations are: Figure 2. Stray Loss in Structural Components

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 97
FAILURES

Leakage flux causes eddy currents in transformer windings, which

generates heat, and the corresponding power loss is called “stray loss”

– (1 +j)z
H y = H ae δ
3.2. Thermal where q is the local convection heat,
transferred in height z in the outer sur-
Radiation
Simplifying by putting equations in place, face (watt), q the local convection heat
the following emerges. For the outer surface, heat radiation is ex- flux at location z in the outer surface
pressed in the equation below: (W/m2), q” co the average heat flux in
(1+j) – (1 +j)z q the outer surface (W/m2, h the local heat
Jx = H ae δ q”(z)= = εσ(T4s –Tair 4
)
δ transfer coefficient for convection from
A
the outer surface (W/(m2 °C), kair the
Calculating the real part of the complex where q is the local radiation heat, trans- thermal conductivity of air °C), Gr* the
Poynting vector at the surface gives the ferred in height z in the outer surface (W), Grashof number for uniform heat flux,
time-averaged density of stray loss from q” is the local radiation heat flux in height Nuz the Nusselt number, Pr the Prandtl
the transformer tank. z in the outer surface (W/m2), h the lo- number, β the volumetric expansion of
cal heat transfer coefficient for radiation air (1/°C), ν the kinematical viscosity of
1
P= R[ExH] from the outer surface (W/(m2 °C)), ε the air (m | 2 ⁄s), g the acceleration of gravity
2 emissivity coefficient of the surface, Ts the (m/s2 ), and z is the vertical distance (m).
On the surface (z = 0), the stray loss per local temperature of the surface (°C), Tair The above mentioned equations are valid
unit surface area is the air temperature (°C), A the surface on over Grashof ’s range (105≤ Gr* ≤ 1010).
which radiation occurs (m2), and r is Ste- [11-12] Note that β, ν, and kair are depen-
P = μω
8σ ∫ surface
Ha2ds fan-Boltzmann’s coefficient (5.67 X 10(-8)
W/(m2, K4)).
dent on unknown temperatures. [13]

Natural Convection Conduction

q
Coupled electromag­ q”(z)= h(Ts –Tair )
A
Q = kA∇T
netic and thermal finite Nuzkair Conduction heat is transferred from
h(z)=
element calculations Z
1
the hotter end to the colder end of a
4Pr2Gr* 5 material. The ability of the material to
should be conducted to Nuz =
36 + 45Pr
conduct heat is known as thermal con-
estimate the stray loss­ gβq”z4
ductivity and is denoted k (W/mK).
Variable “A” is the surface conduction
Gr* =
es and the hot spots kairϑ4 transfer area. ∆T is differential tempera-

Figure 3. 3D Analysis Model of an Autotransformer

98 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Figure 4. Different Combinations of Tank Wall Shunts

Two different wall shunt combinations are modeled for an autotrans­

former: one with 18, 35mm thick, magnetic wall shunts placed vertical­
ly, and the other with 11, 21 mm thick wall shunts placed horizontally on
LV side walls

ture between a cold surface and a hot modeling. The core, its clamping struc- wall shunts’ CRGO electrical steel is M5,
surface. ture (frames and Flitch Plates), windings, 0.50 mm wide. Stacking factors for
transformer tank, and wall shunts are “MOH – 0.75” and “M5” electrical steel are
constructed as base components in the defined for stacking directions (X, Y, Z).
4. Finite element analysis
electromagnetic model.
model Peak current values, number of turns,
4.1. Autotransformer Simulation The magnetic properties of materials are and phase angles are used, respectively,
Model shown in Table 2. Relative permeability as input data for each of the 3 wound
is defined in “B-H Curves” for more ac- phase legs in electromagnetic models,
The 3D model of a three-phase, three- curate results. The material type for tank as shown in Table 3. Peak current values
limb transformer is shown in Figure 3. walls and core frames (St-37-2) steel plate are given because of software conven-
The model is composed of the excitation is “mild steel”. The core’s CRGO electri- tions. Phase angles are provided because
coil, iron core, and test environment. cal steel is “MOH – 0.75”. How­ever, the phases are 120 degrees apart.

Two different wall shunt combinations

are modeled for an autotransformer. In
one, 18 magnetic wall shunts, 35 mm Eddy current fields and the losses in the
thick were placed vertically on LV walls structure parts of the transformer are ana­
of the transformer tank. In the other, 11
wall shunts, 21 mm thick, were placed lyzed, as well as eddy current loss distribu­
horizontally on LV walls. tions in tank walls and clamps
4.2 Electromagnetic Analysis

Eddy current fields and the losses in the Table 2. Materials in the Simulation Model
structure parts of the transformer are an-
alyzed, as well as eddy current loss distri- Name Material
butions in tank walls and clamps.
Excitation Coil Copper
Capacity is 650 MVA, the rated voltage
of the HV side is 420 kV, and the rated Core MOH-0.75
voltage of the LV side is 170 kV. The volt-
age adjustment range is about 10% on the Clamps Stainless Stell
LV side: the maximum voltage is 187 kV,
and the minimum 153 kV. Flitch Plates St-37-2

Transformers have an active part and Copper St-37-2

a whole tank with base geometry for

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 99
FAILURES

Table 3. Excitation in the Simulation Model

Winding Name Type Phase Excitation

HV-A Current 0 938.2*468*√2

LV-A Current 0 981.4*368*√2

TAP-A Current 0 981.4*78*√2

HV-B Current 120 938.2*468*√2

LV-B Current 120 981.4*368*√2

TAP-B Current 120 981.4*78*√2

HV-C Current 240 938.2*468*√2

LV-C Current 240 981.4*368*√2

TAP-C Current 240 981.4*78*√2

Figure 5. Winding Excitation and Direction

Temperature rises in transformer tank and steel are calculated with

losses obtained from electromagnetic analyses

4.3. Thermal Analysis In thermal analyses, heat radiation is ANSYS Mechanical Library. On the other
defined at the outer surface of the tank, hand, convection boundary conditions
Temperature rises in transformer tank which demonstrates the efficacy of ther- for oil are defined at the inner surfaces
and steel are calculated with losses ob- mal radiation cooling. Emissivity is taken of the tank and the other metallic parts.
tained from electromagnetic analyses. from RAL paint tables. Convection from Convection coefficients are obtained and
Ambient temperature is defined on the the tank to air is also defined at the outer validated by internal studies as well as tests
outer surfaces of the transformer tank. surface of the tank. The convection co- performed for BEST transformers. Con-
Oil temperatures are defined at the inner efficient of air is taken directly from the vection coefficients are shown in Figure 6.
surfaces of the tank and other metallic
clamping parts’ surfaces. Oil temperature
is defined as a gradient from bottom to Stray loss and temperature distribution in
top. Ambient temperatures and bottom
and top oil temperatures are determined three-phase, three-limb power trans­
by formulae in IEC 60076 and in design formers are analyzed by simulation and FEA
tools created by the BEST transformer
company. modeling
100 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024
5. Finite Element Analysis
Results

Stray loss and temperature distribution

in three-phase, three-limb power trans-
formers are analyzed by simulation and
FEA modeling. First, stray and maxi-
mum total losses are analyzed by 3D FEA
models. Next, stray losses from ANSYS
MAXWELL are defined as inputs to
ANSYS MECHANICAL. Accordingly,
the temperature distribution in an auto-
transformer is examined for metal parts
(clamps, Flitch Plates).

The 3D FEM analysis reveals that hori-

zontal magnetic wall shunt combinations
prevail thermally and volumetrically. Figure 6. Convection Coefficient vs. Temperature

6. Conclusion
leading method is presented with several not as effective as vertical shunts on end
Effects of horizontal and vertical wall optimizations. The hot spot temperature walls, where most leakage flux is sin-
shunt arrangements are examined. Re- was below temperature rise limits de- gle phase, without much cancellation.
ductions of leakage loss in power trans- fined in IEC tables: no hazard is foreseen As such, the former reduces losses and
formers are compared. The investigation for insulation material with respect to temperatures less effectively. Finally,
is carried out by 3D FEA using ANSYS@ temperature endurance limits. The 3D horizontal shunts are less effective on
Maxwell and ANSYS@Mechanical. The FEM analyses for this autotransformer zero sequence flux caused by system
efficacy of magnetic wall shunt orienta- demonstrate that horizontal magnetic events such as Ground Induced Cur-
tion for autotransformers is evaluated wall shunts provide the best thermal rents (GIC) or unbalanced phase loads.
by means of 3D FEM. The problem was and volumetric results due to collect- Accordingly, practical transformer de-
solved as a nonlinear, multi-objective, ing and cancelling three-phase leakage signs should continue to utilize vertical
constrained optimization problem. The fluxes. However, horizontal shunts are shunts.

Table 4. Results of Thermal Analyses

Shunts
Hot spot (°C)
Volume (m3)
Combination
Bottom
Tank Top Clamp Flitch Plate
Clamp

Vertical Magnetic Shunt (35mm) 111.30 122.92 122.30 112.31 7.2

Horizontal Magnetic Shunt (25mm) 104.6 122.17 122.03 112.2 6.2

Table 5. Temperature Distribution of an Autotransformer

Vertical Magnetic Shunt (35mm) Horizontal Magnetic Shunt (25mm)

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 101
FAILURES

7. References [11] L. W. Pierce, “Predicting hottest [12] T. L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine, F. P. In-

[1] W. C. Chang and C. C. Kuo, “A nov- spot temperatures in ventilat- cropera, and D. P. DeWitt, “Introduction
el excitation approach for power trans- ed dry type transformer windings,” to heat transfer,” John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
former simulation based on finite ele- IEEE Transactions on Power De-
ment analysis,” Applied Sciences, vol. 11, livery, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 1160-1172, [13] J. P. Holman, “Heat transfer,” Mc-
no. 21, p. 10334, 2021. 1994. Graw Hill, 1986.
IEWED
[2] A. S. Reddy and M. Vijaykumar, “Hot- PEER REV
test Spot and Life Evaluation Of Power
Transformer Design Using Finite Ele-
ment Method,” Journal Of Theoretical & Authors
Applied Information Technology, vol. 4, Ramazan Altay has been a researcher and R&D analysis
no. 3, 2008. division manager at BEST Transformer since 2021. He
received a bachelor degree in machine engineering
[3] M. A. Tsili, A. G. Kladas, P. S. Geor- from Balıkesir university in 2012, a Masters degree in
gilakis, A. T. Souflaris, and D. G. Papari- mechanical engineering from Balıkesir university in
gas, “Geometry optimization of magnetic
shunts in power transformers based on a 2018, and has been enrolled at a doctorate program
particular hybrid finite-element bound- at the University of Cantbria since 2019. He started
ary-element model and sensitivity analy- his career at BEST Transformer as a mechanical design engineer in 2014,
sis,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. becoming an R&D mechanical analysis engineer in 2017.
41, no. 5, pp. 1776-1779, 2005.

[4] M. Moghaddami, A. I. Sarwat, and F. İrem Hazar has been a researcher and an R&D
De Leon, “Reduction of stray loss in pow- electrical analysis engineer at BEST Transformer since
er transformers using horizontal mag- 2021. She received a bachelor degree in electrical and
netic wall shunts,” IEEE Transactions on electronic engineering from the Celal Bayar University
Magnetics, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 1, 2016. in Manisa in 2016, obtaining a Masters degree at the same
university in 2020. Before her appointment at BEST, she
[5] ANSYS Inc., “C.P.U.,” Available at:
worked at İşbir Elektrik Sanayi as an R&D engineer.
www.ansys.com, [Accessed: 1 June 2022].

[6] M. Rizzo, A. Savini, and J. Turowski, Necmettin Mert Koçanalı has been a researcher and
“Influence of flux collectors on stray loss- an R&D mechanic analysis since 2021. He received a
es in transformers,” IEEE Transactions on bachelor degree in machine engineering from the Katip
Magnetics, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 1915-1918,
Çelebi University in İzmir in 2021, and is currently
2000.
working on obtaining a Masters degree in mechanical
[7] M. V. Vega, R. E. Perez, and T. Niewi- engineering at the same university.
erowicz, “3D finite element estimation of
stray losses in three-phase transformers,” Caner Adışen has been a researcher and an R&D
Journal of applied computer science, vol.
mechanic analysis since 2023. He received an
16, no. 1, pp. 89-100, 2008.
undergraduate degree in machine engineering from
[8] S. V. Kulkarni and S. A. Khaparde, the University of Balıkesir in 2012, and is currently
“Transformer engineering: design, tech- working on obtaining a Masters degree in machine
nology, and diagnostics,” CRC press, 2017. engineering at the same university.

[9] J. U. Kothavade and P. Kundu, “In-

vestigation of Stray Losses in Converter Mahmut Aksoy has been the research and development
Transformer Using Parametric Analysis manager at BEST Transformer since 2022. He graduated
of Wall Shunt Thickness,” Journal of Op- from the Istanbul Technical University in 2003 with a
eration and Automation in Power Engi- bachelor degree in Electrical Engineering. In 2012 he
neering, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 240-248, 2023. obtained an MBA at Istanbul Bilgi University. From
2008 to 2021, he was the director of electrical design
[10] K. H. Park, H. J. Lee, and S. C. Hahn,
“Finite-element modeling and experi- and, from 2021-2022, the director of the development
mental verification of stray-loss reduc- of design analysis in the company. Priorto his appointment at BEST, he
tion in power transformer tank with wall worked in companies such as Vestel Beyaz Eşya A.Ş., Alarko-Carrier A.Ş.
shunt,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, and Areva T&D.
vol. 55, no. 12, pp. 1-4, 2019.

102 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Special Edition:
Digitalization
Digitalization is one the powerful forces shaping the development of markets and
technology, including the transformer market and technology.

Transformers Magazine’s previous Industry Navigator research projects have demonstrated

that digitalization is a subject of high interest, with most companies involved in digitalization
initiatives and finding new solutions.
The goal of Transformers Magazine’s November 2024 special edition is to share information and
present new ideas that will help the market to advance in this field.
We cordially invite all interested parties including academic researchers, professional engineers,
electrical utilities and consultants, as well as component and material manufacturers to take
part in this Special Edition.

Call for editors / reviewers

To provide the best possible technical support, we invite professionals and experts involved
in this field to join our Editorial Board as editors / reviewers for this Special Edition. Please
express your interest by 15 June 2024.

Publish with readers’ favourite magazine

We invite authors to submit manuscripts by 15 June 2024

Promote
Promote your products and services to the targeted audience through this Special
Edition. Find all details on our website or contact us.

www.transformers-magazine.com/contact-us.html
TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

General guidelines for

safekeeping of high voltage
transformers - Part II
Manufacturer) guidelines must be fol- ers, and substation engineers in the
ABSTRACT
lowed. This article is a significant and absence of any guidelines issued by
Transformers such as HV/EHV (132 kV important contribution of experienced their utilities or in the industry.
and above) are the most vital and cost- engineers in O&M and testing and
ly equipment in power systems and commissioning up to 400 kV in HV/ KEYWORDS:
large Industries. It is the prime duty of EHV substations. The authors deliber-
HV/EHV substation managers, asset ate all the aspects from receiving the N2 (nitrogen gas), SFRA (Sweep Fre-
managers, and substation Operation & consignment of an EHV Transformer quency Response Analysis), FAT (Fac-
Maintenance (O&M) engineers to look on-site through its lifecycle, including tory Acceptance Test), TCIV (Trans-
after transformers, beginning from O&M and life expectancy enhance- former Conservator Isolation Valve),
receipt on-site through their lifecycle ment. OEM (Original Equipment Manufactur-
scrupulously with motherly feelings. er), DGA (Dissolved Gas Analysis), FDS
This article serves as a guideline for (Frequency Domain Spectroscopy), fu-
Generally, OEM (Original Equipment substation managers, asset manag- ran analysis

104 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

 K. K. MURTY, J. J. L. KAPIL, Santosh DUBEY, S. K. CHATURVEDI

Bushings should be thoroughly

checked for cracks and oil leakage
since even a hairline thin crack over
the condenser portion of the bushing
renders the bushing useless

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 105
TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

Since the bushings of transformers and reactors rated 400 kV and up

are physically long, utmost care should be taken when lowering the
bushings into the tank through the turrets

5. Erection of bushings
5.1 Before erection of bushings

i. Tally and confirm the number of

bushings from the FAT.
ii. Bushings should be thoroughly
checked for cracks and oil leakage.
Even a hairline thin crack over the
condenser portion of the bushing ren-
ders the bushing useless. Therefore,
proper handling of bushing should be
ensured.
iii. In this era, bushings are hermetically
Figure 5A. Bushing CTs (Turret CTs)
sealed. Leaky bushings should not be
used as the leak is a source of moisture
ingression.
iv. Before installation of the bushings,
the bushing of (current transformers)
CTs (turret CTs) should be tested for
ratio, polarity, winding resistance,
and knee point voltage using a test-kit
CT analyzer conforming to IS:16227,
part 2 / IEC 61869-2.

Note: Some OEMs dispatch turrets

with BCTs fitted inside with blanking
plates on either side of the turrets. In
such case, remove the blanking plates
Figure 5B. Hydra Long-boom crane

Figure 6. Lowering a 420 kV bushing by means of two Hydra long-boom cranes

106 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

and test the BCTs as described above.
Also, test for the IR value of the second-
ary winding terminals to earth (turret
body), before fitting the turrets on the
ear-marked locations of the transformer
body.

i. IR value of the bushings should be

taken before installation.
ii. Record tan-δ measurements if avail-
able.

Note: The quantities tan-δ and C should

be measured after holding the bushing in
an up-right position on a specially fabri-
cated structure for 24 hrs.

5.2 Lowering down the bushings

i. Care should be taken when lowering

bushings into the tank through the
turrets. Such jobs are executed with
a single long-boom crane. Use nylon
ropes for handling bushings and for
aligning a bushing’s lower portion as
per the angular deviation of the tur-
Figure 7A. Draw-lead of the draw-lead type bushing
rets. Care should be taken to prevent
the bushing’s lower portion from foul-
ing the bushing CTs.
ii. Since the bushings of transformers
and reactors rated 400 kV and up are
physically long, utmost care should
be taken when lowering the bushings
into the tank through the turrets. It is
recommended by OEMs to use two
long-boom Hydra cranes to execute
such precision jobs.

Note: (a) As seen in Figure 6, two long-

Figure 7B. Draw-rod type bushing
boom cranes are used. One crane lifts the
bushing. The other crane is dedicated to
carrying a beltman with the assigned job
of lowering down and pulling up the draw
lead / draw-rod and fixing the bushing
terminal; (b) while lowering the bush-
ing, care must be taken to ensure that the
bushing does not foul with the bushing
CTs (turret CTs).

5.3 Procedure

a. Pull the lead up from the winding.

b. Lower down the draw-lead / draw-rod
of the bushing (see Figures 7A and 7B). to the
Couple the half-lap joint clamp of the
lead from the winding with the half-lap bushing
joint clamp of the draw-lead / draw-
rod of the bushing together and tighten
them (Figure 7C). Insulate them with
crepe paper tape and wrap cotton tape
From the winding
over the same. In the case of draw-lead, Figure 7C. The joint between the draw-rod of the bushing and the winding lead

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 107
 TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

After the bushings are installed on the turrets, ensure that the tan-δ
measuring test-tap cover provided on the bushings is properly fitted and
the condenser is properly grounded on the tank cover of the transformer

care should be taken so that the lead is

not twisted. Otherwise, the lead will
fall short.
c. Pull the draw-lead/draw-rod up and
Bushing terminal tighten the top terminal of the bushing.
is screwed on this
threaded portion a) Pull the bushing up and hold it in
position by inserting a pin through
the draw lead (Figure 7D).
b) Pull the draw-rod type bushing up
and screw the bushing terminal
over it.

d. After the bushings are installed on

the turrets, ensure that the tan-δ mea-
suring test-tap cover provided on the
bushings is properly fitted and the
condenser is properly grounded on the
tank cover of the transformer.

6. Erection of radiators,
thermo-siphon, PRV and
pipelines from main tank
Pin for holding
to conservator, including
the Draw lead
Buchholz relay
6.1 Erection of NIFPS fire protection
system and Buchholz relay

In case the transformer is equipped with

NIFPS (Nitrogen Injection Fire Protec-
Figure 7D. Illustration of how to insert a pin through the draw lead
tion System):
a) Preparation of the oil sump, supply of
equipment, installation, and commis-
sioning are in the scope of the OEM of
NIFPS.
b) The following components are to be
fitted sequentially when assembling
the pipe from the conservator to the
main tank:
(i) Buchholz relay

Note: (a) Arrow embossed on Buchholz

relay must point towards the conservator.
(b) The “Test & Service Switch” should be
locked in the service position properly;
otherwise, it could shift to the test posi-
tion due to vibration, and the transformer
will trip.

(ii) TCIV (Transformer Conservator

Isolation Valve) (Figure 8A)
Figure 7E. Display of a bushing terminal (iii) steel bellow pipe

108 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Figure 8A. Showing a Buchholz relay (with acrylic cover to protect against rainfall) and TCIV (Transformer Conservator Isolation Valve)

Figure 8B. Buchholz relay

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 109
TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

If the temperature exceeds the set value, the automatic MulsiFyre

system sprays water at high pressure on the surface of the transformer
to control the fire of burning spilt oil

6.2 Fire protection system option –

automatic MulsiFyre system [2]

The MulsiFyre system is widely used for

firefighting outdoor transformer fires.
Fire detectors located at various strategic
points sense high temperatures near the
transformer. If the temperature exceeds
the set value, the automatic MulsiFyre sys-
tem sprays water at high pressure on the
surface of the transformer to control the
fire of burning spilt oil.

Primary components:

a. Main hydrant: carries water as the fire

extinguisher.
b. Fire detectors are generally thermo-
couples.
c. Ring mains and nozzles: ring mains
surround the transformer and feed wa-
ter at high pressure to nozzles at differ-
ent levels.
d. Pumps: feed water to the main hydrant.

Note: The supply of equipment, erection,

and maintenance are generally the re-
sponsibility of OEMs.

6.3 Conservator erection

a. Before erecting the conservator, check

Figure 9. Automatic MulsiFyre system for leakage of the air cell (Fig 10B).

Note: (i) N2-filled conservator: this sys-

tem has an N2 gas replenishment attach-
ment which continuously maintains
N2 pressure above the oil; (ii) air cell
system.

b. Install the air-cell according to instruc-

tions from the OEM. The procedure
is described in sub-chapters 6.4.1 and
6.4.2.

6.3.1 Installation of air cell

Steps to be taken chronologically:

a. Insert the air cell into the conservator

Figure 10A. The main component of the conservator is an air cell through the open end.

110 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

b. Suspend the air cell from the hooks (2)
in the ceiling of the conservator using
Before putting the breather into service,
loops. silica gel granules are filled in from the top
c. Close the open end of the conservator.
d. Fill the air cell to a pressure of 10 kPa and blanked with a plug
(0.1 bar). Close the filling valve (3)
while leaving the system pressurized.
A relief hole (4) must be placed on the
oil-filled side of the conservator so that
the air cell may expand freely.
e. The air cell will gradually stabilize.
After six hours, adjust the air pres-
sure again to 10 kPa (0.1 bar). After
24 hours, check the pressure reading
again. If the pressure has not dropped
significantly, it passes the test. Tem-
perature should be as stable as possible
during the leakage testing period.

6.3.2 Filling the conservator

Sequential steps:

a. Before filling the oil, turn the TCIV to

filtration mode.
b. The pressure of air in the air cell should Figure 10B. Air-cell
be 10 kPa (0.1 bar). If not, then increase
pressure to the correct level and close
the air-fill valve.
c. Confirm that air vent valves (4) are
open at both ends of the conservator.
d. Open valve (6) between the conser-
vator and transformer tank. Pump
in more oil so that the oil rises to the
conservator. Limit pump speed so that
pressure within the air cell does not ex-
ceed 13 kPa (0.13 bar). Stop pumping
when oil comes out of the vent valves
and close the vent screws.
e. Regulate air cell pressure by opening
the plug in the flange or air fill valve Figure10C. Installation of an air cell
from which the pressure hose was re-
moved.
f. Reopen valve (6) between the con-
servator and the transformer tank.
Continue to fill with oil until the oil
level indicator gives the correct read-
ing according to the temperature of the
transformer.

Note: Instructions for inflating the air cell

and filling oil are generally affixed to the
transformer body by OEMs.
6.3.3 Magnetic oil level gauge (MOG)
A float senses the oil level inside the
conservator tank. This information is
transmitted to a switch mechanism by
means of magnetic coupling. The float
and the magnetic mechanism are sealed.
The pointer connected to the magnetic Figure 10D: Conceptual figure of MOG.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 111
TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

Figure 11A. Silica gel breather Figure 11B. Twin-silica gel breather in service

Figure 12A. WTI and OTI bulbs and RTD Pt-100 units are shown in
the respective pockets on the top of the transformer

Figure 12 B. WTI meters Figure 12C. OTI meter

112 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

Steel capillary tubes are normally quite flexible, but they should not
be bent sharply, and they should be supported with clips to prevent
sagging

mechanism indicates the correct oil lev- CT current in the CCU (Figure 12D), face area for dissipating heat from oil.
el. It should be ensured that the oil level and its output is displayed remotely (Fig-
6.7.2 Cleaning and checking
is indicated by the MOG dial at 35 °C. A ure 12E).
micro-switch signals an alarm when the i. Radiators must be cleaned externally.
oil level is low. They are also required to be cleaned in-
6.7 Cooling system
ternally by flashing with transformer-­
6.7.1 Radiators insulating oil.
6.4 Erection of breather
ii. Before internal cleaning, it is necessary
Assemble a pipeline from the conserva- The basic function of radiators is to im- to check for radiator leakage: one side
tor to the breather mount (Figures 11A prove transformer cooling. Thus, they of the radiator is blanked with a blank-
and 11B). The breather is connected to play a vital role in increasing transformer ing plate fitted with a pressure gauge,
the transformer by either a threaded or load capacity. The working principle of and the other side is fitted with an NRV.
flanged joint (after removing the seal). radiators is very simple: they increase sur- Air is injected through the NRV with a
Before putting the breather into service,
silica gel granules are filled in from the
top and blanked with a plug. Silica gel
is blue when dry and pink when moist.
Remove the oil cup and fill it with fresh
transformer oil up to the line marked
on the cup. Remove the seals on the air
holes of the cup and fit the cup to the
breather.

6.6 Installation of OTI and WTI

system
Thermometer bulbs at the end of capillary
pipes and RTD Pt-100 sensor units (Fig-
ure 12 A) are inserted in earmarked pock-
ets (filled with transformer oil) on the
top of the transformer for OTI and WTI.
Both oil temperature and winding tem-
perature meters (Figures 12B and 12C)
are provided with maximum pointers
and mercury switches. Precaution: steel
capillary tubes are normally quite flexible, Figure 12D. Winding current compensation unit (CCU)
but they should not be bent sharply. They
should be supported with clips to prevent
sagging. Temperature measured through
RTD Pt-100 is compensated with WTI

The basic function of

radiators is to improve
transformer cooling,
and they play a vi­
tal role in increasing
transformer load ca­
pacity Figure 12E. Remote display meters of WTI and OTI on RTCC pane

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 113
TRANSFORMER LIFECYCLE

Radiators may be
mounted on separate
frames for large trans­
formers and flanges
are provided on these
headers for fixing the
radiators

pump or compressor up to a pressure

of 0.2 kg/cm2 for 2 to 3 hours. Reduce
the pressure if air leaks.
iii. Repair leakage if necessary and check
again.
iv. The valve blanking plate is to be re-
moved only when the radiator is ready
to mount on flanges.
Figure 13A. Body mounted radiators
6.7.3 Procedure for erection of radiators
i. Lift the radiator vertically. Bring the
radiator near to the valve. Remove
the blanking plates from the valve.
Slide the radiator on the bolt from the
pipe flange for the radiator valve and
tighten using plain washers, spring
washers, and nuts. Tighten nuts in se-
quence, applying uniform pressure on
the gasket to make a proper leakproof
fitting. Assemble all radiators in the
same manner.
ii. Radiators must be clamped properly
at the ends to minimize vibration.
iii. Fill transformer oil through the main
conservator. It is recommended to use
hot filtered oil directly from a filter.
iv. Fill only one radiator at a time. Open
Figure 13B. Externally mounted radiators the bottom valve. Slowly unscrew the
air release plug on the top of the radia-
tors until air starts inflowing. Oil from
the main tank will now flow into the
radiator. Start adding fresh oil to the
conservator.
v. After filling, open the valve at the top
to equalize with the main tank.
vi. Fill the remaining radiators in the
same manner.
vii. After filling oil in radiators and vent-
ing air from the top radiator, valves at
the top and bottom must be kept in
the OPEN position and sealed.
6.7.4 Separately mounted radiators
Radiators may be mounted on separate
frames for large transformers. Flanges are
provided on these headers for fixing the
Figure 13C. Exhaust fans and inline axial flow oil pumps/motor radiators.

114 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

6.7.5 Specification of motors and fans
Authors
i. Cooling fans and oil pump motors
K.K. Murty holds a Bachelor’s degree (Hons) in Electrical
(Figure 13C) are suitable for operation
Engineering obtained from the University of Jabalpur. He
with 415 V, three-phase 50 Hz power.
was a former Chief Engineer and Head of Department
They shall be of premium efficiency
at M.P. Power Transmission Co. Ltd. Jabalpur. He was
class IE 3, conforming to IS:12615/
a member of the panel of expert professionals at the
IEC 60034-1.
Central Power Research Institute (CPRI), Bangalore,
ii. Each cooling fan and oil pump motor
from 2008 to 2012. Previously, he worked as an advisor
shall be provided with a starter, ther-
at SOUTHCO, a DISCOM, a metering consultant to
mal overload, and short circuit pro-
M. P. Electricity Regulatory Commission and a Course Director for the
tection.
graduate electrical engineering trainees at the Training Institute of MPPTCL,
iii. Motor winding insulation shall be the
Jabalpur. Mr. Murty is a member of CIGRE India, a Fellow of Institution of
conventional class ‘B’ or better. Motors Engineers, India (FIE) and is a Chartered Engineer. He has been awarded a
shall have hose-proof enclosure equiv- plaque by the Institution of Engineers Kolkata, in October 2015, in recognition
alent to IP55 as per IS: IEC 60034-5. of his eminence and contribution to the profession of electrical engineering at
iv. Temperature rise of the motor shall be the national level.
limited to 70 °C above an ambient of
40 °C and shall comply with IS:12615/
IEC 60034-1. J. J. L. Kapil is a retired Assistant Engineer, 220 kV S/S,
Jabalpur in June 2017. Holds a Diploma in Electrical
Engineering. Among his commendations, MD, MP Power
Bibliography Transmission Co. Ltd. has felicitated Mr. Kapil in
[1] IEEE Guide for Installation and recognition of his hard and sincere work and for pre­
Maintenance of Liquid Immersed Power venting many incidences. He was responsible for the upkeep
Transformers Std C57.93-2019. of 3x40 MVA 220/132/33 kV Mitsubishi trans­former
bank (1-Ph. units), which are still in service after 53 years.
[2] CBIP Manual on transformers
No.: 319-2013 Santosh Dubey holds a Diploma in Electrical
Engineering. Currently retired, he was the Assistant
[3] Terminal marking UVW as per Engineer of 220 kV Substation at Nayagaon and at Sukha,
IS:2026 Part 4, 1977, reaffirmed in 2001 Jabalpur, a prestigious EHV substation in the State of
and IEEE std. C57.12.70-2000 Madhya Pradesh. He looks after Operation & Maintenance
and Erection of EHV equipment very efficiently and
[4] Central Electricity Authority (Gov- successfully. Down time of any equipment is minimal
ernment of India): Standard specifica- due to his sincerity, devotion and relentless efforts. He
tions and technical parameters for trans- is an asset to the M.P. Power Transmission Co. Ltd. Jabalpur (India). He has
formers and reactors (66 kV and higher been felicitated and awarded for his exemplary work by the M.D., M.P. Power
voltage class published in April 2021 Transmission Co. Ltd. Jabalpur. Due to his strict execution and monitoring
of their maintenance practice, a 55 year-old 3x40 MVA, 220/132/33 kV
[5] Mineral oil fresh IS:335. (IEC equiva- transformer is still in service. He obtained the ISO-9001-2015 certificate
lent IEC 60296 5th edition 2020) for 220 kV S/S Nayagaon, Jabalpur which is 55 years old. He also removed
and cleaned debris of bursted 72.5 kV bushing from the body of a 132/33 kV,
[6] Unused synthetic organic ester con- 63 MVA Transformer and re-energised it in minimal time by replacing the
firming to IS: 16081 – June 2013, IS / IEC failed bushing at 132 kV substation at Mansakara.
61099
S. K. Chaturvedi holds a diploma in Electrical Engineering.
[7] Power transformers – IEC 60076 Part He presently works as Assistant Engineer (maintenance)
14: Liquid-immersed power transformers 400 kV S/s Katni, since October 2013 in a 950 MVA,
using high-temperature insulation mate- 400/220/132 kV /33 kV AIS he is managing the main­
rials tenance and erection / installation jobs independently
and s­uccessfully of EHV equipment up to 400 kV level.
[8] Loading guide for oil-immersed He was felicitated by MD MPPTCL for on spot repairing
power transformers IS:2026, partb7b and installation of EMR make diverter switch on a 24-year-
(IEC equivalent: 60076-7) old 160 MVA, 220/132 kV TELK make transformer at 400 kV S/s Katni. He
successfully assembled a 400 kV, 125 MVAR bus reactor and all associated
[9] IEEE C57.152-2013 (IEEE Guide for equipment for the bay at 400 kV S/s Katni, within minimal time. He obtained
fluid filled power transformers, regulators ISO 9001-2008 certificate in 2015, for 50-year-old 132/33 kV AIS Kymore, for
and reactors) complete renovation. He successfully performed retrofitting and replacement of
220 kV, 132 kV, 33 kV, 22 old pneumatic circuit breakers / VCBs within minimal
[10] IS: 16099 / IEC 61203 maintenance time and reconditioning of two 40-year-old 132/33 kV transformers.
for used synthetic organic ester fluid
IEW ED
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m PEER REV 115
EVENTS

What’s new at CWIEME 2024

V
isitor registrations for CWIEME together at CWIEME to discover and ac- Brand new this year: the
Berlin are now open. The quire products and services. start-up zone
event, which is the largest
global gathering of industry CWIEME Berlin is a leading event in the Ten start-ups have already signed up to
professionals from the coil winding, field of electrical engineering, attract- exhibit at CWIEME Berlin as part of the
electric motor, transformer, generator, ing both experts and enthusiasts. This new zone, including TRAFOLO, SciMo,
and e-mobility sectors, will take place year, the event anticipates hosting more Orhun Kimya and RVmagnetics. At the
from May 14 to 16, 2024, at Messe Berlin. than 6,000 attendees and 600 exhibitors event, TRAFOLO will showcase its 3D
throughout the three-day duration. It FEM simulation software for power elec-
Since its first launch in 1995, this event provides an excellent opportunity for tronics. By simulating how a transformer
has been a magnet for savvy engineers networking, acquiring knowledge, and or inductor will operate prior to the first
and professionals in procurement, R&D, exploring cutting-edge industry devel- physical prototype being built, TRAFO-
and production management who come opments. LO’s software helps eliminate critical design

116 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

CWIEME Berlin is a leading event in the field of electrical engineering,
attracting both experts and enthusiasts

errors and allows its customers to build a zone, Orhun Kimya emerges as a notable Portfolio Director of CWIEME, Chris
deeper knowledge about their products. player in the electrical insulation sector. Lee, echoed the need for the Start-up
With a forward-thinking approach and Zone: “There are around 4.4 million
Also, in the start-up zone, SciMo will dis- a commitment to delivering high-quality businesses started every year, on average.
play its range of high-performance elec- solutions, Orhun Kimya brings a fresh Even within our sector, a huge number of
tric motors, whose high power-to-weight perspective to the exhibition. The com- companies are doing incredible things,
ratio makes them ideal for challenging pany’s presence at the event highlights its which is why we decided that now is
aerospace and motorsport applications. dedication to showcasing groundbreaking the right time to introduce our start-up
Despite being a relatively new compa- advancements producing electrical insu- zone. CWIEME Berlin is all about show-
ny, SciMo has already had some huge lation materials, insulation varnishes, in- casing the latest innovations and facili-
achievements, such as its products be- dustrial paints, casting and potting epoxy tating partnerships between businesses
ing used by KaRaceIng Formula Student polyurethane resins. As part of the start- in the field — both of which are partic-
team, which became the world champion. up cohort, Orhun Kimya stands poised to ularly important for start-ups. We look
make a significant impact in the industry, forward to seeing what groundbreaking
The third start-up announced is RV- contributing to the dynamic and evolving ideas and technologies the start-up com-
magnetics, the inventor of the smallest landscape of CWIEME Berlin. munity brings to 2024’s event.”
custom passive sensor in the world —
MicroWire. This is the only sensor that
can measure several physical quantities,
such as temperature, vibration, flow and Portfolio Director of CWIEME, Chris Lee:
pressure, at once. This makes it ideal for “Even within our sector, a huge number of
automotive, aerospace and healthcare
applications, plus many more. companies are doing incredible things,
In addition to the lineup of innova-
which is why we decided that now is the
tive start-ups at CWIEME Berlin’s new right time to introduce our start-up zone”

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 117
EVENTS

Last year we launched “Education Day” and give them exposure to the career op-
portunities available.
which has evolved and improved for 2024
With this in mind, CWIEME Berlin are
into the Future Engineers Programme partnering with universities and insti-
tutions to develop the Future Engineers
Programme, bringing together faculty and
Global perspectives: You can engage with experts and discov- students. Participants will not only leave
er displays that include the entire chain with a deeper understanding of the indus-
the country pavilions of coil winding, transformers, electric try but also with a network, practical skills,
The India Pavilion, organised by EEPC motors, generators, and e-mobility. and inspiration for future innovations.
INDIA, made its debut last year. It was Industry professionals, researchers or
inaugurated on the opening day by HE enthusiasts can acquire distinctive in- The programme is designed with several
Mr P. Harish, the Ambassador of India in sights into the global industry panora- objectives in mind. It aims to inspire par-
Germany. ma as various countries showcase their ticipants by showcasing the myriad pos-
unique expertise, exploring regional sibilities within the field of engineering
This year, CWIEME are expanding trends, market demands, and emerging and emphasising the pivotal role engi-
their Country Pavilions to bring to- opportunities tailored to specific parts neers play in shaping the future. Through
gether companies, organisations, and of the world. dynamic and innovative sessions, the
exhibitors from a particular nation. The programme facilitates the exchange of
aim is to provide them with a collective knowledge, fostering an environment
Bridging the gap:
space to display their products, services, where ideas can flourish.
and expertise. future engineers
At CWIEME Berlin 2023, they launched Additionally, it focuses on skill develop-
Country pavilions offer a centralised ‘Education Day’, which has evolved and ment, providing future engineers with
location for attendees to explore and improved for this year to become the Fu- the essential knowledge to thrive in the
connect with businesses from a specific ture Engineers Programme. The goal is to CWIEME landscape. The programme
country, fostering international collabo- create a programme to bridge the talent also encourages cutting-edge thinking,
ration and networking opportunities. gap, attract new talent to the industry, allowing participants to envision the role

118 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

of engineering in addressing global chal-
lenges.

Furthermore, it serves as a platform for

networking, enabling students to connect
with industry professionals on a personal
level. Lastly, the programme opens doors
to career and mentorship opportunities,
enlightening students about the possibil-
ities within the CWIEME industries.

Valuable connections:
Connect @ CWIEME
Returning for its second edition, the spe-
cialised connections programme, Con-
nect @ CWIEME, at CWIEME Berlin,
has undergone enhancements for 2024.
Meticulously crafted, the programme
facilitates meaningful connections be-
tween individuals and the right suppli-
ers, providing flexibility and autonomy.

Alex Oxley, Senior Marketing Manager at CWIEME Berlin: “CWIEME

Berlin 2024 is shaping up to be the most exciting and impactful event yet”

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 119
EVENTS

To navigate this evolving terrain successfully, companies must shift

their focus toward people, and gender diversity stands out as a key
factor for gaining a competitive edge

Attendees can efficiently manage their ises to be an unparalleled opportunity Hitachi Energy, SGB-SMIT GmbH,
time both before and during the event, for networking, knowledge acquisition, STILRIDE, Mckinsey Center for Future
ensuring a productive experience. and industry innovation.” Mobility and Ford Europe.

Following an impressive 86% satisfac- Industry experts and thought leaders

Unlocking innovation:
tion rate in 2023, Connect @ CWIEME will share their knowledge and insights
returns in 2024 with enhanced features, the agenda of CWIEME Berlin on the latest trends, challenges, and op-
ensuring an even greater number of 2024 portunities. The central stage will cover
connections, heightened engagement a host of topics such as innovation in
with exhibitor stands through sched- For 2024, the event has secured a wealth transformers oils, driving sustainability
uled visits, and increased flexibility for of industry professionals to participate in the manufacturing and energy sec-
decision-makers to participate at their in sessions and talks that will discuss tors with a deep dive into eco-friendly
convenience. latest innovations, technologies and practices in the steel industry, and a
key issues in the electrical engineering panel discussion on what the future
“CWIEME Berlin 2024 is shaping up industry. Over 50 speakers have been holds for rare earth materials.
to be the most exciting and impactful lined up for the event, offering over 25
event yet,” shared Alex Oxley, Senior hours of content through numerous ses- The e-mobility stage will host talks
Marketing Manager at CWIEME Ber- sions at CWIEME Berlin. Confirmed including a keynote speech on decar-
lin. “With an expanded event footprint, speakers include representatives from bonisation in the automotive sector, a
an enhanced connections programme, The International Copper Association, session on the importance of reliability
and a packed agenda of thought-pro- Syensqo, S&P Global Mobility, Siemens for electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure,
voking sessions, this year’s event prom- Energy, Thyssenkrupp Steel Europe, a panel discussion on the emerging

120 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 11, Issue 2 | 2024

trends, a talk on innovations and ad- exploration, learning and growth in the ulatory pressures for decarbonisation
vancements in new motor technologies, electrical manufacturing industry.” are reshaping business models, necessi-
and a session on how the automotive tating immediate capital investment.
industry can remain competitive in the The content at CWIEME Berlin 2024 is
age of electrification. not to be missed and will leave attendees To navigate this evolving terrain suc-
with a wealth of knowledge, insights and cessfully, companies must shift their fo-
“The CWIEME 2024 content agenda is connections. Your ticket to the event will cus toward people, and gender diversity
a great opportunity for attendees to en- grant you unlimited access to all 3 days of stands out as a key factor for gaining a
gage and learn about current trends in content sessions, so register for free now competitive edge. Industry leaders who
the industry from some of the biggest at berlin.cwiemeevents.com and browse have embarked on the journey to pro-
names in the sector,” said Alexandra da the live content agenda. mote a more diverse workforce share
Fonte Martins, senior content producer their experiences, shedding light on suc-
for CWIEME Berlin. cessful strategies, overcoming obstacles,
Women in Engineering
and outlining the myriad benefits of di-
“Everyone who attends or exhibits at the CWIEME Berlin is committed to fos- versity. Be inspired by their stories, gain
show will enjoy a diverse range of con- tering dialogue, raising awareness, and insights into the positive impact a diverse
tent over three days, allowing them to supporting industry initiatives aimed workforce can have on your organisation,
gain insights into the latest technologies, at creating more inclusive and equitable and explore the wealth of advantages it
network with industry peers and poten- workplaces. The dynamic landscape of brings. Join CWIEME Berlin as they ex-
tially forge valuable partnerships. With CWIEME industries has witnessed sig- plore these crucial topics, and envision a
topics covering everything from techni- nificant disruption and progress in the more inclusive future for your business.
cal advancements to sustainability and past decade, with global trade disputes Get your ticket for CWIEME Berlin
inclusivity, CWIEME Berlin 2024 prom- and geopolitical tensions impacting 2024, 14-16 May, at Messe Berlin now via
ises to be a comprehensive platform for costs and margins. Simultaneously, reg- berlin.cwiemeevents.com

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 121
study programs

TA Diploma study programmes

» Leading e-learning entity «
Sharpening the skills of team members makes the company's
long-term misson successful

[email protected] transformers-academy.com