CHAPTER 1

Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and

Forest Wastes: An Overview
RIA MILLATI, PHD • ROCHIM BAKTI CAHYONO, PHD • TEGUH ARIYANTO, PHD •
ISTNA NAFI AZZAHRANI, STP • RININTA UTAMI PUTRI, STP •
MOHAMMAD J. TAHERZADEH, PHD

INTRODUCTION be aware of the developing technologies, as their prog-

According to the EU Waste Directive [1], waste is any ress creates a niche in science related to this specific ma-
substance or object that the holder discards or intends terial as well as lignocellulosic materials in general.
to discard or is required to discard. However, in the Based on these facts, the following six types of wastes
concept of sustainable development, waste is consid- were chosen to represent solid wastes in the agricultural
ered as a resource that is useful in the production of sector.
various valuable products. By doing so, the use of raw
materials in manufacturing processes is reduced. The Corncob
environmental impact caused by waste accumulation Corncob is a byproduct of corn, which is the central
would likewise be minimized. In this chapter, different core of an ear of maize (Zea mays sp.), where the kernels
groups of wastes from the agricultural, forest, munic- grow. Corncob can be separated from corn kernels
ipal, and industrial sectors are discussed. The discussion manually or by using a machine during the corn-
covers the quantity and quality of both waste character- based manufacturing process. A total of 1 kg of ear
istics and waste treatment and the potential utilization corn yields 0.22 kg of corncob [4]. Pursuant to the
of wastes for producing, e.g., bioenergy, biomaterials, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
and biochemicals. report, the global production of corn in 2017 was
1061 million tons and, accordingly, the total corncob
generation is estimated to be around 230 million tons
AGRICULTURAL WASTE [5]. The top three producers of corn in the world are
Sugarcane, corn, rice, and wheat are the top four of the the United States, China, and Brazil. Corn is a major
world’s largest produced crops by quantity [2]. crop in the United States, where it is mostly utilized
Together, rice, corn, and wheat supply more than 42% as feedstock for ethanol, distillers’ grain, and livestock
of all calories consumed by the whole human popula- feed, e.g., beef cattle, dairy, hogs, and poultry [5].
tion [3], whereas palm oil produced from the oil According to the same report [5], the total corn produc-
palm tree is one of the most consumed and produced tion in the United States was 370 million tons. Based on
oils in the world. Cultivation and manufacturing pro- this amount and using the share ratio of corncob [4],
cesses, which use these crops as raw material, generate the amount of corncob generated in the United States
solid wastes such as rice straw, rice husk, corncob, wheat would be around 81 million tons (Table 1.1). China
straw, and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB). As the and Brazil produced 225 and 94.5 million tons of
crops are considered to be the world’s most produced corn, respectively [5], making their respective corncob
and consumed agricultural products, accordingly, the production about 49 and 20 million tons (Table 1.1).
associated solid wastes are available in plentiful Corncob is a lignocellulosic material that is high in
amount. It is not only the amount of these solid wastes cellulose content, with up to 69.2%. Other lignocellu-
that creates significant concern but also their character- losic components, i.e., hemicellulose and lignin,
istic as a lignocellulose, which poses a challenge in treat- comprise up to 22.8% and 8%, respectively [6]
ing or utilizing them. Hence, it would be beneficial to (Table 1.2). Corncob is rich in carbon compounds [6]

Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64200-4.00001-3

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1
2 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

TABLE 1.1
Estimated Production of Agricultural Waste.
Types Production (Million Tons) Country of Origin References
Corncoba 81 USA [5]
49 China [4]
20 Brazil
13 EU
9 Argentina
Oil palm empty fruit buncha 37 Indonesia [121]
19 Malaysia [21]
2 Thailand
1 Colombia
0.9 Nigeria
Rice huska 39 China [33]
30 India [32]
10 Indonesia
9 Bangladesh
8 Vietnam
Rice strawa 149 China [33]
114 India [32]
39 Indonesia
36 Bangladesh
30 Vietnam
Sugarcane bagassea 94 Brazil [57]
93 India [56]
55 EU
38 Thailand
29 China
Wheat strawb 128 EU [68]
110 China [43]
40 USA
25 Canada
22 Pakistan
a
In the year 2017.
b
In the crop year 2017/2018.

as well as in silica content (79.95%) [7] (Table 1.2). It is in China with a capacity of 45e50 kg corncob/h [18].
frequently milled into small sizes and further used as an- In China, corncob is used as feedstock for furfural pro-
imal feed. In the past, corncob had been used in direct duction by Hebei Furan International Co., Ltd. [19].
combustion as a fuel for cooking and heating [8]. Corncob is also used as one of the raw materials by
Studies have been conducted to investigate if corncob Praj Industries in India to produce ethanol, with a capac-
has more value, with results showing that corncob can ity of 1 million L/year [20].
be used as feedstock for the production of bioethanol
[9,10], xylooligosaccharides [11], biomass-degrading en- Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch
zymes, antioxidants, and fermentable sugars [12], xylitol OPEFB is a biomass generated in the palm oil industry.
[13], adsorbents [14], and lactic acid [15]. In an effort to- In the crude palm oil (CPO) mill, the oil is extracted
ward commercialization, pilot plants of corncob-based from the fruit pulp, leaving OPEFB, fibers, and shell
feedstock have been set up. An example is the pilot plant from the kernel as solid wastes. A total of 1 kg of fresh
production of xylooligosaccharides in China, with a final fruit bunch produces 0.234 kg CPO, 0.123 kg fibers,
product quantity of 10 L from every 40 kg of corncob 0.071 kg shell, and 0.217 kg OPEFB [21]. In some cases,
[16]; xylose in China with a yield of 3.575 kg xylose fibers and shell are utilized as fuels for mill boilers to
from every 22 kg of corncob [17]; and dimethyl ether produce steam and electricity, whereas OPEFB is used
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 3

TABLE 1.2
Chemical Composition of Agricultural Waste.
Organic Inorganic
Types Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Compound (%) Compound (%) References
Corncob 69.2 22.8 8.0 C 42.0 SiO2 79.9 [6]
H 6.7 CaO 1.2 [7]
O 48.1 K2O 1.5
N 1.5 Fe2O3 3.9
Al2O3 5.2
Oil palm 39.1 23.0 34.4 C 42.8 Silica 1.8 [23]
empty fruit N 1.5 [122]
bunch P 0.5 [24]
K 7.3
Mg 0.9
Rice husk 43.3 28.6 22.0 C 39.8 SiO2 99.50 [34,35]
H 5.7 MgO 0.02 [36]
O 0.5 Al2O3 0.17
N 37.4 P2O5 0.11
SO3 0.02
Rice straw 36.0 24.0 15.6 C 48.7 SiO2 69.0 [43]
H 5.9 K2O 8.3 [44]
O 44.2 Na2O 3.4
N 1.1 CaO 1.8
S 0.1 MgO 1.7
Cl 0.5
Sugarcane 46.4 23.9 28.1 C 44.1 SiO2 3.0 [58,123]
bagasse H 5.7
O 47.7
N 0.2
S 2.3
Wheat 37.8 26.5 17.5 C 49.0 SiO2 46.32 [43]
straw H 5.9 K2O 25.12 [44]
O 43.7 Na2O 3.12
N 0.8 MgO 2.56
S 0.2 CaO 1.96
Cl 0.5

as fertilizer in plantation. Being the highest share and Malaysia generated around 37 and 19 million
among the other solid wastes, it would be more benefi- tons of OPEFB, respectively (Table 1.1).
cial if OPEFB were optimally utilized in order to in- OPEFB is a lignocellulosic material that is composed
crease the economic benefit and the sustainability of of 39.13% cellulose, 23.04% hemicellulose, and
the palm oil industry itself. Indonesia and Malaysia 34.37% lignin [23]. In addition to cellulose, hemicellu-
dominate the world palm oil production with 56% lose, and lignin, OPEFB is rich in inorganic elements
and 29%, respectively, of the 73 million tons of annual such as silica and metal ions, e.g., copper, calcium, man-
global production in 2017 [22]. This means that ganese, iron, and sodium [24]. Previously, the practice
Indonesia and Malaysia produced 40.5 and 21 million of treating OPEFB was mainly incineration. However,
tons of CPO, respectively. Using the mass balance of this causes air pollution around the palm oil mill areas.
the CPO mills [21], the global OPEFB accumulation Other alternatives to process OPEFB are to turn it into
would be approximately 67 million tons. Indonesia mulch at the oil plantation or process it into compost.
4 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

Being a natural fiber and plentiful, OPEFB has attracted production of producer gas, as a renewable energy car-
interest in being used to make a composite [25]. Other rier, in India, with a gas yield of 2.7 m3/kg [42].
attempts for utilizing OPEFB include production of
linerboard coating [26], fermentable sugars [27], poly- Rice Straw
hydroxybutyrate [28], biogas [29], and ethanol The other major residue from paddy cultivation is rice
[23,30]. In Indonesia, an ethanol pilot plant is run to straw. Rice straw is a byproduct of paddy cultivation,
produce 144.4 kg anhydrous ethanol from 1000 kg produced during the harvesting. Rice straw is separated
OPEFB [31]. from the grain after the plants are threshed, either
manually or by using a machine. It includes stem,
Rice Husk leaves, and spikelets. Each kilogram of milled rice gives
There are two major types of residues from rice cultiva- approximately 1.05 kg of rice straw [32]. With the total
tion, i.e., rice straw and rice husk. Rice husk is also global milled rice production in 2017, i.e., 488 million
commonly called rice hulls. Rice husk is the coating tons [33], the total rice straw accumulated would be
on a seed or a grain of rice. It is formed from hard ma- about 510 million tons. As China, India, and Indonesia
terials, including silica and lignin, to protect the seed are the top three rice producers in the world, the three
during the growing season. Each kilogram of milled countries also generated the highest amount of rice
white rice results in roughly 0.28 kg of rice husk as a straw. It can be seen in Table 1.1 that the amount of
byproduct of rice production during milling [32]. The rice straw in China, India, and Indonesia are calculated
global production of milled rice was 488 million tons to be around 149, 114, and 39 million tons, respec-
in 2017 [33]. Using the ratio aforementioned, the total tively [32,33].
global rice husk generated was approximately Rice straw is a lignocellulosic material, mainly
136 million tons. China, India, and Indonesia are the composed of cellulose (36%), hemicellulose (24%),
three largest producers of rice, with 142.20,109, and and lignin (15.6%) [43]. Rice straw is rich in carbon
37.30 million tons, respectively [33]. Therefore the cor- content but poor in nitrogen source (Table 1.2).
responding amounts of rice husk produced by these Furthermore, it has high ash content. The ash is high
countries were approximately 39,30, and 10 million in silica content (SiO2 is 69.02%) [44] and low in alkali
tons (Table 1.1). content [45]. Burning rice straw in the field is still prac-
Rice husk contains 43.30% cellulose, 28.6% hemi- ticed in different parts of the world. Traditionally, rice
cellulose, and 22% lignin [34,35]. Also, it is known to straw has also been used as animal feed [45]. Other
have a very high silica content, which is about 99.5% than traditional usages, some studies showed that rice
over other inorganic compounds [36]. Dry rice husk straw can be utilized as feedstock for the production
in its loose form is traditionally used as an energy of some value-added products such as anticoagulants
source for households in rural areas or home industries. [38], food-grade glucose [46], laccase enzyme [47],
Direct burning of rice husk in a furnace for drying paddy biogasification [48], biogas [49,50], and ethanol [51].
is also a common practice for farmers. There are more On a pilot scale, a rice straw biogas plant in China is
innovative ways to use rice husk as a solid fuel, e.g., operated with a digester capacity of 300 m3 [52]. There
by using it in the form of husk charcoal briquettes or is also a pilot plant of ethanol production in Taiwan
husk charcoal, which is used in industrial boilers to with a fermenter capacity of 100 L [53]. Moreover, a
replace fossil fuel. Husk charcoal is produced by ther- pilot scale to recover sugar from rice straw is also tested
mal decomposition of the rice husk under a limited in India, with a capacity of 250 kg biomass/day [54]. In
supply of oxygen (O2) and at a high temperature. Other commercial production, an Italian company (Beta
than being used as an energy source, husk charcoal can Renewables) declared using rice straw as one of its
also be used as an activated carbon. The ash of rice husk raw materials to produce ethanol [55].
is also useful as a fertilizer. The ash has various types of
chemical elements that are good for soil fertilization Sugarcane Bagasse
(Table 1.2). As the content of silica in rice husk is quite Sugarcane bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after
high, rice husk is a good raw material to produce mes- the sugarcane stalk has been crushed and the juice
oporous silica [37], anticoagulants [38], and nanocrys- removed. Every 100 tons of sugarcane results in 10
talline materials [39]. Furthermore, several pilot plants tons of cane sugar and 25e30 tons bagasse [56]. Based
have tested using rice husk as their feedstock, i.e., ceiling on the USDA report [57], the total global production of
board production in Nigeria [40]; bio-oil production in cane sugar in 2017 was 1882 million tons. Using this
China, with a yield reaching 53.2 wt% [41]; and proportion of sugarcane bagasse, the global amount
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 5

of sugarcane bagasse produced is calculated to be about Wheat straw can be ploughed into the field or used
510 million tons. Brazil is the first largest producer of as mulch covering the topsoil. Wheat straw can also
cane sugar, with a total production of 342 million be collected in bales using baling machines for off-
tons in 2018 [57]. India is the second largest cane sugar field utilization. Nevertheless, the traditional practice,
producer, with a total production of 338.30 million i.e., open field burning, is still done in some regions
tons in the same year. Accordingly, the amount of sug- [69]. Wheat straw represents a valuable source of cellu-
arcane bagasse generated in the two countries is esti- lose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Wheat straw contains
mated to be around 94 and 93 million tons, 37.8% cellulose, 26.5% hemicellulose, and 17.5%
respectively (Table 1.1). lignin [43] (Table 1.2). Wheat straw is rich in carbon
Sugarcane bagasse is often collected after the milling components and other organic and inorganic com-
process to be fed into a boiler for electricity generation. pounds [44]. Studies show that wheat straw can be
The electricity is used as energy supply in the mills. used for the production of ethanol [70,71] and ferment-
Because of its fibrous nature, sugarcane bagasse has able sugars [72]. In the United States, an ethanol pilot
been most widely used as a fuel, in paper and pulp plant for wheat straw with a reactor capacity of 20 L
industries, in structural material manufacture, and in was set up to study the feasibility of the process before
agriculture. Analysis of sugarcane bagasse indicates commercialization [73]. Other examples of pilot-scale
that its main constituents are cellulose, 46.42%; hemi- production plants using wheat straw as the raw material
cellulose, 23.97%; and lignin, 28.09% [58]. Sugarcane are the coproduction of bioethanol (from sugars) and
bagasse is also high in carbon content (Table 1.2). electricity (from lignin) in Denmark with a capacity of
The composition of sugarcane bagasse makes it an ideal 120e150 kg straw/h [74] and bio-oil production with
ingredient to be applied and utilized as a reinforcement a capacity of 25 kg straw/h in China [75]. Together
fiber in composite materials [59]. Research shows that with corncob, wheat straw is used as one of the raw
sugarcane bagasse can be used as a substrate for the materials by Praj Industries to produce ethanol [20].
production of biodiesel [60], cellulose acetates [61],
cement composites [62], and ethanol [63]. In Brazil, a
pilot-scale production of ethanol from sugarcane FOREST WASTE
bagasse is available, with a capacity of 83.03 m3 Hardwoods and softwoods are the two major wood
ethanol/h [64]. A pilot-scale production of hemicellulo- types. Hardwood belongs to deciduous trees, a tree
sic sugars is also studied to increase the production of that loses its leaves during the autumn season. Hard-
the sugar yield from sugarcane bagasse using a 65-L wood includes oak, maple, hickory, and birch. Soft-
steam gun reactor [65]. In commercial production, sug- wood belongs to coniferous trees, an evergreen tree.
arcane bagasse, together with sugarcane straw, is used Softwood includes pine, spruce, fir, and juniper. Hard-
by GranBio [66] and Raízen [67] in Brazil for ethanol wood lumbers are mostly produced in regions such as
production, with a capacity of 82 and 42 million East Asia, Oceania, America, South and Central Asia,
L/year, respectively. and Europe (Table 1.3). In 2013, the global hardwood
lumber production reached 117.5 million m3 [76].
Wheat Straw East Asia and Oceania countries are the first largest
The main agricultural residue associated with wheat is hardwood producers, with the global share production
wheat straw. Similar to rice straw, wheat straw is of 48%, or approximately 56.8 million m3. American
collected after wheat grain harvesting. It includes major countries, i.e., North America and Latin America, are
parts of the stem, leaves, and spikelets. The weight ratio the second largest producers, with the global share of
of wheat straw over wheat is 0.85 kg/kg [43]. The total 17% (20 million m3) and 10% (11.6 million m3),
global production of wheat grain in the crop year respectively [76]. In 2016 the global softwood lumber
2017/2018 was 758.0 million tons. Taking into account production was 333.4 million m3 [77] (Table 1.3).
the proportion of wheat straw, the amount of wheat Softwood lumbers are mostly produced in Europe, in
straw accumulated globally was about 640 million an amount of 142 million m3. The second largest soft-
tons. The largest wheat grain producers are the Euro- wood producers are North American countries, with a
pean Union, China, and the United States, with their total quantity of 103.8 million m3. The other pro-
production in the crop year 2017/2018 reaching ducers of softwoods are countries in Asia (53.4 million
151.7, 129.8, and 47.4 million tons, respectively [68]. m3), South America (20 million m3), Oceania
Their respective wheat straw accumulation was approx- (8.7 million m3), Africa (2.9 million m3), and Central
imately 128, 110, and 40 million tons (Table 1.1). America (2.6 million m3).
6 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

TABLE 1.3
Estimated Quantity of Hardwood and Softwood Residues.
Waste Quantity
Quantity Global (Approximately)
Type Statistic (Million m3) (Million m3) Country of Origin References
Hardwoodsa 56.8 28 East Asia and Oceania [76]
20.0 10 North America
11.6 6 Latin America
11.5 6 Russia, South and Central
Asia, and Middle East
10.9 5 Europe
6.7 3 Africa
Total 117.5 58
Softwoodsb 142.0 71 Europe [77]
103.8 52 North America
53.4 27 Asia
20.0 10 South America
8.7 4 Oceania
2.9 1 Africa
2.6 1 Central America
Total 333.4 166
a
In the year 2013.
b
In the year 2016.

Processing wood into timber or other valuable wood Hemicellulose is composed of short, highly branched
products results in wood residues or wood wastes as copolymers of glucose, mannose, galactose, xylose,
byproducts. Approximately 50% of wood is turned and arabinose. Lignin is an aromatic polymer synthe-
into valuable products, and the rest becomes waste sized from phenylpropane units [80].
[78]. Considering this ratio and the global wood pro- Each part of the tree has its own lignocellulosic
duction, the forest waste from hardwood and softwood composition (Table 1.4). For example, the cellulose
would be approximately 58 and 166 million m3, content in bark varies in the range of 10%e25%. The
respectively (Table 1.3). Wood wastes generated from cellulose content in the bark of birch, aspen, pine,
primary manufacturing processes include bark, slabs, and spruce is 10.7%, 25.4%, 25.4%, and 19%, respec-
sawdust, chips, coarse residues, planer shavings, peeler tively [81e84]. Specifically in its bark, birch has a hemi-
log cores, and end trimmings. Wood wastes generated cellulose content of 11.2%, aspen has 23.4%, pine has
from secondary manufacturing processes include chips, 14.7%, and spruce has 11% [81,82,85,86]. The bark
sawdust, sander dust, end trimmings, used or scrapped of birch has a lignin content of 27.9%, aspen has
pallets, coarse residues, and planer shavings [78]. Bark 22.6%, pine has 31.15%, and spruce has 22.6%
comprises 8%e12% of the total percentage in woods; [82,87,88]. The carbohydrate composition in hard-
sawdust, 11%e15%; and chippable wastes (slabs or woods and softwoods differs in every species and
edgings), 30%e40% [78]. wood parts. For example, hardwoods such as birch
The chemical composition of wood consists of struc- and aspen mainly consist of glucan and xylan [88,89],
tural and nonstructural substances. The structural com- whereas softwoods such as pine and spruce have more
ponents are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, while glucan composition and relatively less xylan than hard-
the nonstructural components are extractives, water- woods [88]. Table 1.5 shows the details of carbohydrate
soluble organics, and inorganics [79]. Structural composition in wood residues. The organic elements
substances constitute the major part of the chemical found in woods are mostly C, H, O, N, and P. Addition-
composition of wood. Generally, wood contains ally, hardwoods and softwoods also consist of
cellulose (40%e45%), hemicellulose (20%e30%), inorganic materials such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, P, Al, Si,
and lignin (20%e32%) [80]. Cellulose is composed Zn, Cu, and others.
of b-D-glucose units, which are linked together with Conventionally, wood wastes were mainly used for
1,4-glycosidic bonds to form long linear chains. combustion for cooking or left in the forest to maintain
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 7

TABLE 1.4
Chemical Composition of Hardwoods and Softwoods.
Commodity Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Ash (%) References
HARDWOODS
Birch (bark) 10.7 11.2 27.9 2.9 [81]
[87]
Aspen (bark) 25.4 23.4 22.6 0.4 [82]
[124]
SOFTWOODS
Pine (bark) 25.4 14.7 27.6 3.3 [83]
[88]
Pine (chips) 32.1 14.2 31.2 2.4 [85]
Spruce (bark) 19.0 11.0 22.6 3.9 [84]
[86]
[88]

TABLE 1.5
Carbohydrate Composition in Hardwood and Softwood Residues.
Commodity Glucan (%) Mannan (%) Galactan (%) Xylan (%) Ara (%) References
HARDWOODS
Birch (bark) 13.3 0.5 0.9 7.5 10.3% (in total of [88]
monosaccharides) [87]
Aspen 44.0 2.4 0.9 19.0 0.5 [89]
SOFTWOODS
Pine (bark) 19.8 3.1 1.8 3.4 1.5 [88]
[125]
Pine (chips) 33.8 10.9 5.6 8.5 2.6 [126]
Spruce (bark) 16.8 1.5 2.1 2.1 1.2 [88]
[125]

a nutritional balance in the soil. As wood waste or forest security paper [96], and templates for electronic compo-
waste is an abundant source of cellulose, hemicellulose, nents [97]. Hemicellulose can be produced into plant
and lignin, forest waste is a potential source that can be gum for thickeners, adhesives, protective colloids,
utilized for many beneficial products. In the biorefinery emulsifiers, and stabilizers [98]. Additionally, hemicel-
concept, biomass can be transformed into a sustainable lulose can be utilized as a biodegradable oxygen barrier
feedstock for fuels, chemicals, and materials that are film [99,100]. High-quality lignin can be utilized as a
currently produced from petroleum [90]. For example, substitute for polymeric materials such as phenolic
lignocellulosic waste biomass can be an inexpensive powder resins, which can be used as a binder in friction
alternative substrate for fuel ethanol production [91]. products, automotive brake pads, molding, polyure-
The isolated cellulose in nanocrystal forms, including thane and polyisocyanurate foams, and epoxy resins,
those in the forest residues, can be utilized into reinforc- which can be used as printed circuit board resins
ing agents in polymer matrices [92], barrier films [93], [101]. Lignin also has the potential of being converted
flexible displays [94], drug delivery excipients [95], into carbon fiber and being used as a precursor for
8 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

dimethyl sulfoxide, vanilla, phenol, and ethylene MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

[101e103]. Lignin is applicable in the agricultural Waste Generation
sector, e.g., as a biodegradable ultraviolet-light antioxi- Municipal solid waste (MSW) includes waste from
dant absorbent, slow-release fertilizer, and soil condi- households, commercial and trade activities, institu-
tioner [104]. Lignin is sulfonated to water-soluble tional/office activities, construction and demolition,
lignosulfonates in sulfite pulping processes and can be medical waste, and municipal waste. Table 1.6 shows
used in active packaging to protect against oxidative the waste generator and the type of solid waste from
damage [105]. Pilot-scale production using forest resi- each source in detail.
dues as substrate has been studied. In Sweden, a pilot Generally, MSW is collected and treated by city gov-
plant for ethanol production from softwood residues ernments as well as private companies by using some
was inaugurated in 2004. The capacity is 1 ton dry technologies that depend on the onsite conditions.
biomass/24 h, if it is run in continuous operation Based on Table 1.6, many types of materials are avail-
[106]. In the United States, a pilot plant producing able within the MSW that require different treatment
ethanol from the Douglas-fir forest harvest residues methods and give different products during final pro-
has been set up, with a capacity of 50 kg/batch [107]. cessing. The final types of MSW could also be classified
A pilot-scale production of cellulose nanocrystal as recyclables (paper, plastic, glass, metals, etc.), toxic
(CNC) (integrated with bioethanol pilot plant in substances (paints, pesticides, used batteries, medi-
Sweden) with a yield of 600 g/day CNC has also been cines), compostable organic matter (fruit and vegetable
studied [108]. In 2013, the Indian River BioEnergy peels, food waste), and soiled waste (blood stained
Center in the United States began producing cellulosic cotton, sanitary napkins, disposable syringes). Many
ethanol at commercial volumes. Together with other factors play important roles in MSW generation, such
cellulosic plants, which were under construction at as population, level of income, consumption rate, and
that time, the plants are designed to produce approxi- location. Among these, population and level of income
mately 80 million gallons annually [109]. Borregaard, are the two most significant factors contributing to the
a company in Norway, is producing value-added prod- quantity of MSW.
ucts from different components in wood, for example, The current world MSW generation is approximately
ethanol, lignin products, and vanillin, in order to 1.7 billion tons per year and will continue to increase
replace oil-based products [110]. following the world population growth [111]. Table 1.7

TABLE 1.6
Waste Generator and Type of Solid Waste for Each Source of Municipal Solid Waste.
Source Waste Generator Type of Solid Waste
Residential/household Single and multifamily lodging Food waste, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, yard waste, wood, glass,
metals, electronic waste, etc.
Commercial and trade Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
office buildings waste, glass, metals, electronic waste, etc.
Institutional/office Schools, hospitals, prisons, government Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
buildings, airports, train station, etc. waste, glass, metals, electronic waste, etc.
Construction and demolition New construction sites, road repair, Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, bricks, tiles
renovation sites, demolition of buildings
Medical waste Hospitals, nursing homes, clinics Infectious wastes, hazardous wastes
radioactive waste from cancer therapies,
pharmaceutical waste
Municipal services Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, Street sweepings, landscape and tree
recreational areas, water and wastewater trimmings, general wastes from parks,
treatment plants beaches, and other recreational areas
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 9

TABLE 1.7
Estimated Total World MSW Generation in Each Region [111].
Total MSW
Countries Urban Population MSW Generation Generation Global
Region Included (Million) (kg/Capita/day) (Million Tons/year) Contribution (%)
Asia 39 1475 1.4 743 44
America 35 663 2.3 544 32
Africa 41 332 0.8 95 6
Europe 35 493 1.7 298 18
Australia and 4 20 2.8 21 1
Oceania
Total world MSW 1701

MSW, municipal solid waste.

TABLE 1.8
Estimated MSW Generation in the Top 10 Most Populous Countries.
Urban Population MSW Generation Total MSW Generation
Country Income Level (Million) (kg/Capita/day) (Million Tons/year) References
China Upper middle 511 1.0 190 [127]
India Lower middle 321 0.3 40 [128]
USA High 242 2.6 228 [129]
Brazil Upper middle 144 1.0 54 [111]
Indonesia Lower middle 117 0.5 22 [130]
Russia Upper middle 107 0.9 36 [111]
Japan High 84 1.7 53 [129]
Mexico Upper middle 80 1.2 36 [129]
Nigeria Low 73 0.6 15 [131]
Germany High 61 2.1 47 [129]

MSW, municipal solid waste.

represents the estimation of the world MSW generation (food waste). Owing to the high work demands, buying
for each region, and Asia contributes 44% to the global food in stores instead of cooking at home becomes a
MSW. The MSW generation per capita ranges from 0.78 habit, thus decreasing organic waste.
to 2.8 kg/capita/day, which depends on the economic In addition to population, the main factor for MSW
development, degree of industrialization, public habits, generation is income level/gross domestic product
and local climate. Urbanization is a common problem (GDP) in each country. Table 1.8 represents the estima-
in most countries; people want to move from rural areas tion of MSW generation in the top 10 most populous
to the city to find jobs and for lifestyle. As waste gener- countries. A high income level would promote better
ation is much higher in cities/urban areas than that in prosperity and wealth, which transfers into larger waste
rural areas, urbanization would lead to higher waste generation per capita. The United States and Germany,
volumes. Compared with rural areas, urban residents as two well-developed countries, have the highest MSW
also produce a higher fraction of inorganic wastes generation per capita, above 2 kg/capita/day. In addition
(e.g., plastics and aluminum) than organic wastes to lifestyle, the societies fulfill not only the basic needs
10 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

but also additional needs such as cars, housing facilities, system of its utilization. Therefore only recycle, recovery
clothes, various foods, and entertainment activities. for energy and material, and the disposal method will
As low-income countries, India, Nigeria, and be discussed in this section. Open dumping means to
Indonesia own lower MSW generation per capita, which put MSW in a specific area without any treatment. In
is below 1 kg/capita/day. Compared with well- most countries, this method is an illegal waste disposal
developed countries, these societies only have the practice and should not be confused with a permitted
ability to meet their basic needs such as housing, municipal solid waste landfill or a recycling facility.
limited food, and clothing so the MSW generation is Landfilling is the disposal method of MSW, with
quite limited. In order to have a solid perspective on various different layers and finally with earth covering
this issue, an analysis was conducted on similar soci- the specific location, which is designed for safe disposal
eties with increasing GDP level so other factors would but limited benefits. Landfills produce landfill gas con-
remain constant, i.e., culture, location, and climate. In taining CH4 and liquid leachate, which contain water-
the period from 1960 until 1980, when the per capita soluble materials. The bottom-liners and top earth
GDP for the United States rose from US $3000 to US cover are considered as the most critical components
$23,000, the MSW generation per capita increased to prevent the negative impacts of liquid leachate and
from 1.3 to 1.8 kg/capita/day [112]. landfill gas. When the landfill system fails, liquid
Fig. 1.1 presents the MSW generation of the top 10 leachate causes land and water pollution, while landfill
countries in the world. These countries contribute to gas leads to high quantity of greenhouse gasses and
almost a half of the global MSW generation, with vary- climate change. Recycling is one of the most sustainable
ing income levels, cultural values, climate, and lifestyle. ways to handle waste by converting waste into valuable
Thus data analysis from these countries could represent products without changing the composition. Typical
global MSW generation more precisely. Therefore China wastes that are suitable for this method are metal, glass,
as the first most populous country contributes to paper, and plastics. When facing difficulties during recy-
around 11% of the global MSW generation, which is cling, MSW could be recovered as compost material and
less than that of the United States that contributes energy sources by both bioprocess and thermochemical
14%. India, as the second most populous country, process.
also contributes less than Germany. Fig. 1.2 shows the treatment and disposal processes
of MSW in the world and selected countries with
Current Disposal Treatment different levels of income/GDP. Landfilling of waste is
There are several steps in the hierarchy of solid waste still the most common method of MSW disposal in
management, including reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, the world, i.e., around 43%, whereas recycling and
and disposal. It is quite challenging to get global data compositing are the second and third options, respec-
related to reduce and reuse of MSW because of the close tively, for MSW treatment. Open dumping still exists

India
China 2%
11%

USA
14%
Other Brazil
58% 3%
Indonesia
1%
Russian
2%
Japan
Mexico 3%
2%
Total world MSW generation: Nigeria
Germany
1,702,193 kilo tons/year 1%
3%
FIG. 1.1 Distribution of municipal solid waste (MSW) generation in the world.
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 11

100 Dum ps
Landfills
Compost
80
Recycled
Waste to Energy (WTE)
60 Other

40

20

0
USA Japan China India Cambodia Tunisia World
FIG. 1.2 Disposal method for municipal solid waste in selected countries with different income levels [111].

and is predominant until now, especially in low- composition of MSW in the top 10 most populous
income/GDP countries such as Cambodia and Tunisia countries, which is also a representative of the different
because of the lack of financial, social, and management levels of income/GDP.
consideration. Based on this data, high-income countries Physical waste composition is influenced by various
already have proper MSW treatments by implementing factors such as income level/GDP, cultural value, energy
the waste-to-energy concept as well as recycling. Convert- sources, and climate. In countries with high income
ing MSW into compost is one of the appropriate options level/GDP, the usage of inorganic materials such as
in countries that have a large agricultural sector, such as plastic, paper, and metals is higher and the organic frac-
China, the United States, and Brazil. The compost mate- tion is used relatively lower when compared with low-
rial can be used directly in agricultural lands and as a income countries. This statement is expressed by
chemical fertilizer substitute. Nevertheless, around the comparing the United States, Germany, and Japan
world, there is still a huge amount of MSW that is treated with Indonesia, Nigeria, and Pakistan. Cultural values
by open dumping and landfilling, waiting for suitable also influence waste composition, e.g., building mate-
options of utilization. The available options depend rial choice (e.g., wood vs. concrete). Furthermore, the
on several considerations such as economic factors, tech- waste composition is slightly different due to energy
nology, and local situations. sources used for cooking and heating. Communities
that use coal and hardwoods as an energy source for
Physical Characteristics of Municipal Solid cooking generate more ash waste than those that use
Waste natural gas and electricity. Based on the climate factor,
In the MSW stream, waste is broadly categorized into waste composition would be different between coun-
organic and inorganic materials. As many technologies tries with subtropical (four seasons) and countries
are available for treating the MSW, knowing its detailed with tropical (two seasons) climates because of the con-
composition, including organic, paper, plastic, glass, sumption of heating energy and organic decomposition
metals, etc., is essential to determine the best and suit- rates.
able method. The organic fraction consists of food The most influencing factor that determines the
scraps, yard waste, wood, and process residues, while physical composition of MSW is income level/GDP,
metals include cans, foil, tins, railing, and bicycles. presented in Fig. 1.3. For a more clear perspective,
Paper scraps, cardboard, newspapers, magazines, bags, the top 10 most populous countries are categorized
and boxes are classified as paper waste. Paper waste into four different levels of income, i.e., low income
classification is driven by a higher economic value (GDP < $975), lower-middle income ($976

than the organic fraction. The remaining other fraction GDP
$3855), upper-middle income ($3856

is composed of textiles, leather, rubber, e-waste, appli- GDP
$11,905), and high income (GDP  $11,906)
ances, and inert materials. Table 1.9 shows the physical [111]. Low-income countries have the highest
12 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

TABLE 1.9
Physical Composition of MSW in the Top 10 Most Populous Countries.
MSW COMPOSITION (%MASS)
Glass/ Textile and
Country Year Organic Paper Plastics Ceramic Metals Other References
China 2002 59.0 8.0 10.0 3.0 1.0 19.0 [132]
India 2008 40.0 10.0 2.0 0.2 0.0 47.8 [133]
USA 2009 12.7 31.0 12.0 4.9 8.4 31.0 [112]
Brazil 2007 36.1 17.1 23.3 3.5 2.4 17.6 [134]
Indonesia 2007 74.0 10.0 8.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 [130]
Russia 1996 31.5 28.0 4.0 6.0 2.5 28.0 [135]
Japan 2003 42.6 22.3 11.4 1.6 9.0 13.0 [129]
Mexico 2000 52.4 14.1 4.4 5.9 2.9 20.3 [136]
Nigeria 2000 68.0 10.0 7.0 4.0 3.0 8.0 [137]
Germany 2005 30.0 24.0 13.0 10.0 1.0 22.0 [138]
Pakistan 2009 67.0 5.0 18.0 2.0 0.0 7.0 [139]

MSW, municipal solid waste.

70
MSW composition (%mass)

60 HIC UMI LMI LI

50
40
30
20
10

0
Organic Paper Plastics Glass/ Metals Textile and
Ceramic other
HIC: High income; UMI: Upper middle income;
LMI: Lower middle income; LI: Lower income
FIG. 1.3 Physical composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) in countries with different income levels [111].
HI, high income; LI, low income; LMI, lower-middle income; UMI, upper-middle income.

proportion of organic waste (more than 60%). In order interesting to discuss due to a large difference between
to minimize the daily expenses, people in low-income low- and high-income countries. People in high-
countries prefer to cook by themselves, leading to the income countries make fashion as lifestyle, thus chang-
remaining foods being an organic fraction in their ing and updating of textile materials drives more MSW
MSW collection. Paper, metals, and plastics make up a generation from this fraction. As large differences in
predominant proportion in high-income countries. MSW composition are found in different countries, the
High utilization of paper in education and also large technology applicable for MSW treatment in each coun-
application of metal in high-upper-middle-income try would also be different.
countries leads to the presence of huge amounts of those Fig. 1.4 shows the effect of income level/GDP on
materials in the MSW. Textile fraction is also quite changing the physical MSW composition in China.
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 13

Other Other
21% 22%
Metal
1% Metal
1%
Glass Organic Glass Organic
2% Plastics 62% 2% 57%
Plastics
8% 10%

Paper
6%
Paper
8%
1996 2000
GDP 608 USD GDP 959 USD

FIG. 1.4 Changing physical composition of municipal solid waste due to lifestyle and prosperity [120].
GDP, gross domestic product.

TABLE 1.10
Chemical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Selected Countries.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS (%)
Lower Heating
Country C H O N S Moisture (%) Ash (%) Value (kJ/Kg) References
Brazil 42.0 5.3 26.5 1.1 0.2 36.0 16.0 7376.5 [140]
China 29.4 3.9 28.7 1.6 0.5 55.4 18.9 4695.0 [141,142]
India 27.4 4.8 33.1 1.1 0.8 29.1 28.8 4270.0 [143e145]

Clearly, the growing GDP would accelerate high stan- characteristics are also a determining factor in establish-
dards of living by decreasing the organic fraction that ing the final treatment of MSW. Table 1.10 shows the
is replaced by plastic and paper. A high-standard com- chemical characteristics of MSW in several countries
munity would prefer to use plastic and paper as the around the world.
packaging material rather than organic material. The Each country has its own composition because of its
lifestyle would also shift, in relation to both housing special characteristics. The data are quite diverse among
facilities and food services. Modern people would like those countries due to several factors such as income
to choose inorganic materials such as plastic and steel level, climate, cultural values, and current available
as housing facilities rather than organic materials (hard- treatment. When the waste-to-energy concept is one of
wood). In addition, people would avoid cooking food the promising options, data related to the heating value
by themselves due to the high work demands; thus, and moisture content would offer precise estimation on
the amount of organic food waste would decrease in how much energy could be generated. The data of ash
their MSW stream. This fact reconfirms that the physical content would provide information related to the
composition of MSW is highly affected by the income amount of solid waste (ash) after the final treatment
level. It is crucial to determine a suitable technology of MSW. Hence, chemical characteristics would com-
for processing MSW, especially in developing counties plete the information in determining the right technol-
where the income level/GDP is always rising. ogy for final treatment of MSW.

Chemical Characteristics of Municipal Solid

Waste INDUSTRIAL WASTE
MSW is a series of heterogeneous materials, whose Types, Amount, and Origin
chemical characteristics are closely related with the Industrial waste, generally, can be categorized into two
chemical properties of various constituent components. types, i.e., nonhazardous and hazardous. Nonhaz-
In addition to physical components, the chemical ardous industrial waste is the waste from industrial
14 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

TABLE 1.11
Characteristic Wastes Produced From Various Industrial Activities.
Industrial Sector Description Typical Waste
Mining and quarrying Extraction, beneficiation, and Solid rock, slag, phosphogypsum, muds, tailings
processing of minerals
Energy Electricity, gas, steam, and Fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, particulates, used
air-conditioning supply oils, sludge
Manufacturing Chemical Spent catalyst, chemical solvents, reactive waste,
acid, alkali, used oils, particulate waste, ash, sludge
Food Plastic, packaging, carton
Textile Textile waste, pigments, peroxide, organic stabilizer,
alkali, chemical solvents, sludge, heavy metals
Paper Wood waste, alkali, chemical solvents, sludge
Construction Construction, demolition activity Concrete, cinder blocks, gypsum, masonry, asphalt,
wood shingles, slate, metals, glass, and plaster
Waste/water services Water collection, treatment, and supply Spent adsorbent, sludge

activity, which does not pose a threat to public health or high amount of solid wastes, e.g., for construction, con-
environment, e.g., carton, plastic, metals, glass, rock, crete, cinder blocks, gypsum, masonry, asphalt and
and organic waste. In contrast, hazardous waste is a res- wood shingles, slate, and plaster and for mining, solid
idue from industrial activity that can harm public rock and tailings.
health or environment, e.g., flammable, corrosive, The production of industrial waste changes from
active, and toxic materials. The characteristics of waste time to time. Fig. 1.5B shows the evolution of industrial
produced by different sectors of industry is shown in waste from 2004 to 2014 in EU-28. As mineral waste
Table 1.11. Regarding the amount, typically nonhaz- contributes to more than 50% of the total waste gener-
ardous waste is tremendously higher than the hazard- ated, mineral waste was excluded to magnify the pro-
ous one, despite there being a distinct classification of duction of other waste categories. Different sectors in
hazardous waste for different countries [113]. It was industries show different trends. Manufacturing
reported in Europe (EU-28) that only 3.8% of the total (including chemical production) displays a linear
industrial waste was classified as hazardous waste [114]. decrease, whereas construction exhibits the opposite.
This is also consistent with the observation in other For energy and mining, typically a more or less constant
big countries such as the United States (less than generation of waste is observed. Holistically, the pro-
10%) [113], China (1.1%) [115], and India (1.5%) duction of industrial waste in Europe has decreased
[116]. by approximately 5.3% from 2004 to 2014.
As a representative, waste composition in industrial Fig. 1.6A,B show the change in industrial waste gen-
sectors in Europe (in 2014) is depicted in Fig. 1.5A. In eration in Japan [117] and China [118]. To highlight
Fig. 1.5A, waste from households (MSW) featuring the alteration from one time to another, the delta value
only 8.3% of the total waste is also presented to high- of waste production is given. The baseline is production
light the dominant part of the industrial waste. Indeed, in 2003, when Japan and China produced 412 and
the ratio between industrial and household wastes may 1004 million tons of industrial waste, respectively. It
differ from one country to another, mostly depending can be observed that in Japan, waste generation
on the economic activities. However, it is widely known changed dynamically from 2003 to 2010, but it led to
that more industrialized countries will produce a higher a slight decrease. In China, however, which is a more
amount of industrial waste. Fig. 1.5A indicates that developing country, the production of waste rose
most of the waste stems from construction (34.7%) rapidly, generating more than double the amount in
and mining (28.1%). These two sectors produce a 2010. Observing the fact of waste production in Japan
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview 15

(B)
Mining and quarrying Energy
Manufacturing Construction
300

250

Waste generatd / million tons

(A)
200
Construction
34.68%
Waste/water 100
9.13% Household
Energy 8.33%
3.72% 50
Others
5.78%
10.2%
Manufacturing
28.15% 0
Mining and quarring 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Year
FIG. 1.5 (A) Waste composition generated in Europe in 2014. (B) Major industrial activity year to year in
Europe, excluding mineral waste [114].

(A) (B)
30
1400
Deviation of waste generation / million tons
Deviation of waste generation / million tons

1247
20
15 1200
1035
10 6 7 1000 897
5

800 752
0 0
Baseline
600 511
–10 –8
400 340

–20
200
–22 80
–26 0
–30 0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year Baseline Year
FIG. 1.6 Alteration of industrial waste generation in (A) Japan and (B) China. ((A) Adapted from [117] and
(B) From [118].)
16 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

TABLE 1.12
Amount of Industrial Waste Generated in Different Regions (in 2011) in Million Tons.
Africa and Middle
Items Europe Americas East Asia Pacific Global
Industrial waste 1933 915 921 5357 9177
generated
Key countries Germany, United United States, South Africa, Saudi China, Japan, India,
Kingdom, France, Brazil, Canada, Arabia, United Arab South Korea,
Russia, Bulgaria Chile, and Columbia Emirates, Egypt, and Australia
Tunisia

Adapted from Frost & Sullivan. The Global industrial waste recycling & services markets. 2012.

and EU-28, it may be generally accepted that in devel- wheat straw, is approximately 2 billion tons worldwide.
oped countries the production of industrial waste dis- Forest waste accounts for approximately 0.2 billion m3;
plays a reduction, whereas in developing countries, it MSW, 1.7 billion tons; and industrial waste, 9.1 billion
shows the opposite trend. tons. Altogether, it makes more than 10 billion tons of
Frost and Sullivan [119] reported the production of wastes and residuals, which is a considerably huge
industrial waste in different regions, i.e., Europe, the amount; the number tends to increase over time.
United States, Africa, Middle East, and Asia Pacific Without proper treatment, these solid wastes would
(Table 1.12). The top producer of industrial waste is create many challenges and negatively affect the sustain-
Asia Pacific, with 5357 million tons (58.4% of the ability of the related industries and societies. Informa-
global production). This was contributed by key coun- tion about the physical and chemical composition of
tries such as China, Japan, India, South Korea, and the waste is necessary to find a suitable treatment and
Australia. Surprisingly, Americas generated the least technology, which likewise depends on several consid-
amount, with 10% of the total share. erations such as economics and local situations. Due
to its vast amount, the wastes, especially from agricul-
Physical and Chemical Characteristics tural and forest sectors, have the potential of being
The characteristics of nonhazardous industrial waste are used as feedstock for industries, which is discussed in
similar to those of household waste, by its nature and the rest of this book. However, being able to collect
composition. This waste is not toxic and can thus be them from where they are generated is a challenging
recycled or disposed of safely. In contrast, hazardous issue. Studies are being conducted to increase their
wastes may cause danger to health or environment, added value. There are developed technologies that
either alone or when in contact with other wastes. work, as some of them have gone into commercializa-
Therefore a special treatment must be applied. The tion. The products are more environmentally friendly
properties of the materials are flammable, corrosive, because they are not oil-based products, and at the
active, radioactive, and toxic. Some hazardous wastes same time, by converting waste into valuable products,
may be recycled because they contain important the problems associated with waste accumulation can
components, e.g., silica, alumina, iron, and precious be alleviated. More efforts in science are expected to
metals. Among these, the majority of wastes are from reduce the cost for industries that use these wastes as
metallurgical activities and a minor amount from other feedstock. Meanwhile, landfilling is still the traditional
processes such as spent catalyst. Table 1.13 shows the practice of treating MSW and nonhazardous industrial
chemical composition of some hazardous wastes and wastes. Proper treatments such as recycling as well as
the efforts to utilize them. material and energy recovery need to be introduced
and practiced even more because they can result in
high economic benefits. In the end, successful utiliza-
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES tion and proper treatment of wastes would contribute
The accumulation of agricultural waste, i.e., corncob, to realizing the concept of sustainable development
rice husk, rice straw, OPEFB, sugarcane bagasse, and for the sake of a better nation and global society.
 CHAPTER 1 Agricultural, Industrial, Municipal, and Forest Wastes: An Overview
TABLE 1.13
Chemical Composition and Utilization of Some Hazardous Wastes Generated From Industrial Activities.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION/%
Material SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Others Application References
Spent catalyst 34.9 59.2 1.3 0.4 0.3 2.4 NA NA Precious Blended cement [146]
metals
Copper slag 24.0e41 2.0e16.0 39.0e45.0 0.7e10.0 NA NA NA NA 0.5e2.1 (Cu) Tiles, mine backfill [147]
materials
Blast furnace 33.1 21.6 0.9 33.0 8.9 NA NA NA Blended cement [148]
slag
Electric furnace 20.3 7.3 42.4 22.8 8.0 NA 0.6 1.5 0.3 (TiO2) Vitreous ceramic tiles [149]
slag
Jarosite 1.2 16.9 39.7 NA 0.5 18.9 NA NA Toxic Mortar restoration [150]
substances

NA, data not available.

17
18 Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches

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