REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

HEAT TRANSFER LABORATORY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiment No. 1 Parallel and Counter Flow Heat Exchanger Apparatus
Experiment No. 2 Critical Heat Flux Rig
Experiment No. 3 Film Wise and Dropwise Condensation
Experiment No. 4 Unsteady Heat Conduction
Experiment No. 5 Heat Transfer Through Composite Wall
Experiment No. 6 Emissivity of The Surface Apparatus
Experiment No. 7 Heat Transfer in Forced Convection Through Pipe
Experiment No. 8 Heat Transfer from Pin Fin
Experiment No. 9 Heat Transfer in Natural Convection
Experiment No. 10 Stefan-Boltzmann Apparatus
Experiment No. 11 Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod
Experiment No. 12 Pool Boiling Test Rig
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

INSTRUCTION MANUAL
FOR
PARALLER FLOW/COUNTER FLOW
HEAT EXCHANGER
1 . OBJECTIVE:

To study the heat transfer phenomena in parallel/counter flow arrangements.

2 . AIM:

To calculate rate of heat transfer, LMTD and overall heat transfer coefficient for both type of heat
exchanger.
To compare the performance of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger.

3 . INTRODUCTION:

Heat Exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
The necessity for doing this arises in a multitude of industrial a pplications. Common examples of
heat exchangers are the radiator of a car, the condenser at the black of a domestic refrigerator and
the steam boiler of a thermal power plant.
Heat Exchangers are classified in three categories:
1) Transfer Type.
2) Storage Type.
3) Direct Contact Type

4 . THEORY:

A transfer type of heat exchanger is one on which both fluids pass simultaneously through the
device and heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice most of the heat exchangers
used are transfer type ones.
The transfer type exchangers are further classified according to flow arrangement as -
1. Parallel flow in which fluids flow in the same direction.
2. Counter flow in which they flow in opposite direction and
3. Cross flow in which they flow at right angles to each oth er.
A simple example of transfer type of heat exchanger in the form of a tube type arrangement in which one of
the fluids is flowing through the inner tube and the other through the annulus surroundings it. The heat
transfer takes place across the walls of the inner tube.

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
5 . DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a tube in tube type concentric tube neat exchanger. The hot fluid is not
water which is obtained from an insulated water bath using a magnetic drive pump and in flow
through the inner tube while the cold fluid is cold water flowing through the annuals. The hot water
flows always in one direction and the flow rate of which is controlled by means of a valve. The cold
water can be admitted at one of the end enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow
apparatus or a counter flow apparatus. This is done by valve opera tions. For flow measurement
Rotameters are provided at inlet of cold water and outlet of hot water line. A magnetic drive pump is
used to circulate the hot water from a recycled type water tank, which is fitted with heaters and
Digital Temperature controll er.

6 . UTILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Electricity Supply: Single phase, 220 VAC, 50Hz, 5 - 15 Amp socket with earth connection.
2. Water Supply: Continuous @ 5 LPM at 1 Bar.
3. Drain Required.
4. Bench Area Required: 1.75 m x 0.5 m

7 . EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Description Of Valves:
V1 = Drain of Counter Flow
V2 = Control of Parallel Flow
V3 = Control of Counter Flow
V4 = Drain of Parallel Flow
V5 = Water Bath Drain
Setting Of Valves:
VALVE PARALLEL FLOW COUNTER FLOW
V1 OFF ON
V2 ON OFF
V3 OFF ON
V4 ON OFF

Starting procedure:

1. Close all the valves provided on the set up.

2. Open the lid of hot water tank, fill the tank with water and put the lid back to its position.
3. Ensure that switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
4. Connect electric supply to the set up.
5. Set the desired water temperature in the DTC by operating the increment or decrement and set
button of DTC.
6. Open by pass valve and Switch ON the pump.
7. Switch ON the heater and wait till desired temperature achieves.
8. Connect cooling wa ter supply to the set up.
9. Connect both the outlet (parallel/counter) of cooling water to drain.

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
 10. Open the in inlet & outlet valve for cold water as per desired mode (parallel/counter flow).
11. Allow cold water to flow through heat exchanger and adjust the flow rate by Rotameter and
control valve.
12. Allow hot water to flow through heat exchanger and adjust the flow rate by Rotameter, Control
valve and by pass value.
13. At steady state (constant temperature) record the temperatures & flow rate of hot and cold
water.
14. Repeat the experiment for different flow rate of hot & cold water.
15. Repeat the experiment for different bath temperature.
16 . Repeat the experiment for other mode (counter/parallel flow).

Closing procedure:

1. When experiment is over switch OFF heaters.

2. Switch OFF pump.
3. Switch OFF Power Supply to panel.
4. Stop cooling water supply.
5. Drain hot water tank by the drain valve provided.

8 . OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

DATA
Di = 0.0095 m
Do = 0.0127 m
L = 1.6m
Observation Table :

S. Mode F h LPH T1 °C T 2 °C Fc LPH T3 °C T 4 /T5 °C

No. Parallel / Counter
1.

2.

CALCULATION S:

Find the properties of water (C ph , h ) at = and (C pc , ) at = or (as per mode

selected) from data book.

C ph = ------------- kJ/kg °C

C pc = ------------- kJ/kg °C

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
 h = ------------- kg/m 3

c = ------------- kg/m 3

M h= , kg/s
×

Qh = M h C ph ,W= ------------- W

M c = , kg/s = ------------- kg/s

×

Qc = M c C pc , W (for parallel flow) = ------------- W

Qc = M c C pc
, W (for counter flow) = ------------- W

Q= ,W= ---------------------- W

= , °C (for parallel flow) = --------------------- °C

= , °C (for counter flow) = --------------------- °C

= , °C (for parallel flow) = --------------------- °C

= , °C (for counter flow) = --------------------- °C

= , °C = --------------------- °C

= , = ---------------------

= , = ---------------------

= , W /m2 °C = ------------- W / m2 °C

= , W/m 2 °C= ------------- W/ m 2 °C

9 . NOMENCLACTURE:

2
= Inside heat transfer area, m
2
= Outside heat transfer area, m

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
 C ph = Specific heat of hot fluid at mean temperature, kJ/kg °C
C pc = Specific heat of cold fluid at mean temperature, kJ/kg °C

Do = Outer diameter of tube, m

Di = Inner diameter of tube, m
Fh = Flow rate of hot water, LPH

Fc = Flow rate of cold water, LPH

L = Length of tube, m
Mh = Mass flow rate of the hot water, kg/s

Mc = Mass flow rate of the cold water, kg/s

Q = Average heat transfer from the system, W
Qc = Heat gained by the cold water, W

Qh = Heat loss by the hot water, W

Th = Mean temperature of hot water, °C
Tc = Mean temperature of cold water , °C

T1 = Inter temperature of the hot water, °C

T2 = Outlet temperature of the hot water, °C
T3 = Inter temperature of the cold water, °C

T4 = Outlet temperature of the cold water for parallel flow, °C

T5 = Outlet temperature of the cold water for counter flow, °C
= Log mean temperature difference, °C
2
Ui = Inside overall heat transfer coefficient, W/ m °C
2
Uo = Outside overall heat transfer coefficient, W/ m °C
3
= Density of cold water at mean temp, kg/m
3
= Density of hot water at mean temp, kg/m

10 . PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the
panel are at OFF position.
3. Operator selector switch off temperature indicator gently.
4. Always keep the apparatus free from just.

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
FILMWISE AND DROPWISE CONDENSATION
INTRODUCTION:
Condensation is the process of change of state free vapour to liquid. Condensation occurs on
a surface when the vapour saturation temperature is higher than the temperature of surface.
The temperature of the condensate so formed will be less than the saturation temperature of
the vapour and becomes sub-cooled. More vapour starts condensing on the exposed surface
or on the previous condensate, since the temperature of the previous condensate is lower. The
phenomenon of condensation heat transfer is more complex, which involves change of phase
and additional characteristics / variables that control the condensation process.
There are two basic types of condensation - Film Condensation and Dropwise
Condensation.
a) Film Condensation: When the condensate tends to “wet” the surface, then it is called
“film condensation”. In this process, the liquid condensate distributes itself as a continuous
thin film on the cooled surface. This happens when the surface tension between the liquid and
the solid material is sufficiently small for example, condensation of steam on a clean metallic
surface, when the surface is clean and grease / oil free. In film condensation, heat transfer
from the vapour to the cooling surface takes place through the condensate film formed on the
surface. As the new condensate formed joins the film existing on the surface, the film
thickness increases. The heat is transferred from the vapour to the condensate by convection
and further from condensate to the surface by conduction. This combined mode of heat
transfer by conduction and convection reduce the rate of heat transfer in film condensation
process. Hence, the rate of heat transfer is lower in film condensation (as compared to
dropwise condensation).
b) Dropwise Condensation: When the condensate does not wet the surface, it forms the
droplets on the surface, it is known as “dropwise condensation”. When the surface tension is
large, the condensate coalesces into a multitude of droplets of different sizes. With time, each
droplet grows as more vapour condenses on its exposed surface. The formation of each
droplet is initiated at a point of surface imperfection (pit, scratch, etc.) and such sites are
called “nucleation sites”. At some time, the tangential pull of gravity, or sheer force exerted
by the vapour stream, dislodges the droplet and carries it downstream. The moving droplet
devours the smaller droplets in its path, thereby creating a clean trail ready for the generation
of new droplets of smaller sizes. This surface renewal process occurs periodically as the
droplets accumulate and grow in size. Since the condensation rate is the highest in the
absence of condensate on the surface, the periodic cleaning performed by the large drops
renews finite size regions of the surface for the restart of the condensation. This surface
renewal process is the main reason why dropwise condensation is a highly effective heat
transfer mechanism. The heat transfer coefficient is roughly ten times greater than the
corresponding condensation in the form of thin film. In the design of condensers, whose
function is to cool a vapour stream and to convert it into liquid, there is a great advantage to
promote the breakup of the condensate into droplets. This can be achieved by:
a) Coating the solid surface with an organic substance like wax, oil, oleic acid, etc.
b) Injecting non-wetting chemicals into the vapour, which get deposited on the surface of the
condenser. c) Coating the surface with a polymer of low surface energy like teflon, silicone,
etc. or with a noble metal like gold, silver, etc.
The mechanism of dropwise condensation is complex because of its intermittent time
dependent character, effect of surface tension (due to drop size and shape) and the uncertainty
associated with the location of nucleation sites and the time when the largest droplet will start
its downstream movement. Hence, a unifying theory of dropwise condensation has not been
developed.
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS: The apparatus consists of Heat exchanger tube
made of copper and stainless steel which is placed inside the GLASS CHAMBER of
dimension 100 x 200 mm. Steam Generator with necessary fittings and accessories to
generate and supply the steam. Rotameter to directly measure the flowrate of the water into
the condensate tube. Thermocouples at suitable position to measure the temperatures of body
and the air. Digital Temperature Indicator with channel selector to measure the temperatures.
Control panel to house all the instrumentation. With this the whole arrangement is mounted
on an aesthetically designed self-sustained MS powder coated frame with a separate control
panel.
AIM: To determine the experimental heat transfer coefficient for drop wise and film wise
condensation.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill water slowly into the water tank and steam generator.
2. Switch on the supply mains and console.
3. Switch on the heater of steam generator to generate the steam.
4. Once the steam is generated follow the steps below.
5. Open the inlet valve and allow the cold fluid to flow through the condenser.
6. Adjust the flowrate of cold fluid to minimum.
7. Open the steam inlet valve and keep steam pressure constant (say 0.2kg/cm²) throughout
the experiment.
8. After cold fluid temperature becomes steady state, note down the inlet temperature, out let
temperature and flowrate of cold fluid and also note down the volume of condensate collected
at the given time interval (say 1min).
9. Keeping steam pressure constant take 4 – 5 readings for different cold fluid flow rate from
minimum to maximum.
10. Repeat the experiment at another constant steam pressure Say, (0.3kg/cm²).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check all the electrical connections.
2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Do not give continuous steam without running the cold water.
4. Run the water in the condensate tube for about 5 min after the
experiment.
5. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
6. Check all the electrical connections before running.
7. Before starting and after finishing the experiment the steam
valve should be in shut position.
8.Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage
to the whole system.
9. Initially, close the valve on the top of the condenser unit
10. Start the steam and then open the valve at the top of the condenser unit and close it as
soon as the steam is filled.
11. Also make sure to open the water connection of the condenser unit to which the steam is
released and close the steam valve of another unit.
OBSERVATIONS:
S. V I Thermocouple readings (0C) Volume flow rate
No. (Volts) (Amps) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 of water, V cc/min
1
2
3

• Water inlet temperature – T1

• Copper tube surface temperature (Film wise condensation) – T2
• Copper specimen chamber steam temperature – T3
• Stainless Steel tube surface temperature (Drop wise condensation) – T4
• Stainless Steel specimen chamber steam temperature – T3
• Steam Inlet temperature – T6
• Copper tube Water outlet temperature – T7
• Stainless Steel tube Water outlet temperature – T7
CALCULATIONS:
Find CP, μ, ρ and K at temperature Tavg = (T1+T2) *0.5 from Heat Transfer hand book.
(For drop wise condensation, determine experimental heat transfer coefficient only) In film
wise condensation, film of water acts as barrier to heat transfer whereas, in case of drop
formation, there is no barrier to heat transfer, hence heat transfer coefficient in drop wise
condensation is much greater than film wise condensation, and is preferred for condensation.
But practically, it is difficult to prolong the drop wise condensation and after a period of
condensation the surface becomes wetted by the liquid. Hence slowly film wise condensation
starts.
RESULTS: Thus, we studied and compared the drop wise and film wise condensation.
1. Film wise condensation:
Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =

2. Drop wise condensation:

Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

INTRODUCTION: When a body is subjected to heating or cooling, irrespective of the material it

requires certain time to attain steady state. Hence the other way of expressing is that the unsteady
process will occur till it attains the steady process. In unsteady process the temperature will change
with respect to time. Although, temperature of the body is generally expressed as the function of 3
different axis and time, it is not easy to solve. Unsteady state heating or cooling can be categorized
as:

• PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature within the system undergoes periodic
changes, which may be regular or irregular.
• NON – PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature at any point within the system
changes non – linearly with respect to time.

Unsteady state heat flow is very common in all heating or cooling problems at the beginning of the
system. Hardening by quenching, cooling of IC engine cylinders, and heating of boiler tubes are
common examples of unsteady state heat flow.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a specially designed Stainless-Steel Tank with heater arrangement.

A MILD-STEEL CYLINDER (with height= diameter) is provided to study the experiment with the stand
to place in the heater tank.

Heater regulator with Thermostat to supply the regulated power input to the heater and to set the
temperature.

Thermocouples at suitable position to measure the temperatures.

AIM: To determine heat transfer coefficient and instantaneous heat transfer rate for transient heat
conduction and draw the graph of temperature variation with time

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the fluid (water or oil) in the tank.

2. Heat the fluid to the required temperature says 70o C in case of water.

3. Note down the initial temperature of sphere and hot fluid.

4. Immerse the sphere in hot fluid bath for heating.

5. Note down the surface temperature of the sphere at every 10 seconds till it attains fluid
temperature.

6. Take out the sphere from hot fluid and cool it in atmospheric air.

7. Repeat the experiment for different temperatures of fluid.

PROCEDURE:

1. switch on the panel.

2. Switch on the computer.

3. Open the “HEAT TRANSFER Software” from the installed location a welcome screen

will be displayed

4. Follow the below steps to operate through software

5. Once the software is opened, the main screen will be displaced on the main screen

press “PORT” button and select the USB port connected,

6. Now, press “START” button, and the small screen will be opened

7. Enter the parameters listed for particular test under study.

8. Now, set the temp by using thermostat regulator to known valve.

9. Now press “START BUTTON” on the screen so the software automatically starts

recording the temperatures and other values.

10. Also, the software starts displaying the calculated values which can be cross verified

based on the formulae give thereafter.

11. Enter the STORE BUTTON to store the values.

12. Press report button to see the stored values

13. finally thermostat you kept at 0 *C

OBSERVATIONS

Initial Temp. of the fluid, T1 = ____ 0C

Initial Temp. of the sphere, T2=____ 0C

S. No. Temperatures (0C) Time (Seconds)

T1 T2
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS:

1. Determination of Heat Transfer Co-efficient, h

h=Nu*k/D
NOTE: Properties of fluid such as ρ, µ, K, Pr are obtained from HMT data book at Tf
 2. Determination of Instantaneous Heat Flow, Q

RESULTS: The heat transfer coefficient for transient heat conduction heat transfer.

LIMITATIONS & PRECAUTIONS:

1. Maximum Load is limited to 70∞C.

2. This is a general equipment for study in undergraduate level, for consideration of higher-level
studies you can add any extra parameter required. For adding the parameters call the supplier.

3. Don’t run the equipment if the voltage is less than 180V.

4. 230V, 1ph with neutral and proper earthing to be provided.

5. Don’t alter the equipment without the supervision of the supplier.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL
OBJECTIVE: Study of conduction heat transfer in composite wall.
AIM:
1. To determine total thermal resistance and thermal conductivity of composite wall.
2. To calculate thermal conductivity of one material (Press wood) in composite wall.
3. To plot the temperature profile along the composite wall.
INTRODUCTION: When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy transfer
from the high temperature region to the low temperature region. Energy is transferred by
conduction and heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature
gradient:

Where q is the heat transfer rate and T/ X is the temperature gradient in the direction of heat
flow. The positive constant k is called thermal conductivity of the material.
THEORY: A direct application of Fourier’s law is the plane wall. Fourier’s equation:

Where the thermal conductivity is considered constant. The wall thickness is X, and T1 and
T2 are surface temperatures. If more than one material is present, as in the multiplayer Wall,
the analysis would proceed as follows:
The temperature gradients in the three materials (A, B, C), the heat flow may be written
DESCRIPTION: The Apparatus consists of a heater sandwiched between two asbestos
sheets. Three slabs of different material are provided on both sides of heater, which forms a
composite structure. A small press- frame is provided to ensure the perfect contact between
the slabs. A Variac is provided for varying the input to the heater and measurement of input
power is carried out by a Digital Voltmeter & Digital Ammeter. Temperatures Sensors are
embedded between inter faces of the slab, to read the temperature at the surface. The
experiment can be conducted at various values of power input and calculations can be made
accordingly.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
1. Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 VAC, 50 Hz, 5-15Amp socket with earth connection.
2. Bench Area Required: 1m x 1m.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
• STARTING PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position &dimmer-stat is
at zero position.
2. Connect electric supply to the set up.
3. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.
4. Set the heater input by the dimmer-stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 V.
5. After 1 hour. Note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and temperature sensors
in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing change inconsecutive
readings of temperatures (± 0.2 oC).
• CLOSING PROCEDURE:
1. After experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
2. Switch OFF the Mains ON/OFF switches.
3. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up. OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS:
DATA:
Diameter of one plate (d) = 125 mm
Thickness of one plate (d) = 10 mm
Conductivity of Aluminium, kAl =205 W/m2K
Conductivity of Bakelite, kBK =1.4 W/m2K
Conductivity of Press Wood, kPW =………. W/m2K
X1=10 mm

X2=10 mm

X3=10 mm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

T7

Bakelite

T5

Press Wood

T3

Aluminium

T1

T2

Aluminium

T4

Press Wood

T6

Bakelite

T8
CALCULATIONS:
DISTANCE (mm) AVERAGE TEMPERATURE (°C)

0 mm

10 mm

20 mm

30 mm
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

EMISSIVITY OF SURFACE
AIM:
To determine the emissivity of the
radiating surface
INIRODUCTION:
Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which
does not require any matenal
medum for its propagation. The mechanism is assumed to be electromagnetic in nature is the

result of temperature dilference. Thermodynamic considerations show that an ideal radiator

or black and will emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute

temperature of the body. When two bodies will exchange heat by radiation, the net heat

exchange is given by.

Q o AT

Where. 'Q is the heat transfer rate in watts, "a" is called Stefan Boltzman's Constant having

the value of 5.669x 10* W/m'K",'A' is the surface area (m)

All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from surroundings. The

rate of thermal radiation depends upon the temperature of body. Thermal radiations are

electromagnetic waves and they do not require any medium for propagation. When thermal

radiation strikes a body, part of it is relected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is

transmitted through body. The fraction of incident energy, reflected by the surface is called

reflectivity (p). The fraction of incident energy, absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity
(a) and the fraction of incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (t)
The surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface. For a black
surface. p+a+t=1. The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).
The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that of black surface at
thesame temperature. Thus, E = E/ E

fig(1) shows the schematic ofthe test setup. It consists ofthe following:

35
 tire Lody

Lo-1o-
eter Hxter

Fig:1 Seheme diagranm for emissivity apparatus

Black Body made of eircular steel plate with the surface black anodized. Grey body or test

stecl plate made of circular steel plate of same size as the black body with polished surface.

Heaters are provided to heat the black body and grey body to identical temperature.

Voltmeter and ammeter provided to measure the input power to the heaters.

Themocouples to measure surface temperature of the black body (T), test plate (T;).

Channel selector and digital temperature display.

Heat control or regulator to vary input power to the heaters. Controls panel to switch on/off
the console and the heater.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:
a. Switch on the nmains and console

b. Switch the heater to the black

on
body and adjust the power input to the heater to a

suitable value using regulator.

Switch on the heater to the test
plate and keep the power input to a value less than that
input to the black body.

36
 Observe the temperature of the black body and test surface in close time intervals ana
adjust power input to the test plate heater such that both black body and test surface

temperature are same. Thus procedure requires trial and error method and one has to
wait suftiociently long to reach the steady state.
Atter attamng steady state, recond input pow ers to heaters and temperatures of the

biack body. test plate and the enclosure. Using the above measurements calculate the

emissavty
of the test surtace using the procedure given below

WORKING PRINCIPL
Fig (1) shows the schematic of the apparatus used to determine the emissivity ofthe
test surface. The experimental setup is designed in such a way that under steady state

conditions, the heat dissipation by the conduction and convection, although smal, are same
or both plates: the ditference in power input to the heaters of black surface and test plate

which are at the same temperature is due to the different in the radiation characteristics

because ofdifferent emissivity by the relationship.

Where W-heat input to the black surface - \V, l watts

Wheat input to the test plate =V: l: watts

Vmvoltage across heater to black surtace (volts)

eurrent to the black surtace (amps)

Vvoltage across heater to test plate (volts)

current to the test plate heater (amps) mn

d 1 6O
A-area ofthe test plate |T(d )} 4 m

d- diameter of the test plate

Ttemperature of the black plate .K

T,-temperatureofthe test plate. K

emissvity ofthe black plate (assumed equal to 1)

&emiss1vity of the test plate

a Siefan boltman's constants

567x10 Wm K*

37
The constant in the denominator (0.86) takes into account various factors such as radiation

of conduction and free losses and other factors (such as non-

shape factor, effect convention

enclosures temperatures), which deviation from the typical radiation

uniformities in cause

heat transfer, experiment. The above analysis requires that the temperature of black surtace

and test plate are same (T1=T2).

Tabular Column:

Heat input to heaters TI-T2 T3

S.
(°C) (C)
No.
Vb b Qb- Vbx lb| Vgg Qg Vgx Ig
(V) (A)(W) |V)(A)(W)
100 54.5
47 0.46 21.62 34 0.31 10.54

Sample calculation:

A =0.7854*d

0.8610b091
E x A{T' - T"s

Result:

Emissivity of the surface is

38
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

INSTRUCTION MANUAL
FOR
HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION
AIM:

To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient in forced convection heat transfer for

internal flow.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a circular pipe, through which cold fluid, i.e.air is being forced. Pipe is heated by a

band heater outside the pipe.Temperature of pipe is measured with thermocouples attached to pipe

surface.Heater input is measured by a voltmeter and ammeter.Thus,heat transfer rate and heat transfer

coefficient can be calculated.The apparatus consists of blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section

is surrounding by nichrome heater.Four Temperature Sensors are embedded on the test section and two

temperature sensors are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the section. Test Pipe is connected

to the delivery side of the blower along with Orifice.Input to the heater is given through a dimmerstat and

measured by Voltmeter & Ampere meter.Digital temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature.Airflow

is measured with the help of Orifice meter and the water manometer fitted on the board.

THEORY
Convection is defined as process of heat transfer by combined action of heat conduction and mixing motion.

Convection heat transfer is further classified as Natural Convection and forced convection. If the mixing motion

takes place due to density difference caused by temperature gradient, then Natural or Free Convection knows

the process of heat transfer as heat transfer. If the mixing motion is induced by Forced Convection knows

some external means such as a pump or blower then the process as heat transfer.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. = 33mm & 500 mm long

i

2. Band heater for pipe.

3. Blower to force the air through test pipe

4. Orifice meter with water manometer.

STARTING PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position & dimmerstat is at zero

position.

2. Fill water in manometer up to half of the scale,by opening PU pipe connection from the air flow

pipe and connect the pipe back to its position after doing so.

3. Connect external 230V AC electric supply to the set up.

4. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.

5. Set the heater input by the dimmerstat,Voltmeter in the ranger 40 to 100V.

PAGE NO. 1/03

REV. : 00,DT.:25.02.2017

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
6. Switch ON the blower.Six temp.sensors(thermocouples) are fitted on the test tube & one loose
thermocouple is provided to note down the air Inlet(T initial ) & air Outlet(T final) temps.
7. Adjust the flow of air by operating the valve.Select the Temp.selection switch at 7 at digital

temp.indicator provided on the control panel.Now put the loose thermocouple near blower to note

down the temp.of air at Input.Let it be T .

initial

8. After 0.5 hrs.,note down the reading of voltmeter,ampere meter,manometer and temperature

sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing change in consecutive

readings of temperature.

9. Now put the loose thermocouple near orifice to note down the temp.of air at Output.Let it be T .
final

CLOSING PROCEDURE:

1. After experiment is over,set the dimmerstat to zero position.

2. Switch OFF the blower.

3. Switch OFF the Main ON/OFF switch.

4. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.

V I T 1
T 2 °C T 3 °C T 4 °C T 5 °C T 6 °C Manometer Diff.,

(Volts) (Amp.) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) h w

= (h 2 -h 1 )(cm)

CALCULATIONS

1. Air Inlet temp.T = ...... 0 C

initial

2. Air outlet temp.T = ...... 0 C

final

3. Density of air,
a
= (1.293 X 273) / (273 + T
initial
)

4. Diameter of orifice,d = 22 mm

Manometer difference = Water head = h meters

w

Air head, h = h ( / )
a w w a
3
Where = density of water = 1000 Kg/m
w

Air volume flow rate, i.e., discharge,

Q = C a (2gh )1/2 m 3 /sec

d o a

Where Cd = 0.64

a = cross section area of orifice(Calculate using dia.=22mm by d2 /4)

o

5. Mass flow rate of air, m

a
= QX
a
Kg/sec

Velocity of air,V = Q/a m/sec.

2
Where, a = Cross Sectional area of pipe = m

6. Heat gained by air,Q

air
= m XC
a pa
X (T
final
- Tinitial )
3
Where, C = Specific heat of air = 1KJ/Kg.K. or 10 J/Kg K
pa

PAGE NO. 2/03

REV. : 00,DT.:25.02.2017

Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
 0C
7. Average inside surface temperature,T s = (T + T + T + T
1 2 3 4
+T +T )/6
5 6

8. Bulk mean temperature of air, T

m
= (T
final
+ T
initial
)/2 0C

9. Average heat transfer coefficient = Actual Heat Loss Due to Forced Convection

= Q
air R

Heat Loss due to radiation, Q

R
= X 0.4 X A X (T
s
4 - Ta 4 )
T = atmospheric temperature = T
a initial

h expt = (Q
air R
) / A(T
s
- T ) W/m 2 K
m

Where A = Inside surface area of the pipe = xd xL

i

PRECAUTIONS:

1.

2.

3. Drain the water after completion of experiment.

4. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

PAGE NO. 3/03

REV. : 00,DT.:25.02.2017
Printed by BoltPDF (c) NCH Software. Free for non-commercial use only.
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

(1) OBJECTIVE:

Study of convection heat transfer in natural convection.

(2) AIM:

To find out the heat transfer co-efficient of vertical cylinder in natural

convection.

(3) INTRODUCTION:

Convection is defined as process of heat transfer by combined

action of heat conduction and mixing motion. Convection heat transfer
is further classified as Natural Convection and Forced Convection.

If the mixing motion takes place due to density difference caused

by temperature, gradient, then the process of heat transfer is known as
heat transfer by Natural or Free Convection. If the mixing motion is
induced by some external means such as a pump or blower then the
process is known as heat transfer by Forced Convection.

(4) THEORY:

Natural convection phenomenon is due to the temp. Difference

between the surface and the fluid and is not created by any external agency.
The Setup is designed and fabricated to study the natural convection
phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of aver age heat transfer
coefficient.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by.

h =____Q a _____Kcal/m 2 C
A(Ts Ta )

(5) DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct

in a vertical fashion.
 The duct is open at the top and buttom and forms an enclosure and
serves the purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of it is made
up of glass/ Acrylic for visualization. A heating element is kept in the
vertical tube, which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the
tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. Digital Temperature
Indicator measures the temperature at the different points with the help
of seven temperature sensors. The heat input to the heater is measured
by Digital Ammeter and D igital voltmeter and can be varied by a
dimmerstat.

(6) UTILITIES REQUIRED

Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220V AC, 2 Amp.

Table for set-up support

(7) EXPERIMENTAL PROCUDURE:

Starting Procedure:
1 . Clean the apparatus and make it free from Dust, First.
2 . Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF
position.
3 . Ensure that Variac Knob is at ZERO positon, given on the panel.
4 . Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
5 . Switch on the Panel with help of Mains On/Off Switch given on the
Panel.
6 . Fix the Power Input to the Heater with help of Variac, Voltmeter and
Ammeter provided.
7 . After 30 Minutes record the temperature of Test Section at various
points in each 5 Minutes interval.
8 . If Temperatures reading are same for three times , assume that steady
state is achieved.
9 . Record the final temperatures.

Closing Procedure:
1 . When experiment is over, Switch off heater first.
2 . Adjust Variac at Zero.
3 . Switch off the Panel with the help of Mains On/Off Switch given on
the Panel.
(8) SPECIFICATION:

Dia of the tube = 35mm.

Length of the tube = 5 00mm.
Size of duct = 25 X 25 X 90 cm.
Temperature Sensors = RTD PT 100 tub e.
No. of RTD Temperature = 8 Nos.
Digital Voltmeter = 0 to 250 V.
Digital Ammeter = 0 to 2.5 Amps.
Dimmerstat = 2 Amps/220 V.
Temperatu re Indicator = Digital Temperature Indicator 0 to 200 C
with multi channel switch
(9) FORMULAE:

1 . The heat transfer coefficient,

h =____Q a _____Kcal/m 2 C
A ( Ts T a )

2.
Where

Qa = heat transfer rate = V.I (Kcal/Hr.)

A= Area of the heat transferring surface.
= d L m2
3 . T s = T1 + T 2 + T 3 + T 4 + T5 + T6 + T 7
7
T a = ambient temperature in duct C = T8

OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS:

Outer diameter of Cylinder, d = 35mm.

Length of Cylinder. L = 500 mm.
Input to heater = V x I Watts.
Where

V = Volts and I = Current(Amps.)

Run No. V I T T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
1

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTION:

1 . Use the stabilize A.C. Single Phase supply only.

2 . Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the
ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3 . Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
4 . Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5 . Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 V and above
than 240 V.
6 . Operates selectors switch of temperature indicator gently.
7 . Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is
fluctuating or if the satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.

TROUBLESHOOTING:

1 . If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the
fuse and also check the main supply.
2. the computer socket if loose
tight it.
3 . If temperature of any sensor is not displays in D.T.I check the
connection and rectify that.
4 . Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does
not . Tight the heater socket & switch if ok it means heater burned.

REFERENCES:

th
1. ed., pp. 283-319, McGraw Hill, NY,
1976.
st
2. ed., pp. 25-27, McGraw Hill. NY,
1965.
3.
6 th cd.. pp. 10/14-19, McGraw Hill, NY, 1985.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

INSTRUCTION MANUAL
FOR
STEFAN BOLTZMAN APPARATUS
AIM:

INTRODUCTION: All the substances emit thermal radiation. When heat radiation is incident over a body,

part of radiation is absorbed, transmitted through and reflected by the body. A surface which absorbs all

thermal radiation incidents over it is called black surface. For black surface, transmissivity and reflectivity

are zero and absorptivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann Law states that emissivity of a surface is proportional

to fourth power of absolute surface temperature i.e.

E T4

or E = T4
2
Where E = Emissive power of surface, W / m

T = Absolute temperature

= Stefan Boltzmann constant

= Emissivity of the surface

Value of Stefan Boltzmann constant is taken as

= 5.667 x 10-8 W / m2 K4

For black surface = 1, hence above equation reduces to

E = T4

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of hemisphere fixed to a bakelite plate.The outer surface of which forms the jacket

to heat it.Hot water to heat the hemisphere is obtained from a hot water tank,which is fixed above the

hemisphere.The Copper test disc is introduced at the centre of hemisphere.The temperature of hemisphere

& test disc are measured with the help of temp.sensors.

STARTING PROCEDURE:

1. Close both the valves.

2. Fill heater tank 3/4 th

with water by removing the lid of the tank and put the lid back to its position

after doing so.

3. Ensure that all the switches given on the panel are at OFF position.

4. Connect electric supply to the set up.

5. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.

6. Set the desired water temperature in the DTC by operating the increment or decrement and set

button of DTC.
7. Switch ON the heater and wait till desired temperature achieves.

8. Remove the disc from the bottom of test chamber by removing the support provided to hold it.

9. Switch OFF the heater.

10. Fill test chamber with hot water of heater tank by opening the valve provided at top of the chamber,
till observing the overflow of water through chamber outlet and then close the valve.

11. Note the reading of water temperature (T1) and initial temperature of the disc (T2i).

12. Insert the disc to the bottom of the chamber and note the reading of temperature T2 after 5-10 sec
interval.
OBSERVATIONS:

T1 = ....... 0 C

T2 i = ....... 0 C
CALCULATIONS:

1. Area of test disc, A = ( /4)d 2 = m 2 (d = 20 mm = 0.02m)

-3
2. mass of test disc, m = 6 grm = 6 x 10 kg.

3. Plot a graph of temperature rise of test disc(T) with time(t) as base and find out its slope at origin.

i.e.

[dT / dt] att=0 K / sec

Hemisphere temperature, T = T1 + 273.15 K

E

4. Initial Test disc temperature = T2

i

T = T2 + 273.15 K
D i

As area of hemisphere is very large as compared to that disc,we can put

Q = A (T
E
4 - TD 4 )
Where Q = heat gained by disc/sec.

Q = m. C P . (dT/dt)
t=0

= Stefan Boltzmann Constant

m = Mass of test disk = 6 x 10 -3 kg.

= Emissivity of test disc = 1

A = Area of Test disc

CP = Specific heat of copper = 381 J/Kg 0

C

[m . C P. (dT/dt)
t=0
]/ A (T
E
4
- TD 4 ) W/m 2 K4.

Theoretical value of is 5.667x 10 -8 W/m 2 K 4 .In the experiment this value may deviate due to reasons like

convection,temperature drop of hemisphere, heat losses etc.

PRECAUTIONS:

1.

2.

3. Drain the water after completion of experiment.

4. Operate all the switches and controls gently

 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

THERMAL C ONDUCTIVITY OF M ETAL R OD

1. OBJECTIVE:
Study of conduction heat transfer in metal rod.

2. AIM :
To determine the thermal conductivity of metal rod.

To plot the temperature distribution along the length of rod.

3. INTRODUCTION:
Thermal conductivity of a substance is a physical property, defined as the ability of a

substance to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity of material depends on chemical

composition; state of matter, cry stalline structure of a solid, the temperature,

pressure and weather or not it is a homogeneous material.

4. THEORY :

The heater will heat the rod on its one end and heat will be conducted through the

rod to the other end. Since the rod is insulated from outside, it can be safely assumed

that the heat transfer along the copper rod is mainly due to axial conduction and at

steady state the heat conducted shall be equal to the heat absorbed by water at the
cooling end. The heat conducted at steady state shall create a temperature profile

within the rod. (T = f (x))The steady state heat balance at the rear end of the rod is:

Heat absorbed by cooling water,

Q MC p T

Heat conducted through the rod in axial direction:

dT
Q kA
dX
at steady state
dT
Q kA MC p T
dX

So thermal conductivity of rod may be expressed as:

 DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a metal rod, one end of which is heated by an electric

heater while the other end of the rod projects inside the cooling water jacket. The

middle portion of the rod is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos

insulating powder. The temperature of the rod is measured at different section. The

heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input. Water under

constant head conditions is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and

temperature rise are noted by two temperature sensors provided at the inlet and

outlet of the water.

6. UTILITIES R EQUIRED:
1. Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 VAC, 50Hz, 5-15Amp socket with Earth
connection.

2. Water Supply: Continuous @ 2 LPM at 1 Bar.

3. Drain required.

4. Bench Area Required: 1m x 1m.

7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE :

Starting Procedure:

1. Connect continuous water supply to the inlet of water chamber.

2. Connect outlet of chamber to drain.

3. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position &
dimmer stat is at zero position.

4. Connect electric supply to the set up.

5. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.

6. Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 V.

7. Start water supply at low flow rate.

8. Measure the flow of water through chamber by measuring cylinder and

stop watch.

9. After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and
temperature sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes
interval till observing change in consecutive readings of temperatures (±
o
0.2 C) .
 Closing Procedure:

1. After experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.

2. Switch OFF the Mains ON/OFF switch.

3. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.

4. Stop cold water flow by closing the valve.

8. O BSERVATION & C ALCULATION

D ATA:
d = 0.025 m
3
= 1000 kg/m

Cp = 4186 J/kg K

O BSERVATION T ABLE:

o o o o o o o o =
S.No. V ml t, sec T1, C T2, C T3, C T4, C T5, C T6, C T7, C T8, C
 C ALCULATIONS:
2 2
A d , m = ------------------------ m 2
4

V 10 6
M , kg/s = --------------------- kg/s
T

Q MCp T8 T 7 , W = --------------------- W

o
Temp. Sensor No. X, m T, C

T1 0.035
T2 0.075

T3 0.115
T4 0.155

T5 0.195
T6 0.235

Plot T vs. X. draw a smooth curve through all the points and obtain the slope dT/dX.
Q o
K , W/m K
dT
A.
dX

9. NOMENCLATURE:
2
A = Surface area of the metal rod, m

Cp = Specific heat of water, J/kg k

d = Diameter of rod, m

o
dT/dX = Slope of the graph b/w temperature vs length of the rod, k/m
o
k = Thermal conductivity of metal rod, W/m k
M = Mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s

Q = Heat Gained by water, W

t = Time taken to collect V ml of water for flow measurement, sec.

o
T = Temperature, C
o
T7 = Inlet temp of cold water, C
o
T8 = Outlet temp of cold water, C
V = Volume of water collected for flow measurement, ml.

X = Length of rod, m
3
= Density of water, kg/m
l = Length of Rod being used for Heat Transfer.
10. PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE I NSTRUCTIONS :

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than
230volts.

2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Operator selector switch off temperature indicator gently.

4. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING :

1. If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the main
supply.

2. If voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not,
check the connection of heater in control panel.

12. R EFERENCES:

th
1. D.S Kumar, ,7 ed, S.K Kataria & Sons, ND, 2008,
Page 5.