Context-Sensitive Conceptual Bridge Design

Module A
General Introduction
4. Introduction to Bridge Structural
Systems

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 Context-Sensitive Conceptual Bridge Design

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Context-Sensitive Conceptual Bridge Design

Module A: General Introduction

4. Intro to Bridge Structural Systems

4.1 Classification of Bridges

4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

a. Slab
b. Girder
c. Frame

4.3 Axial Structural Systems

a. Truss
b. Arch
c. Suspension
d. Cable Stayed
e. Hybrid

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Context-Sensitive Conceptual Bridge Design

4.1 Classification of Bridges

Basis
The approach to classification is rooted in the pre-dominant behavior of the
main structural member(s); Flexural or Axial. A main structural member is
one that is integral to carrying the vertical loads longitudinally to the
supports.

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4.1 Classification of Bridges

Basis

• Flexural members carry loads through bending action forming a tension

and compression couple within the member cross section such as a girder.

• Axial members carry loads predominantly through tension or

compression across the entire cross section such as an arch rib.

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4.1 Classification of Bridges

PRIMARY MEMBER BRIDGE TYPE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Slab Solid or Voided Slabs

Constant Depth Girder
FLEXURAL
Girder Variable Depth Girder
Extradosed
Frame Normal, Inclined, V-Shaped
Span Truss
Truss
Cantilever Truss
Thrust (2 Hinge, 3 Hinge, Fixed)
Arch
Tied (Single, Continuous)
AXIAL Earth Anchored
Suspension
Self Anchored
Cantilever System
Cable Stayed
Tower Stabilized
Extradosed - Cable Stayed
Hybrid
Cable Stayed - Suspension
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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

a. Slab
A solid or voided concrete section reinforced with mild steel and/or
prestressing or post-tensioning.
Prestressing

Void

Generally used for short single spans up to about 20m, they can also be cost
effective for continuous multi-spans.

Structurally they act as one- Simply

Beam Strip
way slabs transferring vertical Supported
loads longitudinally to the Edge
abutments and/or piers
through bending action.

Deflection

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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

b. Girder
Concrete or steel girders are the primary load transfer members supporting
a concrete deck. The deck is a reinforced concrete slab that transfers loads
transversely to the girders through one-way bending action. The deck can
be an independent element connected to the girders as in the case of
composite steel girders or it can be integrated in the top flange as in the
case of a segmental girder.
Composite Segmental
Slab-Girder Box Girder

The girders transfer the load longitudinally to the abutments and/or

piers through bending action. In modern day bridges, the slab and the
girder connections are constructed to achieve composite behavior for
transient loads. Therefore, both the girder and deck participate in
longitudinal load transfer.
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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

b. Girder – Constant Depth

Precast concrete girders are most common for spans up to 55m and can be
designed as semi-continuous above piers. Sections include many variations
of I shapes, single and multi-cell boxes and other sections such as tubs.
These girders employ prestressing and sometimes in combination with
post-tensioning for slender section depths.

Constant depth composite steel plate and box girders are economical
for spans up to 80m largely due to relative simplicity of fabrication and
erection. Box girders are more suited to curved alignments.

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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

b. Girder – Variable Depth UDL

As the span lengths increase,

constant depth girders become
economical. Deep section depth
BMD
required at supports to resist Constant
negative moment becomes Depth
redundant along the span.
Variable depth girders can be
BMD
tuned to optimize and suit the
Variable
demands resulting in efficient Depth
use of materials. Haunched steel
girders are suited for spans in
the 80-100m rage. Segmental
concrete girders are very
economical in the 100 – 120m
range.
For longer spans, Extradosed
systems have become popular
An Extradosed Bridge fundamentally is a
over the past decade. Girder System

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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

b. Girder – Extradosed
The fundamental concept of an extradosed system is to provide greater
eccentricity to the prestressing force on the girder section above the supports.
For this external cables are saddled over a pylon rigidly connected to the
girder above bearing supports. The primary load transfer mechanism is still
through flexure of the girder and the cable system only acts as external post-
tensioning. (Ref: Continuous Prestress in Launched Extradosed Bridges, Philippe Van Bogaert and
Hans De Backer)

Larger eccentricity of the

external tendons (cables)
generate larger bending
moments, opposing the Internal
effect of external loading. Moment
This allows the use of
shallower depth sections
compared to traditional External
Moment
segmental bridges.
Most of the brides referred to as extradosed are in fact hybrid extradosed –
cable stayed systems. In a true extradosed system, there are no independent
pylons, to which a cable system can be anchored.
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4.2 Flexural Structural Systems

c. Frame

In frame bridges the substructures (piers and/or abutments) are integrally

connected to the girders and participate in the resistance of the
superstructure demands. Therefore, moments at mid-span of a rigid-frame
bridge are smaller than the corresponding moments in a simply supported
deck allowing a shallower girder section.

Inclined Leg Frame V Leg Frame

One of the main challenges with longer span frame systems is the
accommodation of thermal movements. Frame bridges can provide significant
structural benefits such as elimination of articulation devices and material
efficiency but can also be difficult to design, construct and maintain (if not
detailed carefully).

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

a. Truss - Span

The extreme fibers of a beam experience high stresses but the middle remains
relatively unstressed. Truss systems were developed by eliminating regions of
low stress in beams. The resulting structure is composed of axial (tension-
compression) members connected to form rigid triangles.

(Lever Arm)

A Truss within a Beam

The joints of truss members are pin-connections to ensure the elements

experience axial forces only. As an equivalent truss is much lighter relative to a
beam, the lever arm can be increased to significantly reduce the axial
demands.
Steel truss bridges became popular during the industrial revolution and
numerous configurations were developed such as Howe, Pratt, Warren and
many more.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

a. Truss – Cantilever

For longer multi-span situations, cantilever truss systems have been

used for main-spans over 500m in length. A typical cantilever truss
bridge has an anchor span, cantilever span and a middle-suspended
span. The overall truss is shaped by varying the lever arm along the span
to mimic the demand envelope to standardize elements as much as
possible. (Eg: Howrah Bridge, India)
Anchor Span Cantilever Span Suspended Span

Above deck through truss and underdeck variations have been

constructed. Today, due to high cost of fabrication and erection, we find
trusses are rarely determined as economical alternatives for modern
bridges.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

b. Arch – Thrust

An arch bridge conveys vertical loads through arching action of its

primary element which has a parabolic or a circular shape and has its
ends restrained to prevent lateral movement. This induces axial
compression along the curve of the arch as the predominant load effect
along with secondary bending. In a thrust arch the ends of the arch are
laterally held in position by the rigid foundations.

Arches can be three-hinged, two-hinged, and with fixed supports. A

three-hinged arch is statically determinate structure revolutionized by
Swiss engineer, Robert Maillart in the early 20th century.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

b. Arch – Tied

Also known as a bow-string arch, a tied arch is one where the lateral
movement of the arch ends is restrained by connecting them with a
tensile element. This element can be the deck girders or independent tie
rods. This prevents the foundations from having to resist lateral thrust
from the arching action.

Tension Tie

Single-Span Tied Arch 3-Span Tied Arch

Although spans about 500m long have also been built, arch bridges are
typically economical in the 100m to 250m range. Their aesthetic appeal
and suitability to certain sites such as valleys with steeply sloping rocky
banks make them an attractive choice.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

c. Suspension – Earth Anchored

The primary structural element of a suspension bridge is the main-cable

that forms a catenary on which the entire bridge deck is suspended. This
catenary draped on tower element(s) is directly anchored to the ground
in the case of an earth anchored suspension bridge. The deck load is
carried to the main-cable through vertical hangers. The main cable in
tension transfers the load to the tower(s) that transmits it under
compression to the foundations below. (Eg: Lions Gate Bridge, Canada)

Main-cable

Earth
Anchorage
Earth Anchored Suspension Bridge

Typical span range is 600m to 2000m. However, these days suspension

bridges are losing favour to cable-stayed for spans shorter than 1000m
due to relative complexity in construction. Unlike a cable stayed system,
superstructure erection on a suspension bridge cannot proceed until the
towers and the main cable including anchorages are fully completed.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

c. Suspension – Self Anchored

A major limitation of an earth anchored system is its prohibitive cost in

the absence of extremely competent sub-surface conditions. In a self-
anchored suspension (SAS) system the horizontal force from the main-
cable is transferred directly to the superstructure at the end supports,
putting the entire deck system under compression. (Eg: East Bay Bridge, USA)

Superstructure
in Compression

Self Anchored Suspension Bridge

Although this results in a highly efficient structural system, it is

proportionally complex to construct: Either the entire superstructure must
be constructed on falsework prior to main-cable installation or the main-
cable must be earth anchored temporarily until the entire superstructure is
suspended and connected. Therefore, the structural benefits are diluted by
the high cost of erection.
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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

d. Cable Stayed – Cantilever System

In a cable stayed bridge, cables directly connect the superstructure with

the tower and are predominantly responsible for transmitting the
vertical loads through axial tension. The superstructure has relatively
low global flexural stiffness designed to span adjacent cable supports
only. A classical cable stayed bridge employs a cantilever system for
stability whereby the main-span loads are counter-balanced by the
back-span support. This is achieved either through an up-lift anchorage
and/or counterweight. (Eg: Atal Setu, India)

Back-stays

Uplift
Device/
Counter-
Wt.

Back-span Main-span

Classical Cable Stayed Cantilever System

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

d. Cable Stayed – Tower Stabilized

In a tower stabilized cable stayed bridge, the tower and its foundation
provide the strength and stiffness to resist the imbalanced transient
loads due to the absence of a back-span support. This situation typically
occurs in multi-span water crossings where it is desirable to minimize
the number of in-water substructures. (Eg: Rion Antirion Bridge, Greece)

Tower Stabilized Cable Stayed

Classical cable stayed bridge are suited to span length in the 250m to 750m
range even though spans longer than 1000m have been built. At the lower end
of the range hybrid Extradosed-Cable Stayed are becoming more popular.

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

d. Cable Stayed – Earth Anchored

Sometimes due to site constraints or aesthetic reasons the back-span

needs to be an independent structure and the back-stays cannot be
anchored at deck level. In such situations, the back-stays can be earth
anchored. This results in a net shear force from the compression in the
main-span deck on the portion of the tower underneath the deck. A
buried strut can be provided between the earth anchorage and the top
of tower foundation to balance this force. (Eg: Rion Antirion Bridge, Greece)

Earth Anchored Cable Stayed

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

e. Hybrid – Extradosed + Cable Stayed + Frame

Most bridges that are being classified as extradosed are in fact hybrids
of several systems such as extradosed, cable stayed and frame. The
cables have greater inclination than a true extradosed and thus
participate in vertical load transfer like a cable stayed. The girder(s)
have global flexural stiffness and provide a competing load path for
vertical loads and therefore deviate from a true cable stayed bridge. An
integral superstructure-tower results in frame action. These type of
bridges are becoming increasingly viable in the 150m to 250m span
range. (Eg: Golden Ears Bridge, Canada)

Extradosed < Pylon Height < CSB

Extradosed < Cable Inclination < CSB
CSB < Girder Flexural Stiffness < Extradosed
Frame Action from Integral Superstructure - Tower

Hybrid Extradosed/Cable Stayed/Frame System

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4.3 Axial Structural Systems

e. Hybrid – Suspension + Cable Stayed

One of the key advantages for cable stayed systems is the ability to erect
the superstructure in balanced or progressive cantilever as soon as the
tower reaches a certain height. In contrast, it takes a significant amount
of time to construct the main-cable for a suspension bridge and only
then installation of hangers and superstructure segments can begin.
However, as the span length becomes greater than about 1000m,
suspension systems are more efficient structurally.

A hybrid system seeks to take advantage of both worlds by suspending a

portion of the main-span on a suspension cable. The rest of main-span and
the entire back-span are cable stayed which can be constructed first and
independent of the suspension portion. (Eg: Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, Turkey)

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THE END
Copyright © Spannovation, 2020

All rights reserved.

No part of this online course, presentation or educational material may be
reproduced or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without written
permission from the author, Spannovation Bridge and Seismic School. In
case of photocopying, or other reprographic copying, a license must be
obtained from the Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency.