WATER TECHNOLOGY

Department of Chemistry,
Department RVCE
of Chemistry, RVCE
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 IMPORTANCE OF WATER
➢ Living things are indeed in need of water.

➢ It cleanses our body.

➢ It energizes us every day.

➢ It keeps our body temperature at the right

level.

➢ It is one of the essential resources for our

health.

➢ Water is essential for the existence of human

beings, animals and plants.

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 IMPORTANCE OF WATER
➢ Though 80% of the earth’s surface is occupied
with water, less than 1% of water is available
for ready use.

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 SOURCES OF WATER
➢ Surface water : Rain, Rivers, Lakes and Sea.

➢ Ground water: Wells and Springs

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 Impurities in water
➢ Dissolved impurities – inorganic salts of Na, K,
Ca, Mg, Al, Fe and traces of other metals as
chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates, etc.
➢ Dissolved gases – oxygen, nitrogen, CO2,oxides of
N and S, NH3, or H2S.
➢ Suspended impurities - sand or clay particles,
decayed organic substances.
➢ Microbial and biological impurities – pathogenic
microorganisms, biological matter of plant and
animal origin.
➢ Surface and ground water are normally used for
industrial and domestic purposes.
➢ Hence undesirable impurities should be removed
from these water.

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 Quality of water for different uses
Purpose Quality requirements
Drinking Palatable, clear and free from colour, odour, turbidity and
pathogens.
Domestic Soft water producing lather readily.
washing
Textile dyeing Free from colour, turbidity, organic matter, Fe and Mn.

Boiler feed water Free from dissolved salts, suspended impurities, silica and
dissolved gases.
Drugs and Soft and clear. Free from pathogens, colour, odour and
pharmaceuticals suspended impurities.

Construction Not too hard, should contain less of chlorides.

Paper industry Free from colour, turbidity, organic matter, Fe, Mn, silica
and alkalinity

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 HARDNESS OF WATER
➢ The property or characteristics of water, which
does not produce lather with soap.

➢ Hardness of water is mainly due to the

presence of calcium and magnesium salts.

2 C17H35COONa + Ca2+ (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2 Na+

sodium soap hardness calcium soap

(water soluble) causing (water insoluble)
ion
➢ The calcium and magnesium salts of hard water combine
with soap (sodium salt/potasium salt of higher fatty
acids) form insoluble salt called scum.

➢ Sodium salts will not impart hardness to water.

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 HARD WATER and SOFT WATER
➢ Hard water – does not produce lather with soap solution,
but produces white precipitate (scum).

2 C17H35COONa + Ca2+ (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2 Na+

sodium soap hardness calcium soap

(water soluble) causing (water insoluble)
ion

➢ Soft water – produces lather readily with soap

solution.

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Disadvantages of Hard water

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 TYPES OF HARDNESS
1. Temporary hardness (or) Carbonate hardness:
- due to the presence of bicarbonates of Ca and
Mg.
- removed by boiling the water; adding lime to
the water.
➢ Carbonates of magnesium and calcium are
insoluble in water.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2

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 TYPES OF HARDNESS
2.Permanent hardness (or) Non-carbonate
hardness:
- due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates
of Ca and Mg.
- removed by i) lime soda process and ii) zeolite
process iii) Ion exchange process

Total hardness – the sum of temporary hardness

and permanent hardness.

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 UNITS OF HARDNESS
➢ Ppm:
Number of parts of hardness causing substance
in 106 parts of water.
➢ It is mg/dm-3

➢ Calcium carbonate equivalence

➢ Any sample of water contains various types of
impurity in various amounts. The degree of harness
due to all these substances are unified in the forms
of CaCO3
➢ Reasons for representing in calcium carbonate
equivalence
1. CaCO3 is water insoluble,
2. CaCO3 doesn’t impart hardness,
3. Its molecular weight is 100 which make calculation
easy.
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 Degree of hardness
➢ Calcium carbonate equivalence

➢ Chemical equivalence of CaCO3, CaCl2, MgCl2, MgSO4

and MgCO3 are 50, 68, 55.5, 47.5, 60 and 42.

➢ Equivalents are as follows

100g of CaCO3 ≡ 111g of CaCl2
≡ 136g of CaSO4
≡ 95g of MgCl2
≡ 120g of MgSO4
≡ 162g of Ca(HCO3)2
≡ 146g of Mg(HCO3)2

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 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS
➢ EDTA METHOD (Complexometric titration)
➢ Hardness of water is mainly due to the presence of
calcium and magnesium salts in it.
➢ Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) is a reagent,
which reacts with metal ions like Ca2+, Mg2+ forming
complexes.
➢ The amount of standard EDTA solution used during
titration is a direct measure of the hardness.
➢ The completion of the reaction (end point of the
titration) is identified using Eriochrome black-T
indicator, a blue coloured organic dye.
➢ Forms relatively less stable complexes with bivalent
metal ions of Ca2+, Mg2+etc., which are wine-red in
colour.

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 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS
➢ EDTA METHOD (Complexometric titration)

Structure of Disodium salt of EDTA Structure of EBT indicator

Metal Complex of EDTA

Mg2+/Ca2+ + EBT [Mg/Ca - EBT]

(Less stable wine-red complex)

Mg2+/Ca2+ + EDTA [Mg/Ca - EDTA] + 2H+

(Stable colourless complex)

[Mg/Ca - EBT]+ EDTA [Mg/Ca - EDTA] + EBT

(Blue colour)

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 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS
➢ Part-A Preparation of standard EDTA solution
➢ Weigh the known amount of disodium salt of EDTA and
transfer to volumetric flask, add ammonia solution to
dissolve it and dilute till the mark using distilled water.
➢ PART-B Estimation of hardness of water
Since the reaction involves the
Standard EDTA Solution liberation of H+ ions and the indicator
is sensitive to the concentration of H+
ions (pH) of the solution, a pH of
In conical flask,
around 10 has to be maintained. For
25 cm3 of water sample +
2 cm3 of NH3-NH4Cl buffer+ this purpose ammonia – ammonium
Pinch of EBT indicator chloride buffer is used.
(Wine red color)

Add EDTA solution

from the burette till
blue colour
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 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS

Calculation

1000 cm3 of 1M EDTA = 100 g of CaCO3

Therefore ‘V’ cm3 of ‘X’ M EDTA = 100 x V x X g of CaCO3
1000
= Y grams of CaCO3

25 cm3 of hard water has hardness equivalent to ‘Y’ g of CaCO3

Therefore 106 cm3 of hard water has hardness equivalent to Y x 106 g of CaCO3
25

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 Problems on hardness
Problem:
A sample of hard water contains 16.2 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 , 1.8 mg/dm3 of NaCl
1.4 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑴𝒈(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2, and 9.5 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐 . Calculate the total
hardness of water.

136g of Ca𝑺𝑶𝟒 ≡ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟎
16.2 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of Ca𝑺𝑶𝟒 ≡ 𝟏𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗 𝒎𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

146g of Mg(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )𝟐 ≡ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟎
1.4 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of Mg(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )𝟐 ≡ 𝟏𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏. 𝟒 =
𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

95g of Mg𝑪𝒍𝟐 ≡ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟎
9.5 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of Mg𝑪𝒍𝟐 ≡ 𝟗𝟓 × 𝟗. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

Total Hardness = (11.9+0.95+10) mg of 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑

= 22.85 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 = 22.85 ppm
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 Problems on hardness
Problem:
A sample of hard water contains 15.5 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑪𝒂(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2, 29.2 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of
𝑴𝒈(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 , 0.475 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐 and 13.6 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 of 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 . Calculate
Carbonate hardness of water and non-carbonate hardness of water.

𝑴𝒈(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 = 70 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

𝑪𝒂(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 = 161.6 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐 = 87.6 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 = 118.4 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟗 𝒑𝒑𝒎

Permanent 198.87 ppm

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 Problems on hardness
Problem:
1 𝒅𝒎𝟑 of water sample containing 95 mg of 𝑴𝒈(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 , 203 mg of 𝑪𝒂(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 , 1.36
mg of 𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 , 1.5 mg of Ca𝑪𝒍𝟐 , 100 mg of NaCl and 18 mg of Mg𝑺𝑶𝟒 is boiled, cooled
and precipitate is removed by filtration. Calculate the hardness before and after boiling
(Given atomic weight of Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, O & S are 40, 24, 23, 32, 35.5, and 16
respectively.
𝟗𝟓∗𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒈(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 = = 65.07 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑
𝟏𝟒𝟔

𝟐𝟎𝟑∗𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝒂(𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 )2 = 𝟏𝟔𝟐
=125.3 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

𝟏𝟖∗𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝑴𝒈𝑺𝑶𝟒 = =15 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎
𝟏𝟐𝟎

𝟏.𝟑𝟔∗𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑
Ca𝑺𝑶𝟒 = =1 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎
𝟏𝟑𝟔

𝟏.𝟓∗𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 = =1.35 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑
𝟏𝟏𝟏

Before boiling = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟎𝟕 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓. 𝟑 + 𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 + 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝒎

After boiling = (1+1.35+15) mg = 17.35 ppm

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 Problems on hardness
Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample
containing Mg(HCO3)2= 7.3mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2= 16.2mg/L, MgCl2= 9.5mg/L,
CaSO4=13.6mg/L).
Mg(HCO3)2= 7.3mg/L (7.3X100)/146= 5mg/L

Ca(HCO3)2= 16.2mg/L (16.2X100)/162=10mg/L

MgCl2= 9.5mg/L (9.5X100)/95= 10mg/L

CaSO4=13.6mg/L (13.6X100)/136= 10mg/L

Temporary hardness of water due to Mg(HCO3)2 and Ca(HCO3)2 =

=5+10=15mg/L or 15ppm.

Permanent hardness due to MgCl2 and CaSO4 = 10+10=20mg/L or 20ppm.

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 Problems on hardness
Problem:
A sample of hard water contains of 𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐. The hardness of sample of water is 120
ppm. Calculate the amount of 𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐 dissolved in it.

The total hardness of sample of water is 120 ppm.

100 mg 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 = 95 mg of 𝑴𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝟎×𝟗𝟓
120 ppm = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 114 𝒎𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑

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 Problems on hardness
Calculate the temporary and total hardness of a water sample containing
Mg(HCO3)2= 73mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2= 162mg/L, MgCl2= 95mg/L, CaSO4=136mg/L.

Mg(HCO3)2= 73mg/L (73X100)/146= 50mg/L

Ca(HCO3)2= 162mg/L (162X100)/162=100mg/L

MgCl2= 95mg/L (95X100)/95= 100mg/L

CaSO4=136mg/L (136X100)/136= 100mg/L

∴ Temporary hardness of water due to Mg(HCO3)2 and Ca(HCO3)2 =

=100 + 50=150mg/L or ppm.

Total hardness of water= 50+100+100+100=350 mg/L or ppm.

Home work
A sample of water contains the following Ca(HCO3)2 – l62 mg/L; Mg(HCO3)2 – 146
mg/L; CaSO4 – 68 mg/L; MgC12 – 95 mg/L, and KCl-745 mg/L.
Calculate (a) temporary hardness, (b) permanent hardness
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 ANALYSIS OF WATER
➢ DISSOLVED OXYGEN

➢ Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

➢ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

➢ Fluoride content

➢ Chlorine content

➢ Total dissolved salts

➢ Presence of nitrates

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 ANALYSIS OF WATER
➢ DISSOLVED OXYGEN
➢ Oxygen is poorly soluble in water about 9ppm at 20C in
fresh water.

➢ The solubility of water depends on the concentration of

the salts and temperature.

➢ Dissolved oxygen is consumed by aquatic animals for

their respiration.

➢ Aerobic bacteria consume the DO for the oxidation of

biodegradable matter.

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 Estimation of DISSOLVED OXYGEN
➢ Winkler’s Iodometric method
➢ Principle
➢ Manganese sulphate reacts with alkaline azide solution to give
manganese hydroxide.
➢ Manganese hydroxide reacts with DO to give basic manganese
hydroxide and precipitated.
➢ Precipitation is dissolved by addition of con H2SO4 and nascent
oxygen is liberated.
➢ Nascent oxygen oxidise potassium iodide to iodine.
➢ The liberated iodine is titrated against standard Na2S2O3.
MnSO4 + 2KOH Mn(OH)2 + K2SO4 Brown
Coloured PPT Na2S2O4=I2=DO
Mn(OH)2 + 1/2O2 [MnO(OH)2] Basic Manganic
[MnO(OH)2] + H2SO4 MnSO4 + 2H2O + [O] oxide

[O] + H2SO4 + 2KI I2 + H2O + K2SO4

Indicator- Starch
I2 + Na2S2O4 2NaI + Na2S4O6 Colour change-
Blue to colourless
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 Winkler’s Iodometric method
➢ Procedure
Take 50cm3 of
150 cm3of the solution +
waste water Dissolve
2-3 drops of
starch indicator,
+2ml of PPT in Titrate against
MnSO4 + 2 ml Conc Na2S2O3 till the
of alkali- H2SO4
colour changes
Azide-KI Soln from blue to
BOD Bottle Basic Manganic colourless
Oxide
Calculation
Normality of Na2S2O3 solution= N1
Volume of Na2S2O3 solution =V1 cm3
Volume of water take for titration=V2 cm3
Normality of the dissolved N2=
Amount of dissolved oxygen per liter of water = g =
Note:
➢ The azide destroys the oxides of nitrogen due to this reason alkali is
mixed with azide.
➢ The oxygen carrier in winklers method is basic manganic oxide
MnO(OH)2
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 BIOLOGIAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
➢ Organic impurities enter in to the water through dead
decaying plants and animals which are biodegradable.
➢ Micro-organisms may use these substances as food and
oxidise them in to simple compounds using DO.
➢ The amount of organics in a sample water is measured in
terms of DO required for oxidation of the organics, by micro
organisms.

➢ Definition of BOD- “The amount of oxygen required by the

micro organisms for the biological oxidation of all the
organic wastes present in one dm3 of water sample for a
period of 5 days at 20 oC”.

➢ Higher the BOD value of water sample, more will be the

oxidisable impurities in it (more contamination).

➢ WHO imposed a limit of 4 ppm of BOD of raw water to be

used for public supply.

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 Determination of BOD
➢ Principle
A known volume of sewage sample is diluted with known volume of
dilution water (containing micro organism). A mixed group of
organism should be present. This solution is divided in to two equal
parts in BOD bottle. The DO of sample (D1) at day1 and the DO of
the sample after incubation after 5 days (D2) were determined and
then BOD is calculated.

➢ Preparation of dilution water: 1 dm3 of distilled water

thoroughly aerated by bubbling compressed air about a day. 1cm3
of phosphate buffer, 1cm3 of MgSO4, 1 cm3 of CaCl2, 1cm3 of FeCl3
are added and mixed well and 2 cm3 of sludge is added.

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 Determination of BOD
25cm3 of waste
water sample
diluted to 1000
cm3 using dilution
water
Divide in to two
equal parts in two
Bottle-1 separate BOD Bottles
Determine DO immediately
after dilution by using
Winkler’s iodometric Bottle-2
method (D1) Kept in incubator for 5
days at 20C. After 5 days
Calculation determine DO by the
D1 is the DO of the sample on day-1 same method (D5)
D2 is the DO of the sample after 5 days.

BOD mg of O2/ dm3

A- Volume of the sample before dilution

B-Volume of the sample after dilution
Dilution factor is B/A Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 Problems on BOD
20 ml of sewage sample was diluted to 600 ml and equal volumes were filled in two BOD bottle. Do in
one bottle was determined immediately and 200 ml of the solution required 4.2 ml of N/40 Na2S2O3
solution. The second sample was incubated for 5 days and in DO determined; 200ml solution
required 2.2 ml of N/40 Na2S2O3 solution. Calculate BOD of the solution.

Volume of sample before dilution =20 ml,

Volume of the sample after dilution= 600ml

Volume of Na2S2O3 solution required for blank = 4.2ml (V1)

Volume of Na2S2O3 solution required for sample after 5 days= 2.2ml(V3)

Normality of Na2S2O3 solution= N/40=1/40=0.025 N

Volume of water sample taken =200ml.(V2)

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Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 Problems on BOD

Calculate the BOD of a effluent sample containing 8.2 mg/dm3 of oraginc matter
represented by a formula CH2O

General reaction during BOD analysis is

CH2O + O2 → CO2 + H2O

30 32 44 18

According to this balanced equation 30 mg of CH2O sample required 32 mg of oxygen

Then calculate for 8.2mg of sample

BOD of the sample is = (8.2 x 32) /30 = 8.74 mg

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 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

➢ Waste water treated by BOD method, may have non-biologically

oxidisable impurities in it.

➢ To oxidise such impurities the sample of water is has to be treated

with a strong oxidising agents like K2Cr2O7.

Definition- “The amount of oxygen Importance:

required by the waste material (both 1.The COD test is
organic and inorganic) present in one widely used for
dm3 of water sample for their measuring the
oxidation, using acidified K2Cr2O7 pollution level of
solution”. domestic and industrial
wastes.
2.The major advantage
of COD test is
Catalysts used
determination will be
Ag2SO4 acts as catalyst in the oxidation
completed in three
of long chain fatty acids and pyridine like
hours as compared to
impurities
the 5 days required for
HgSO4 avoids the Chloride ion hindrance
BOD determination.

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 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

➢ Principle- Redox titration: A known volume of waste water

sample is refluxed with excess of K2Cr2O7 solution in sulphuric
acid medium in the presence of Ag2SO4 and HgSO4. K2Cr2O7 acts
as oxidizing agent in acidic media which oxidizes all the
oxadizable impurities present in waste water. The amount of
unreacted K2Cr2O7 is determined by titration with known strength
FAS. The amount of K2Cr2O7 consumed for the oxidation
corresponds to COD of waste water.

➢ Reactions involved-
K2Cr2O 7 + 4H2SO 4 K2SO 4 + Cr2(SO 4)3 + 4H2O + 3(O)

[2FeSO 4 +H2SO 4 + (O) Fe2(SO 4)3 + H2O] x 3

K2Cr2O 7 + 6FeSO4 + 7H2SO 4 K2SO 4 +Cr2(SO 4)3 + 3Fe(SO4)3 + 7H2O

N N N N
3 3
+2 +3
Fe Fe
Reddish brown in Fe+2 oxidation state Bluish green in Fe+3 oxidation state Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

➢ Procedure
Pipette out 25 ml of waste Reflux for 2hrs + 2-3
water in to 250 ml conical drops of Ferroin indicator.
flask + 1 test tube of Titrate the mixture against
standard FAS solution, till Back
H2SO4 containing mercuric titration
sulphate & silver sulphate the colour changes from
+ 25ml of potassium bluish green to reddish
dichromate solution. brown Y cm3

Blank titre value = X cm3

Carry out blank
Back titre value = Y cm3
titration without
Amount of dichromate (in terms of FAS) that has reacted with
waste water
water sample = (X – Y) cm3.
sample using
1000 cm3 of 1N FAS solution = 1 equivalent of oxygen = 8 g of O2
the same
(X-Y) cm3 of ‘Z’ N FAS solution = g of oxygen = ‘A’ g of O2
procedure
X cm3
25 cm3 of waste water requires ‘A’ g of oxygen
Therefore, 1000 cm3 of waste water requires=
C gram of oxygen

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 PROBLEMS ON CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

25 ml of sewage sample made to react with 25 ml of K2Cr2O7. After the completion of

reaction left out potassium dichromate required 11.5 ml of 0.025 N FAS during titration.
In the blank titration 25 ml of potassium dichromate required 18.5 ml of 0.025 N FAS.
Calculate the COD of water sample.

18.5 ml of 0.025 N FAS consumed in Blank titration

11.5 ml of 0.25 N FAS consumed in Back titration

Amount of dichromate consumed in terms of FAS for the decomposition of

waste=
Blank-Back =18.5-11.5 = 7ml

1000 ml of 1N FAS = 8g of oxygen

1000ml of 1N FAS =8000 mg of oxygen
7ml of 0.025N FAS = (8000 x 7 x 0.025)/1000 = 1.4 mg of oxygen

25 ml of water sample = 1.4 mg of oxygen

Then COD of water sample =(1000 x 1.4)/25 = 56 mg of oxygen (ppm)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 PROBLEMS ON CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

In a COD analysis 25 ml of sewage sample consumed 8.3 ml of 0.001M K2Cr2O7.

Calculate the COD of water sample.

1M K2Cr2O7 = 6N K2Cr2O7

0.001M K2Cr2O7 = 0.006N K2Cr2O7

1000 ml of 1N FAS = 8g of oxygen

1000ml of 1N FAS =8000 mg of oxygen

8.3 ml of 0.006 N K2Cr2O7 = (8000 x 8.3 x 0.006)/1000 = 0.3984 mg of oxygen

25 ml of water sample = 0.3984 mg of oxygen

Then COD of water sample =(1000 x 0.3984)/25 = 15.936 mg of oxygen (ppm)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 PROBLEMS ON CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

20 ml of sewage sample made to react with 25 ml of K2Cr2O7. After the completion of

reaction left out potassium dichromate required 10 ml of 0.05 N FAS during titration. In
the blank titration 25 ml of potassium dichromate required 22 ml of 0.05 N FAS.
Calculate the COD of water sample.

22 ml of 0.05 N FAS consumed in Blank titration

10 ml of 0.05 N FAS consumed in Back titration

Amount of dichromate consumed in terms of FAS for the decomposition of

waste=
Blank-Back =22-10 = 12ml

1000 ml of 1N FAS = 8g of oxygen

1000ml of 1N FAS =8000 mg of oxygen
12ml of 0.05N FAS = (8000 x 12 x 0.05)/1000 = 4.8 mg of oxygen

20 ml of water sample = 4.8 mg of oxygen

Then COD of water sample =(1000 x 4.8)/20 = 240 mg of oxygen (ppm)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 PROBLEMS ON CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

In COD analysis 20 ml of sewage sample made to react with 25 ml of K2Cr2O7. After the
completion of reaction left out potassium dichromate required 15 ml of 0.05 N FAS
during titration. Same volume potassium dichromate consumed 25 ml of 0.05 N FAS
when it is treated with distilled water. If oxalic acid is only the impurity then calculate
the amount of oxalic acid
15 ml of 0.05 N FAS consumed in Back titration

25 ml of 0.05 N FAS consumed in Blanck titration

Amount of dichromate consumed in terms of FAS for the decomposition of

waste=
Blank-Back =25-15 = 10ml

1000 ml of 1N FAS = 45g of oxalic acid

1000ml of 1N FAS =45000 mg of oxalicacid
12ml of 0.05N FAS = (45000 x 10 x 0.05)/1000 = 22.5 mg of oxalic acid

20 ml of water sample = 22.5 mg of oxygen

Then COD of water sample =(1000 x 22.5)/20 = 1125 mg of oxalic acid (ppm)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Sewage Treatment

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 Sewage treatment:
➢ Sewage is the liquid waste coming out from domestic and
industrial source, etc.
➢ The domestic sewage contains heavy load of BOD, pathogens
bacteria, colour, odour and bad smell etc.
➢ Sewage water is discharged into water bodies, leads to
deficiency of dissolved oxygen and leads to the death of the
fishes.
➢ Pathogen bacteria are causing water borne diseases.

➢ The sewage treatment is done to remove contaminants from waste

water and suitable for discharge into environment or for reuse.
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 Sewage treatment:
➢ Stages of sewage treatment

➢ Primary treatment

➢ Secondary treatment

➢ Tertiary treatment

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 Sewage treatment:
➢ Primary treatment
➢ Used to remove suspended solids, odour, colour, grease and oil.
➢ Different stages of Primary treatment
➢ Screening: Process of removal of larger floating materials like,
wood pieces, glass pieces and leaves, etc. from the raw water.
➢ Raw water is allowed to pass through screens having small
openings which retain the floating and suspended coarse particles.

➢ Sedimentation: Process of removing suspended impurities like

clay and other colloidal matter.
➢ It is carried out in sedimentation tank where raw water is allowed
pass through from the bottom of the tank and slowly rises
upwards. The suspended particles settled/pulled down due to
gravity. This process removes only 75% of the suspended matter.
➢ If fine suspended particles are not settled down due to gravity are
removed by adding coagulating agents such as Potash Alum,
Ferrous sulphate.

➢ Removal of oil or grease: It is carried in skimming tank, where

compressed air is blown through the raw water. Oil and grease
from froth and float on the surface and is skimmed off.
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 Sewage treatment:
➢ Secondary treatment (Biological Treatment)
➢ Used to remove biologically oxidizable matter, dissolved salts
using bacteria.
➢ It involves two important methods like trickling filter and
activated sludge process.
➢ Sludge The matter which settles down at the bottom after the
treatment is called sludge and the liquid is called effluent.
➢ Waste water after primary treatment is mixed with required
quantity of activated sludge (containing microorganisms and
aerobic bacteria) in an aeration tank.
➢ The mixture is then aerated by blowing air and agitated for
several hours. Because of the aerobic conditions, the organic
matter present in the sewage undergoes biological degradation
and converted into compounds like nitrates, sulphates, carbon
dioxide.

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Sewage treatment:(Activated sludge)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Sewage treatment:(Activated sludge)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Tertiary treatment (Biological Treatment)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Tertiary treatment and advanced methods

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Membrane technology

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Advantages of membrane technology.

Advantages of membrane technology.

•Energy savings.
•Low temperature operation.
•Recovery.
•Water reuse.
•Compact operation.
•Automatic operation.
•Tailored systems.
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
 DESALINATION OF WATER:
Membrane Technology

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 DESALINATION OF WATER:
REVERSE OSMOSSIS

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 DESALINATION OF WATER:
REVERSE OSMOSSIS
➢ Osmossis-The movement of solution molecule through semi permeable
membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration or the process
which reverse to the natural spontaneous osmosis is called reverse osmosis.
OSMOSIS Solvent passes the membrane to the solution
side. From low solute concentration to high
Solution concentration

Pure
solvent
EQUILIBRIUM
The solvent flux is stopped

Membrane
p Osmotic Pressure

DP > p

REVERSE OSMOSIS

The flux is reversed when a P greater than p is applied.

From high solute concentration to low concentration

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 Reverse Osmosis

Advantages of reverse osmosis:

• Removes nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions,
• Relatively insensitive to flow and total dissolved solids
• RO operates immediately, without any minimum break-in period,
• Low effluent concentration possible,
• Bacteria and particles are also removed, and
• Operational simplicity and automation allow for less operator
attention and make RO suitable for small system applications.

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 Reverse Osmosis
Disadvantages:

• High capital and operating costs, Managing the wastewater

(brine solution) is a potential problem,

• High level of pre-treatment is required in some cases,

• Membranes are prone to fouling and Discharged Brackish

is harder than the previous one

• Produces the most wastewater at between 25-50 percent of

the feed.
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
Water purifier

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 Preparation of membranes

❑ Precipitation in a non-solvent (typically water) non solvent

induced, NIPS;

❑ Solvent evaporation: evaporation induced, EIPS;

❑ Precipitation by absorption of non-solvent (water) from the

❑ Vapor phase vapour induced, VIPS;

❑ Precipitation by cooling-thermally induced, TIPS.

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 NIPS method ( Non solvent induced
phase separation)
• The preparation of polymer membrane in NIPS method involves
following steps
• Selection of suitable polymer (Eg: polysulfone, poly urethane)
• Dissolution of polymer in polar solvents such as DMF (Dimethyl
formamide) of NMP (N-methyl pyrolidinone)
• Pouring of this polymer solution on clean glass plate
• Spreading of polymer solution uniformly on the glass plate using
different technique
• After partial drying the films are kept in the oven to remove the
excess solvent
• Dipping the film along with glass plate in bowl containing pure
distilled water
• Removal of pealed film and drying of film in ambient condition
• Department of Chemistry, RVCE
NIPS method ( Non solvent induced
phase separation)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 NIPS method
( Non solvent induced phase separation)

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

DESALINATION OF WATER:

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 DESALINATION OF WATER:
REVERSE OSMOSSIS- Membranes used

Polysulfone membrane

➢ Hydrophillic group- Sulfone group

➢ Hydrophobic group- Two methyl groups and aromatic
ring.
➢ Methyl groups acts as brushes and avoids the
deposition of salts and hence fouling of membrane
Department of Chemistry, RVCE
Polysulfone membrane

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

Water purification stages: RO

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVdWqbpbv_Y

Department of Chemistry, RVCE

 DESALINATION OF WATER:
REVERSE OSMOSIS Advantages
➢ Removes nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-
ions.
➢ RO operates immediately, without any minimum break-in
period.
➢ Low effluent concentration possible.
➢ Operational simplicity and automation allow for less operator
attention and make RO suitable for small system applications.

➢ REVERSE OSMOSIS Dis-advantages

➢ High capital and operating costs.
➢ Managing the wastewater (brine solution) is a potential
problem.
➢ Membranes are prone to fouling.
➢ Colloidal silica is not removed by this process.

Department of Chemistry, RVCE