Statistics Overview, Levels

of Measurements and
Sampling Techniques
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected
to:
1. define Statistics;
2. list and describe the four level of measurement;
and
3. identify and explain the data and sampling
techniques.
ABC of Statistics
DIRECTION: IN A WHOLE
SHEET OF PAPER LIST DOWN
WORDS THAT ARE RELATED IN
STATISTICS. THE WORDS
SHOULD START WITH THE
LETTERS IN THE ALPHABET.
GIVE A SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF EACH WORD.

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Concept of Statistics
 Statistics
❑A. L. Bowley defined that “Statistics may be
called the science of counting”. He also said
that “Statistics may rightly be called the
science of average”.
❑According to Boddington “Statistics is the
science of estimates and probabilities”.
 Statistics
❑According to Selligman “Statistics is the science
which deals with the methods of collecting,
classifying, tabulation, comparing and interpreting
numerical data collected to throw some light on any
sphere of inquiry”.
❑Croxton and Cowden defined that “statistics as the
collection, tabulation, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data”.
 Statistics
❑branch of mathematics which deals
with the collection, organization and
interpretation of data.
❑Often involves three kinds of data:
metric, enumeration and categorical
data.
Metric data
Data obtained by measurement.
Examples:
a. Height of first year students in your school.
b. Weight of all thirteen-year-old students in your
school.
c. Age of fathers in your neighborhood.
d. Monthly income of families in barangay.
Enumeration data
Data obtained by counting.
Examples:
a. How many students are enrolled in BS Accountancy.?
b. How many working students are there among the high
school students in your school?
c. How many students have computers at home?
d. How many students have excellent performance?
Categorical data
Data which can be classified into groups or categories of
responses.
Examples:
a. Personality traits of teachers in your school.
b. Study habits of the students in National University
c. Socio economic status of families in your neighborhood.
d. Level of stress suffered by takers of government
examinations.
Types of statistics
based on Function
Descriptive statistics
❑the branch, which deals with descriptions of
obtained data. It is a summary statistic which
summarizes features/ characteristics from a
collection of information.
❑It include classification, tabulation,
measurement of central tendency as well as
variability
Inferential statistics
❑the process of data analysis to deduce properties of
probability distribution. Inferential statistical analysis infers
properties of a population or census through the testing
hypotheses and deriving estimates which is based on the
primary assumption i.e., the observed data set is sampled
from a larger population.
❑It provide technique to compute the probabilities of future
behaviour of the subjects/ areas.
Correlational statistics
❑the obtained data are disclosed for their inter
correlations and It includes various types of
methods to compute the relationship (correlations)
among data.
❑It also provide description about sample or
population for their further analyses purpose to
explore the significance of sampling and population
averages.
Levels of Measurement
Levels of Measurement
-scales of measurement, tell you how
precisely variables are recorded.
- 4 levels of measurement: Nominal,
Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.
 Nominal Level
You Example:
can categorize your
data by labelling them •City of birth
in mutually exclusive •Gender
groups, but there is no
order between the •Ethnicity
categories. •Car brands
•Marital status
Ordinal Level
You Example
can categorize and rank y
our data in an order, but •Top 5 Olympic medallists
you cannot say anything •Language ability (e.g.,
about the intervals beginner, intermediate, fluent)
between the rankings.
•Likert-type questions (e.g.,
Intervals might not be very dissatisfied to very
equal. satisfied)
Interval Level
You Example:
can categorize, rank, •Test scores (e.g., IQ
and infer equal or exams)
intervals between
neighboring data •Personality
points, but there is no inventories
true zero point.
Ratio Level
You Example:
can categorize, rank,
and infer equal
•Height
intervals between •Age
neighboring data •Weight
points, and there is
a true zero point
Data and Sampling
Techniques
Sample
❑sample is a part of a population and
researchers use samples to collect
data and information about a variable
from a larger population to obtain
samples that are unbiased.
Simple Random Sampling
❑In this case each individual is chosen entirely
by chance and each member of the population
has an equal chance, or probability, of being
selected.
❑One way of obtaining a random sample is to
give each individual in a population a number,
and then use a table of random numbers to
decide which individuals to include.

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Example
If you have a sampling frame of 1000
individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups
of three digits from the random number
table to pick your sample. So, if the first
three numbers from the random number
table were 094, select the individual
labelled “94”, and so on.

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Systematic Sampling
❑Systematic sampling is often more
convenient than simple random sampling, and
it is easy to administer.
❑However, it may also lead to bias, for
example if there are underlying patterns in the
order of the individuals in the sampling frame,
such that the sampling technique coincides
with the periodicity of the underlying pattern.

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Example
Individuals are selected at regular intervals
from the sampling frame. The intervals are
chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If
you need a sample size n from a population of
size x, you should select every x/nth individual
for the sample. For example, if you wanted a
sample size of 100 from a population of 1000,
select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the
sampling frame.

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Stratified Sampling
❑In this method, the population is first
divided into subgroups (or strata) who all
share a similar characteristic.
❑It is used when we might reasonably
expect the measurement of interest to
vary between the different subgroups, and
we want to ensure representation from all
the subgroups.

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Example
In a study of stroke outcomes, we may
stratify the population by sex, to ensure
equal representation of men and women.
The study sample is then obtained by
taking equal sample sizes from each
stratum.

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Clustered Sampling
❑In a clustered sample, subgroups of the
population are used as the sampling unit,
rather than individuals. The population is
divided into subgroups, known as clusters,
which are randomly selected to be included in
the study.
❑Clusters are usually already defined, for
example individual GP practices or towns could
be identified as clusters.

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Example
The General Household survey, which is
undertaken annually in England, is a good
example of a (one-stage) cluster sample.
All members of the selected households
(clusters) are included in the survey.

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 Sampling
Convenience
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Purposive
Sampling
Method
(Non
Snowball
Probability
Sampling Sampling)
Convenience Sampling
• Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method
of sampling because participants are selected based
on availability and willingness to take part.
• Useful results can be obtained, but the results are
prone to significant bias, because those who
volunteer to take part may be different from those
who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample
may not be representative of other characteristics,
such as age or sex.
• Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability
sampling methods.

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Quota Sampling
• This method of sampling is often used by market
researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of
subjects of a specified type to attempt to
recruit.
• While this has the advantage of being relatively
straightforward and potentially representative,
the chosen sample may not be representative of
other characteristics that weren’t considered (a
consequence of the non-random nature of
sampling).

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Example
An interviewer might be told to go out
and select 20 adult men, 20 adult
women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage
boys so that they could interview them
about their television viewing. Ideally the
quotas chosen would proportionally
represent the characteristics of the
underlying population.

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Purposive Sampling
• Selective, or subjective, sampling, this
technique relies on the judgement of the
researcher when choosing who to ask to
participate. Researchers may implicitly thus
choose a “representative” sample to suit
their needs, or specifically approach
individuals with certain characteristics.
• This approach is often used by the media
when canvassing the public for opinions and
in qualitative research.

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Snowball Sampling
This method is commonly used in
social sciences when investigating
hard-to-reach groups. Existing
subjects are asked to nominate
further subjects known to them, so
the sample increases in size like a
rolling snowball.

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Example
When carrying out a survey of risk
behaviours amongst intravenous drug
users, participants may be asked to
nominate other users to be
interviewed.

SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS 39