The plastic behavior of metals:

Deformation of
Metals

Temporary Permanent
“Elastic” “Plastic”

Elastic deformation - Deformation that is fully recovered when the stress causing it is
removed.

Plastic deformation refers to irreversible deformation or change in shape that occurs

when the force or stress that caused it is removed.
 Plastic
Deformation

Deformation Deformation
by Slip by Twins
Deformation by Twins: Application of a stress to the perfect crystal (a) may cause a
displacement of the atoms, (b) causing the formation of a twin. Note that the crystal has
deformed as a result of twinning.
Deformation by Slip; this is the most common process by which
metals can be plastically deformed. In this process, layers of atoms
are sliding or gliding over another as shown by figure below. The
process initially termed “block slip” explained by[ block slip theory].

Plastic deformation by slip:

Representation of BLOCK slip theory

Figure (A) represent a polished surface of a metal, and figure (B) the same surface after it
has been plastically deformed [Note the slip bands that appear on the surface], Figure (c) is
a real image of slip bands.

Slip
bands (C)
Dislocation Theory of plastic deformation;
Dislocation theory of plastic deformation is based on the existence of dislocations in the
crystal structure of metals and alloys; it has been proved by long term experiments that
plastic deformation in metals is in fact due to step-by-step movement of billions of
dislocations within the crystal structure as shown by figure below. But for dislocations to
move or slip, there must be ‘ slip planes’ and slip direction’.

When a shear stress is applied to the dislocation in (a), the atoms are displaced,
causing the dislocation to move one step in the slip direction (b). Continued movement
of the dislocation eventually creates a step deformation(c), and the crystal is deformed.
How do Metal Crystals Fail??
Answer: Slip due to dislocations
Dislocation motion is analogous to the mode of
locomotion employed by a Caterpillar.
 Critical resolved shear stress τcr :
Critical resolved shear stress - The shear stress required to cause a dislocation
to move and cause slip. Or the shear stress required to overcome lattice
friction.
- Dislocations can only move due to shear stresses acting on it. The relation
between the normal stress, shear stress and the orientation of the slip
plane is represented by Schmid’s equation.

 =  cos  cos 
ϴ
When the metal is said to be yielded, then the
resolved shear stress has reached the critical
value, i.e.,
 cr =  y cos  cos  As

Where;
τcr: is the critical resolved shear stress in MPa.
σy: is the yield strength in MPa.
Maximum value of (cosφ cosϴ) corresponds to
φ = ϴ = 45o ⇒ cosφ cosϴ = 0.5 ⇒ σy = 2τcr
Condition for plastic deformation τResolved > τcr

τResolved =τR or applied shear stress which is

φ = ϴ = 45o
at maximum value when

=0o =45o =90o

=90o =45o =0o
Slip will occur first in slip systems oriented close to this
angle (φ = ϴ = 45o) with respect to the applied stress

Each step (shear band) result from the generation of a large

number of dislocations and their propagation in the slip system
with maximum resolved shear stress.
 Slip planes and slip directions:
Slip planes on which dislocations usually slip or move are those that possess the
highest degree of atomic packing [close-packed plane] and the directions to which
dislocations usually move, are called slip directions, the directions of greatest atomic
line density [ close-packed directions]. This combination of the slip plane and the slip
direction is termed the slip system. The slip system depends on the crystal structure of
the metal and is such that the atomic distortion that accompanies the motion of a
dislocation is a minimum.
Note that metals with FCC or BCC crystal structures have a
relatively large number of slip systems (at least 12). These metals
are quite ductile because extensive plastic deformation is normally
possible along the various systems. Conversely, HCP metals, having
few active slip systems, are normally quite brittle.

Slip planes and directions in FCC metals

Strain field around dislocations:

Dislocations have strain fields arising from distortions at their cores – associated
strain drops with distance from dislocation core.
 Interactions between Dislocations

The strain fields around dislocations cause them to interact (exert force on each other).
When they are in the same plane, they repel if they have the same sign (direction of the
Burgers vector) and attract/annihilate if they have opposite signs.
 Where do Dislocations Come From ?
The number of dislocations in a material is expressed as the dislocation density -
the total dislocation length per unit volume or the number of dislocations
intersecting a unit area. Dislocation densities can vary from 106 /cm2 in carefully
solidified metal crystals to 1012 /cm2 in heavily deformed metals.
Dislocation Density cm/cm3

1012

106

% Cold Working

Most crystalline materials, especially metals, have dislocations in their as-formed state,
mainly as a result of stresses (mechanical, thermal...) associated with the forming process.
The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic deformation. Dislocations
spawn from existing dislocations, grain boundaries and surfaces.
Strengthening of metals by increase of dislocation density;

(Strain Hardening = Work Hardening = Cold Working)

Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures well below
the melting point. The reason for strain hardening is the increase of dislocation density with
plastic deformation. The average distance between dislocations decreases and dislocations start
blocking the motion of each other.
Yield strength and hardness are increasing as a result of strain
hardening but ductility is decreasing (material becomes more brittle).
strength
Mechanical properties

Hardness

% Cold Working
 Strengthening of Metal and Alloys

The ability of a metal to deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move. Restricting
dislocation motion makes the material stronger.

Mechanisms of strengthening of metals:

# grain-size reduction
# solid-solution alloying
# strain hardening
# precipitation strengthening
# Dispersion strengthening

Ordinarily, strengthening reduces ductility

Hot Work and Cold Work

❑ Hot Work  Plastic deformation above TRecrystallization

❑ Cold Work  Plastic deformation below TRecrystallization

Hot Work

Recrystallization temperature (~ 0.3-0.5 Tm)

Cold Work
 ↑ point defect density
Material tends to lose
Cold work the stored strain energy
Annealing
↑ dislocation density

Increase in strength
of the material Softening of the material

Annealed material Stronger material

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→
Cold work

 dislocation ~ (10 − 10 )
6 9
 dislocation ~ (1012 )

❑ Point defects and dislocations have strain energy associated with them
❑ (1 -10) % of the energy expended in plastic deformation is stored in the
form of strain energy
 Annealing of Previously Cold Worked metal
[Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain Growth]

What is annealing?
Annealing is the process by which a previously cold worked metal is heated to pre-
determined temperature and held at that temperature for a pre-determined period
and then slowly cooling to room temperature.

This type of annealing is called Process annealing and consist of three stages;
Stage no.1, is the low temperature stage and known as Recovery.
Stage no.2, is the high temperature stage and known as Recrystallization .
Stage no.3, follows Recrystallization and usually known as Grain Growth.
 Recovery

❑ Recovery takes place at low temperatures of annealing

❑ “Apparently no change in microstructure”
❑ Excess point defects created during Cold work are absorbed:
► at surface or grain boundaries
► by dislocation climb
❑ Random dislocations of opposite sign come together and annihilate each
other
❑ Dislocations of same sign arrange into low energy configurations:
► Edge → Tilt boundaries
► Screw → Twist boundaries
➔ POLYGONIZATION
❑ Overall reduction in dislocation density is small
POLYGONIZATION

Bent crystal

Low angle grain boundaries

 Recrystallization

❑ Trecrystallization  (0.3 – 0.5) Tm

❑ “Nucleation” and growth of new, strain free crystals
❑ Nucleation of new grains in the usual sense may not be present and
grain boundary migrates into a region of higher dislocation density
❑ G (recrystallization) = G (deformed material) – G (undeformed material)
❑ TRecrystallization is the temperature at which 50 % of the material
recrystallizes in 1 hour

Region of lower
Region of higher dislocation density
dislocation density

Direction of grain
boundary migration
Photomicrographs showing several stages of the
Recrystallization and grain growth of brass.
(a) Cold-worked (33%CW) grain structure.
(b) Initial stage of Recrystallization after heating 3 s at
580C (1075F); the very small grains are those that
have recrystallized.
(c) Partial replacement of cold-worked grains by
recrystallized ones (4 s at 580C).
(d) Complete Recrystallization (8 s at 580C).
(e) Grain growth after 15 min at 580C.
(f) Grain growth after 10 min at 700C (1290F).
Factors Affecting Recrystallization Temperature;

❑ Deformation ↑  Recrystallization temperature (Trecrystallization) ↓

❑ Initial grain size ↓  Recrystallization temperature ↓
❑ High cold work + low initial grain size  finer recrystallized grains
❑ ↑ cold work temperature  lower strain energy stored
 ↑ recrystallization temperature
❑ Rate of recrystallization = exponential function of temperature
❑ Trecrystallization = strong function of the purity of the material
Trecrystallization (very pure materials) ~ 0.3 Tm
Trecrystallization (impure) ~ (0.5 – 0.6) Tm

► Trecrystallization (99.999% pure Al) ~ 75oC

Trecrystallization (commercial purity) ~ 275oC
❑ The impurity atoms segregate to the grain boundary and retard their
motion → Solute drag (can be used to retain strength of materials at
high temperatures)
 Grain Growth:
Bonded to
4 atoms

Bonded to
3 atoms

Direction of grain
boundary migration JUMP

Boundary moves towards its

centre of curvature
Summary:
This diagram summarize all the
events that are occurring
during cold working processes
and annealing process.