Population ecology involves the study of the changes in population numbers.

An environment includes
both biotic and abiotic factors. Interactions between these factors cause the numbers of individuals in a
population to fluctuate constantly. In a stable environment, the numbers of individuals will remain
relatively constant. In this topic, you will learn about the concept of population ecology and the factors
causing population numbers to change.

By the end of the topic: you should know:

*
r<: The factors affecting population size

*
The Logistic and geometric growth curves with phases

*
Interactions in the environment such as predation, competition, specialisation and symbiosis
The benefits of social organisation
r<: Community change over time that results in succession
r<: The reasons for the exponential growth of the human population

*
By the end of the topic: you should be able to:
Determine the size of a population using the quadrat method and simple sampling techniques
r<: Research reasons why elephants are culled in the Kruger Park to control population sizes

*
r<: Draw a life cycle of the bilharzia parasite
Identify an area where succession Is taking place

I POPULATION SIZE I
Populations of organisms interact with populations of their own kind, with populations of other species,
and with physical aspects of their environment. A population is a group of individuals belonging to the
same species, living in the same area at the same time. The organisms in a population interact and
interbreed randomly with each other to produce fertile offspring. Examples of populations are impala in
the Kruger Park, aphids living on a rose bush or ants living in a nest. The number of individuals making
up a population is called the population size. The size of a population is continually changing due to
different factors. All populations undergo three distinct phases of their life cycle: growth, stability and
decline. The factors, which affect the size of a population, will affect the density of the population. The
density of a population is expressed in terms of numbers or population mass.

Figure 9.1 Populations can be aphids living on a rose bush or the buffalo living in the Kruger Park.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology Em
 POPULATION PARAMETERS
The size of a population continually changes due to various factors or parameters that will affect the
density of that population. The numbers in a population will either increase or decrease depending on
the following population parameters. Four main factors or parameters affect the size of a population.
1. Natality or birth rate increases the size of the population.
2. Mortality or death rate reduces the size of the population.
3. Immigration is the permanent movement of new individuals from another area into a population
adding to its size.
4. Emigration is the permanent movement of individuals from a population to another area thus
reducing the size of that population.

The size of a population is expressed with the equation: Population size= (N + I) - (M + E)

If the birth rate is higher than the death rate there will be an increase in population size. If the birth rate
is lower than the death rate there will be a decrease in population size. A closed population occurs when
there are no births and deaths.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 1: 10 marks
1. Define the following terms:
(a) population (3)

(b) population size (1)

(c) natality (1)

(d) mortality (10

(e) emigration (1)

(f) immigration (1)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [EZ]
 CARRYING CAPACITY AND LIMITING FACTORS
A population will continue to grow until environment cannot support it. When a population has reached
the maximum size that the environment it lives in can support, the environment has reached its carrying
capacity. The growth of a population cannot exceed the carrying capacity of its environment for too long
as this leads to the environment damage. Populations are often under pressure because of the influence
of the environment on their numbers. This pressure is referred to as environmental resistance, and
ultimately determines the population size in any given environment. The environment has a certain
carrying capacity for each species.

There will be a shortage of resources if environment exceeds the carrying capacity. Resources such as
food supply, space or water may cause a population to decrease in size. Such a factor is called a limiting
factor. Certain organisms will then begin to show a higher degree of territoriality and competition when
resources are limited.

There are two categories of limiting factors that affect the population size:

1. Density independent factors are unrelated to the density or numbers of individuals in a population
per unit area. The population density is affected by natural events or disasters such as floods,
droughts, and sharp changes in temperature conditions, fires and volcanic eruptions.

2. Density dependent factors are directly dependent on the density of a population. Density
dependent factors cause a greater number of deaths in a population when the population density is
high. Any individual has a lower chance of surviving because there is increased competition for
limited food and space. There is an increased chance of the individual dying because of predation or
from a parasitic disease spread by contact.

Regulating factors increase the population size when population size is low, and decrease the size when
population numbers are too high. The main density-dependent factors that keep populations stable are:

1. Food supply - the denser the population, the more food consumed. This leads to more competition
for food.

2. Space - research on rats has shown that when space becomes limited, females become sterile, there
is a lack of parental care, and population size decreases.

3. Predation - when prey populations increase due to favourable environment conditions, the
predators will have more food available. Favourable food supply will result in increased births of
predators causing the density of predators to increase. With an increase in predator numbers, the
density of the prey population decreases because of increased predation. Once prey numbers drop,
the numbers of predators will drop accordingly as their food supply is reduced.

4. Parasitism and disease - parasites and disease are more likely to spread in a dense population
where contact between individuals is more frequent. Disease will then cause a greater mortality rate
in the population.

5. Shelter - animals that use shelter to avoid detection by predators may find it difficult to find enough
shelter to survive. Predators may spot them and capture them more easily.

Once the numbers of a population decrease, there will be more space and food available to the surviving
individuals. There is also less chance of the individual being removed by a predator because it is more
difficult for predators to find prey when their density is low. Population densities will then become stable,
as more offspring will survive. In this way the population size in which density dependent factors
operate, is regulated.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 2: 60 marks
1. State one similarity and one difference between the following terms.
(a) Immigration and emigration (2)

Complete Book©_ Explore Serles 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [m
 (b) Density-dependent and density independent parameters (2)

2. List ten factors, which would affect the population size. Decide which of these are density dependent
and density independent. (10)

3. Is the carrying capacity for elephants in the Kruger National Park the same as the carrying capacity for
leopard in the same region? Explain your answer. (3)

4. Read the article and then answer the questions:

SOUTH AFRICA LIFTS BAN ON ELEPHANT CULLING

South Africa's 13-year suspension on elephant culling was lifted on 1 May 2008, to control the
large population numbers in the Kruger Park. This was regardless of the objection from animal
rights activists. The South African government authorised the killing of elephants as a last
resort in limiting the numbers of the African elephant that have more than doubled since culling
was halted in 1995.

The belief that culling is a management option, but will be only used as a last resort only under
strict conditions. Animal rights activists feel the new guidelines for elephant management are
not acceptable and are encouraging the international community to boycott tourism in South
Africa.

Scientists and elephant researchers from across the globe, said elephants have a large and
complex brain and social behaviour. "They are capable of learning. They experience fear, pain
and a sense of loss," the experts said in an assessment of elephant management. Elephants
with a lifespan of up to 60 years and few natural predators, are capable of transforming
ecosystems into wastelands. The increase in numbers of elephants from 8,000 to 18,000 has
put pressure on the game parks. Other negative interactions include loss of crops and
infrastructure due to elephant damage, infection of livestock as a result of elephants having
breached veterinary fences, thus allowing the mingling of wildlife and domestic stock and direct
injury or loss of human life.

According to the government, hormone-based contraception and translocation, are still the
preferred population control measures, with culling only when recommended by an elephant
management specialist. The hormone-based contraception caused unacceptable levels of
aggression and was not a method that would reduce elephant numbers in the short term.
Therefore, culling and translocation are the only management options for reducing elephant
densities where intervention is urgent. Elephants are killed by a marksman who delivers a single
lethal shot to the brain from a helicopter, and an entire family group is killed at once, away
from other elephants, to prevent trauma.

Michelle Pickover from Animal Rights Africa said culling was not a practical solution as damage
to the environment was localised and not irreversible. "To say you are going to use a method
very similar to mass murder or genocide is a terrible thing to do."

Complete Book© Explore_Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [m
 (a) How many years according to the article have the government used culling as a control measure? (1)

(b) Identify two reasons why the government state they need to cull elephants. (2)

(c) Identify two reasons why the Animal rights Africa state that it is not necessary. (2)

(d) Is the elephant population problem a man-made problem? Explain your answer. (3)

(e) What other methods are being used at present that are not as severe as culling. (2)

(f) What is the percentage increase of the elephant population since 1995? (2)

(g) Give four possible solutions that can be done to control the populations. (4)

(h) Why is it necessary to cull the entire elephant herd? (2)

(i) Draw up a public survey form to test public opinion about culling. (10)
(j) Collate your results and present the results as a pie chart. (15)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [m
 TECHNIQUES USED TO MEASURE THE SIZE OF A POPULATION
Population ecology involves the study of changes in population numbers over time. Researchers require
methods to determine the population numbers at a specific time. They will use various direct and indirect
methods to calculate population numbers.

DIRECT METHODS
Direct methods are usually the most accurate, as almost every individual is counted, rather than simply
forming an estimate. A direct method involves counting all the individuals in the population. It is used for
large, easily distinguishable plants and animals of which there are only a few in the area. Elephants are
counted by doing a strip count. This involves using a helicopter and flying in straight lines or strips over
the area and counting all the elephants.

Aerial photographs (photos taken from low-flying planes)

as shown in Figure 9.2, are used to count certain animals
or plants from the air. A census is used to count human
populations. It involves handing out forms, asking the
number of residents on that property at a certain time on
a certain date (amongst other questions). These forms
are distributed to as many houses as possible. They are
then collected and the numbers added up, to give the
approximate number of people living in the area.

INDIRECT METHODS
These methods are used when the populations are too
large or the individuals are small and hard to distinguish Figure 9.2 Aerial photograph of a population of
from one another. The indirect methods will never give elephant
the actual number of individuals in the area. These
methods can only give an estimate of their numbers. The closeness of the estimate to the actual number
will depend on how well one conducts these methods.

QUADRAT SAMPLING
If you wish to estimate the number of daisies in a large area of
grassland, you would use the quadrat method. As daisies are
small and there are likely to be many in the area, you could not
perform a direct count. You would map of the area and split it
up into a number of equal sized numbered blocks or quadrats
as illustrated in the Figure 9.3. The area is split into 60
quadrats, with each quadrat containing an unknown number of
daisies. Each dot represents a daisy. These dots illustrate the
actual number of daisies in the area. You must select a
random sample of quadrats in your study area. Assu ming you
select five quadrats at random, you need to find those quadrats
in the study area. A grid of a particular dimension , for example one square metre is placed in each
quadrat. The number of daisies in that quadrat is counted and recorded.

••••
·1 ••
•
2
• •••
• ••••• • •• ••
3 •• 4
• ••••
•••• • ••
5
....
•
6
•• •
7
• • 8
••
••
9
• • 10
••
. ....
•
n••••
••• •••• .
••• 12• •• 13., 14•• • 15•••• 1 .•• 7•••• 18 19 • •• 20
•• •• :• ::• •
,, 1
•
""
-- ...
21
••••
•• •
•• •• .... 23
• • •
..:..8 •
24 •• 0"
• •
26
••
• •
27 28
••
29 :30
•••••
•

·=·
•
.......
31 • 32
·.•• • • • 33•• 34•••••• 35• • • 36••••• 3•7• • 3•8•••
• ••
• 39•
•
4 0.
••
41oj• • 42 • • 43
• •• •••• 44 • 46 • 47 48 49 50
• •• 4� • • • • ••••••
•••
.:•l• • • • •• .: :•
•• •••••• ••••••
......
5·1 • • "0

•• • • •
:)4 ••
53 54 :37
....
• •• ••••••• •• •••••••• •• •••• •••••••
55. e 56 58 59 60
••
Assuming you selected quadrats 9, 12, 31, 53 and 59 respectively, the total number of daisies in the five
sample quadrats would be 30.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology m]
 Using the following formula, the total number of daisies in the study area can be estimated:

N = number of daisies in sample quadrats X total number of quadrats

Number of sample quadrats

30 X 60 = 360 daisies

This method is only an estimate. The more quadrats you sample, the more accurate your estimate. This
improved the reliability of the investigation. The ideal situation would be to count the number of daisies
in every quadrat. However, in reality this is not practical and very time consuming.

MARK RECAPTURE METHOD

The mark recapture method is another example of indirect counting. A number of individuals from a
specific population are captured, counted, marked, and released back into the population. A few days
later, another sample from the population is captured and counted. The number of marked individuals is
noted.

A trout farmer wants to see how many trout he has in one of his big fishing dams before he opens it up
to the anglers. He performs the following method:
1. He captures as many trout as possible within a fixed period, for example 2 hours.
2. He then marks the trout in a manner that does not hurt them, or wash off, for example a tag.
3. He then releases all of the trout and allows them to mix freely with the rest of the fish in the dam.
4. The next day he captures as many trout as possible again, within the same period as before.
5. He once again counts how many of these are marked, and how many are unmarked.

Now using the following formula, he calculates an estimate of the number of trout within the dam:

Population = Total number in 1'' sample X Total number in 2"' sample

Number of marked individuals in 2"' sample

The formula above can be represented as:

P = estimated population size

M = total number of individuals caught and marked in the first sample
S = total number of individuals caught in the second sample
T = total number of marked individuals caught in the second sample

Assume that he caught and marked 45 trout, which were then released. Later on, he managed to catch
56 trout, of which 33 were marked.
!
Estimate the population size.
�
p
= MxS 45 x 56
= 76.36
p
T 33
Therefore, he estimates that there are 76 trout in his dam.

The accuracy of the mark and recapture method relies on a number of factors:

* The population must be randomly distributed (spread out and not clumped in certain areas e.g. ants
and insects).
* The marked organisms must be able to mix randomly with the rest of the population.
* The organism must not be harmed in any way when being marked.
* The mark must last the entire period of investigation.
* The population must be closed, this means no immigration or emigration must occur.
* It must be a stable population with no increasing or decreasing at that time of estimating.
Many of these points are also assumptions. For example, there will always be some emigration or
immigration.

Complete Book © Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology Em
 4 ywv·L

�g
V

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

i;�I I

Activity 3: 29 marks
Use the grid to estimate the number of locusts within an area in a grassland environment.
·1 •
.i .
2 3 •• 4
••• • ••• 5
••••• 6••• 7
• • 8
•••• 9
•• • 10
• ••
••••• :-:: •••
•••• • •
1·1 • •• ·t2
.
••••••• ••••••••• 3••
1 .
, 14••••
••
15 • 16
:.• ••••
•••• 17 •• 18
••••••
19 •
•• • 20

...... ....
21 • ""
•• ••
00 23
• •
24 ••
•
••••
25 • 26
• ••••
27 28
•• • 29 30•••••
•
31
.•:-:•
·.••
32
• • •
33
•• 34•:•••
•
35 • 36
• •••
•• • . ·.:•
• • 37. 38
• • •• ••
39 4 0 .
.
·•=:•
4·1.•,· • 42 • • 43
••••!.• • • •••••••• 44• ••• .. 4':j • • 46
.
:• ..•••.:• ••••••
47 48 49 50
••••••
5L • • 52 • • 53
•••••••• • • • ••••
54
......
55 • 56
. .. ....
•• •• :• •• •• •••• •••••••••
57 58 59 60

1. Select ten random quadrats and count the number of locusts that you can find within each quadrat.
Use the number of locusts to estimate the number of locusts within this area. (3)

2. If you had been able to do a census count, you would have found 326 locusts within this area as
shown in the diagram. How accurate is your estimate? (1)

3. Use the estimates obtained by five other learners in the class and calculate an average number of
locusts within this area. (2)

4. Is this value more accurate than the estimate in question 2? (1)

5. What sort of problems would you anticipate when doing quadrat sampling? (2)

6. Give TWO precautions that you need to take when estimating population size using the mark-
recapture method? (2)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology Em
 7. What assumptions do you make when using the mark-recapture method? (2)

8. Could these assumptions cause problems? Explain your answer. (2)

9. A gardener wishes to determine how many aphids are infesting roses in a certain area. Which would
be the best method to use? Explain your choice of methods. (3)

10. A botanist is hired to estimate the number of Galinsoga parviflora (a type of weed) in a region of
disturbed veld. He splits the area up into 100 quadrats and chooses to count the number of weeds in
quadrat 1, 2, 55, 60 and 98. He finds 132 in quadrat 1, 110 in quadrat 2, 98 in quadrat 55, 12 in
quadrat 60 and 120 in quadrat 98.

a) Calculate the most accurate estimation of the total number of weeds of this species in the area. (4)

(b) Would this be a good estimate? Explain your answer. (2)

11. The following data regarding a specific animal population in a certain area was obtained using the
mark-recapture technique. 100 animals were caught and marked. 80 animals were subsequently
recaptured of which 20 were marked. What is the estimated size of this animal population? (5)

Complete Book© Explore Ser_ies 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology m]
 POPULATION GROWTH CURVES
Populations grow rapidly if the environment is favourable, however if the environmental conditions
become unfavourable the population growth will slow down. The growth of a population passes through
stages. There is an initial lag period of minimal growth, followed by an exponential growth period of
maximum population growth. Growth curves are illustrated graphically as either logistic or geometric
growth curves.

LOGISTIC GROWTH CURVE

Logistic growth form starts when a few
individuals move or are introduced into a
'"
N
·a,
new area. The graph shown in Figure 9.4 C:
has an 'S'-shape. Population numbers 0
increase gradually, resulting in a logistic ·�
growth curve that has four distinct :i Early growth is '":>.,
n. ·r,
''--, Growth begins to
C.
phases: 0 rapid {��
0..
slow down
Lag phase: Growth is slow because
Lag phase
there are only a few individuals in the
area. During this time, the individuals
get used to their new environment. It Time
takes time for individuals to become Figure 9.4 Logistic growth curve
sexually mature and find mates. Once
mates are found, eggs are laid and
hatch, or gestation periods are completed, or seeds germinate and mature. New individuals are born into
the population and numbers rise slowly.

Accelerating growth phase: As more organisms are born, the population growth increases rapidly.
Birth rate exceeds death rate. There is no environmental resistance and no competition for food. The rate
of growth of the population is greatest during this phase.

Decelerating growth phase: The population size continues to increase, but at a slower rate, due to
environmental resistance. The black dot on the graph in Figure 9.4 shows the point of maximum growth
of that population. A decrease in available food and living space results in competition between
individuals. This limits the reproduction rate until the birth rate and death rate is almost the same.

Equilibrium or stationary phase - The population numbers are almost constant as birth rates equal
death rates. The population reaches a level, which the environment can support. The maximum number
of individuals that the environment can support is the carrying capacity (this is the dotted horizontal line
drawn on the graph in Figure 9.4. Population numbers fluctuate around the carrying capacity due to
competition between individuals for food and space, predation, and the effect disease and parasites.

The point on the y-axis at which equilibrium occurs is the carrying capacity of the population. The
carrying capacity represents the maximum number of individuals of that species that the environment

I
can support without serious degradation and death
of the individuals.

GEOMETRIC GROWTH CURVE

Living organisms have the great potential to
increases the population numbers. This type of
growth occurs especially in organisms that grow and 1h
�
reproduce very quickly, for example bacteria grown Q)
.a The growth of
in a petri-dish in a laboratory. The population E the population
::, accelerates
numbers double at regular time intervals. This
growth stops rapidly when environmental conditions
z
become unfavourable such as a lack of oxygen or
unfavourable temperatures. Look at the graph in
Figure 9.5; note how population growth is slow
initially but increases sharply until population growth
rises almost vertically.
Time
With this kind of rapid growth, an entire population
can be wiped out. This is not shown on the graph, Figure 9. 5 The geometric growth curve
but would be shown as a sharp downward decline.
This is the extinction phase.
Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition
Topic 9 • Population Ecology IEE
 This decline may be because of density-dependent factors such as over crowding, disease, competition,
predation and territoriality. Another factor that could affect the population size is density-independent
factors such as climatic fluctuations, temperature changes, natural disasters, extreme temperature
change, and exposure to a toxic spill.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 4: 36 Marks
1. Study the logistic curve to answer the questions.

''
Phase A ---- ----Phasc B
'
'''
1

'
'--,

Time

a) Describe what is occurring in the population during phase A. (4)

b) Why is the decrease in population numbers so fast at the top of the curve? (2)

c) Why does the population size fluctuate around the carrying capacity? (2)

d) Discuss three factors that might cause the fluctuations shown in phase B. (3)

Co_mplete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology EE!]
 e) Tabulate two differences between a logistic growth form and a geometric growth form. (5)

2. In an experiment, an area was fenced off and 50 rabbits, 25 males and 25 female were introduced.
These were the only animals found within this area. The following graph shows the change in
population number of rabbit over a 20-year period.

1400
1300
if) 1200
1100
._ 1000
..,_
0
900
._ 800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
<D
,-..
cr)
=
co
cr)
<"'
co
cr)

Years
a) Name the phases represented by A, B, and Con the graph. Write the phase on the graph. (3)
b) Explain what is happening at Don the graph. (1)

c) What is the carrying capacity of this population within the first 8 years? (1)

d) Suggest three factors that may have provided environmental resistance. State whether each is
density dependent or independent. (6)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [l!!J
 e) In 1974, the size of the area was increased but no further rabbits were added. What effect did this
have on the rabbit population? Explain. (2)

f) In 1978, a few wild dogs were introduced. What effect would you expect this to have on the rabbit
population over several years? (3)

I INTERACTIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

PREDATION
A predator is an individual that actively hunts, kills and eats members of another species for food. There
will always be more prey than predators in a sustainable environment. This is because if the number of
predators exceed the number of prey, there will be a shortage of food for predators. Examples of predators
shown in Figure 9.6 are a crocodile and fish, lion and zebra and owl and mouse.

Figure 9.6 Predators hunt and kill their prey for food

The relationship between predator and prey population numbers can be illustrated in the graph shown in
Figure 9.7. The numbers of predators fluctuate, as the numbers of prey change. Predators feed on the
prey causing the numbers of prey to decrease. As the prey decreases, there is less food for the
predators and some predators die. A predator numbers drop, there are fewer predators eating the prey,
so the numbers of prey increase. An increase in the numbers of prey implies more food for the predators
allowing their numbers to increase. This process repeats itself as shown on the graph.

Prey

The graph that decreases

first is always the graph
✓
representing prey. The Number ,.
predator then follows what
the prey does. ••,,,,.,,,•''

Time
Figure 9.7 Graph showing a predator-prey relationship

The predator prey curve can be applied to herbivores eating plants and parasites living on host animals
or plants. For example, elephant and tree numbers will fluctuate in the same way as a predator and its
prey.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [EE
 COMPETITION
Competition is the way in which two or more individuals strive to obtain resources that are limiting. A
limiting factor is a resource required by living organisms in order for them to survive but is in short
supply. This includes food, shelter, water, nesting space, mating partners, etc. The more limited a
resource is the more intense is the competition.
There are two forms of competition:
* Intraspecific competition: This is where individuals of the same species compete amongst each
other for example, when hyenas push one another away while feeding on a carcass.

* Interspecific competition: This is where individuals of unrelated species compete with one another
for a limited resource for example, when lions chase hyenas away from a carcass.

Competition between individuals of the same species

is usually very strong as they occupy the same
ecological niche. They need the same food, space,
shelter and air. As a result, they have developed the
same structural, functional and behavioural
adaptations. Competition between members of the
same species is reduced by genetic adaptations,
which results in genetic variations in the species.

Competition occurs in both plant and animal

populations. Animal populations tend to compete for
food, space, shelter and mating partners in order to
survive. Plants however will compete for space,
light, water and mineral nutrients in the soil. When
the densities of plant populations are high, the plants
receive a smaller share of the resources and grow Figure 9. 8 Gannets in a colony competing for
slower. Because of competition, plant species have breeding space
become adapted to improve their competitive ability,
for example, certain plants grow taller and stronger to capture direct sunlight. Such plants are sun
plants.

other shorter plants have adapted to live in the shade of sun plants by increasing the area of their leaves
to intercept whatever light reaches them. These are shade plants. Competition between individuals often
ensures that the fittest and the strongest individuals survive while the weak, aged and unhealthy
individuals are more vulnerable and die. Some organisms have evolved ritual displays for competing for
mates. This avoids dangerous fights between males for mates (where both males competing may kill one
another). Instead, these males fight 'show battles' in which the one that best carries out the moves of
the 'mock fight' wins the female.

SPECIALISATION
An ecological niche is the functional role and position of a species within a community or ecosystem.
Species within a niche will use the resources in specific ways to live. When using these recourses, one
species would interact with another species. The greater the similarity between the ecological niches of
two organisms, the greater the competition between the two organisms.

SPECIALISATION: COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION

Competitive exclusion principle states that species can only coexist if they have different niches. When
one of two competing species is more successful than the other species, the successful species survives
and the other species disappears or adapts due to intense competition. An example of competitive
exclusion is two species of shelled marine organisms called barnacles, Ba/anus and Chthamalus. These
barnacles live along the intertidal zones along coastlines. Ba/anus grows very quickly, while Chthama/us
is extremely slow growing. Ba/anus smothers and crushes Chthamalus making Ba/anus better competitors
for space, thus excluding Chthamalus from the middle intertidal zone.

During low tide, the upper intertidal zone dries in the sun. Chthamalus tolerates long periods of dry
conditions whereas Ba/anus cannot cope with these dry conditions. Chthamalus is excluded from the
middle intertidal zone, but can thrive in the drier upper intertidal zone where Ba/anus cannot. Ba/anus
excludes Chthamalus from the lower intertidal zones due to competitive exclusion.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology mm
 SPECIALISATION: RESOURCE PARTITIONING
In resource partitioning two or more competing species will coexist in an ecosystem even though they
compete for the same resources. They avoid competition by partitioning the resources and the habitat.
They are able to coexist using the resources differently. This enables each species to have a different
ecological niche. An example is the seed-eating finches that live on the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific
Ocean. Two finch species Geospiza fuliginosa and Geospiza fortis have different beak size and shape,
which determines the seed size eaten.

A B

Figure 9.9 the different beaks of Geospiza fuliginosa (A) and Geospiza fortis (B)

Geospiza fu/iginosa eats smaller seeds because it has a small pointed beak, whereas Geospiza fortis eats
larger seeds because it has a larger square beak. These species coexist because their beak shape, allows
them to specialize upon a particular seed size.

- ,,,... --
� )J�I
.. 'rJr.Y ..
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 5: 65 marks
1. In Tanzania, there are two species of mosquito, Aedes sp. and the larger predator Toxorhynchites sp.
The predator only preys on mosquito larvae. The following table shows the results of population
estimates done on the numbers of larvae of the insects recorded over a year per hectare area.

Time Number of mosquito larvae per hectare (in thousands)

(months) Species T (predator) Species A (prey)
1 2 800 7 500
2 8 000 6 100
3 7 800 5 000
4 4 100 2 600
5 . 300 100
6 1 300 3 000
7 10 000 11 400
8 10 100 2 800
9 5 500 200
10 7 700 10 100
11 6 000 3 500
12 3300 8 000

(a) Plot a graph on a separate piece of paper showing the numbers of mosquito larvae. Indicate clearly
which curve represents the predator and which represents the prey. Flap stick graph in your
workbook. (10)

(b) Why is counting of mosquito larvae an effective method of estimating the population size of
mosquitoes? (2)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [EE
 (c) Explain why the population size of predator and prey numbers are density dependent by referring to
the two mosquito curves you have drawn. (4)

2. Read the passage and then answer the questions:

In 1997, the estimated impala population in the Gomo Nature Reserve was approximately
8000. Large populations of lions and cheetahs were present. Between 1997 and 2007 half the
lion and cheetah populations were eliminated. By 2009, the impala population increased to
about 80 000 and nearly all the grass, shrubs and young trees are eaten. During the winter of
2009, 80% of the impala population is wiped out, with only 4000 impala were left. The
vegetation however, continued to degenerate for a long time. In 1990 when the Gomo Nature
Reserve was established, it was estimated that the carrying capacity of the reserve was about
20 000 impalas.

(a) By referring to the passage, give one example of

Intraspecific competition (1)

Interspecific competition (1)

Predation (1)

A density dependent factor (1)

(b) Draw a food chain to illustrate the feeding relationship in this area during 1997. (5)

(c) Why did the impala population continue to decline after 80% has died during the winter? (2)

(d) Why did the vegetation continue to deteriorate in spite of the large decrease in the impala
population? (2)

(e) Explain what is meant by carrying capacity. (2)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [El!]
 3. Competition can be illustrated using Gauze's (1934) experiment with Paramecium caudatum and
Paramecium aurelia. The two species were cultured with enough oxygen and food and kept in the
laboratory. The numbers of each species were monitored on a daily basis over a period of two
weeks. The following results were obtained:

Time Number of individuals

(days) Paramecium caudatum Paramecium aurelia
1 9 7
2 18 10
3 35 18
4 48 15
5 45 30
6 40 40
7 38 50
8 30 55
9 28 60
10 20 61
11 15 62
12 10 64
13 5 65
14 0 65
(a) Plot a graph on a separate piece of paper. Indicate clearly, which curve represents each species.
Flap stick graph in your workbook. (10)

(b) On which day did the population growth of Paramecium aurelia slow down? Explain your answer. (2)

(c) What happened to the population of Paramecium caudatum on day 5? Explain your answer. (2)

(d) What observations do you make from the two curves? (4)

(e) What conclusions can be drawn from the result? (2)

(f) Identify which growth curve is represented by the curve for Paramecium caudatum. Explain your
answer. (3)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology EJ!m
 4. Barnacles are animals that live on rocky shores. The adults are fixed to the surface of rocks and do
not move. The young larvae can swim freely in the sea. As they get older, the larvae settle and attach
themselves to a rock surface. Here they develop into adults, which feed on microscopic plants and
animals in the sea when the tide is in. Two species of barnacle, Chthamalus stel!atus and Ba/anus
balanoides, commonly occur together on the same rocky shore.

The diagram shows the typical distribution of the two in relation to the tide levels on a rocky shore.

-!
Distribuition of Distribuition of
C. ste!latus B. balanoides
Maxinmm
Adults - - high tide
level
Settled
laivae

Settled
Adults
larvae

Minimum
low tide
level

(a) In both species of barnacle few of the larvae which settle become adults. Explain how intraspecific
competition could account for this. (1)

(b) Suggest how interspecific competition could account for the difference in distribution of the adults of
the two species. (2)

(c) Identify the type of specialisation illustrated in this example. Explain your answer. (2)

5. Some birds feed on animals found in mud in estuaries. The drawing shows the heads of three
species of these birds and their prey,

Species A Species B Species C

Tellin shell

Furrow shell

(a) Use the information in the drawing to explain how interspecific competition between the birds is
reduced. (2)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [ED
 (b) Identify the type of specialisation illustrated in this example. Explain your answer. (2)

6. With reference to the diagram give ONE example of each of the following interactions:
(a) Intraspecific competition (1)

(b) Predation (1)

P311 of an ecosy�em with earthworms, plants and a bird

I SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS l
Symbiosis (sym-means together and bias-means life) is the interaction between two different organisms
in close relationship with one another. There are three symbiotic relationships: mutualism,
commensalism and parasitism. Mutualism and commensalism are relationships where neither party is
harmed, Figure 9.10 shows various examples.

MUTUALISM AND COMMENSALISM

Mutualism is the relationship between two different organisms in which both benefit from the
association. Lichen is a typical example of mutualism. The lichen consists of a fungus and algae that live
together. The fungus gets food from the photosynthesising algae while the algae have a place to live.

Commensalism is the relationship where one species benefits and the other is not harmed. For
example, an oyster, needing a base to live, has attached itself to a mangrove aerial root. The mangrove
is not harmed by the presence of the oyster.

Cattle Egret
Butterfly on flower
Ox/ecker
an impala

MUTUALISM COMMENSALISM
Figure 9.10 Examples of mutualism and commensa/ism

PARASITISM
A parasite feeds off other living animals or plants for their food. Parasites harm the host but do not
normally kill it. Parasites such as fleas, lice, mosquitoes and ticks that live outside the body are external
parasites. Worms, such as the tapeworm, roundworm and pinworm live inside the host so are internal
parasites.

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Topic 9 • Population Ecology ED]
 A plant parasite that can make its own food but gets its water and mineral salts from its host is a semi­
parasite. When a parasite relies on the host for food, water and mineral salts it is a complete parasite.
Mistletoe is an example of a semi-parasite as its stems and leaves are green so it can photosynthesise,
but lacks its own roots. It penetrates the bark of the mangrove and sucks water and mineral salts from
its host, which means that the mangrove tree is disadvantaged by this association. Dodder grows on
Lucerne used for animal fodder. It does not have roots nor and chlorophyll containing tissue. It relies
solely on its host for its food, water and mineral salts. Lucerne plants that have dodder growing on them
contain much less food for farm animals. Lucerne will die if the dodder plant is not removed. Dodder is
therefore a complete parasite.

Figure 9.11 Mistletoe is a semi-parasite and dodder is a complete parasite

Bilharzia is a disease caused by small parasitic flatworms of the family Schistosomatidae. The common
ones found in South Africa are the Schistosoma haematobium (urinary bilharzia) or Schistosoma mansoni
(intestinal bilharzia) that live in the blood vessels of man, producing eggs that cause tissue damage. It
lives in streams, dams and rivers in areas such as Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga,
KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. Figure 9.12 shows the life cycle of bilharzia, read each label to
trace each step in the lifecycle.

n
They b·avel through the
bloodstream, blocking narrow
blood vessels, commonly in the
kidney. This can lead to kidney
failure and death. The eggs
have a sharp point that Once In the blood stream tl,ey travel to
enables them to cut through the liver. After 6 weeks the mab.ire
\ worms mate and the females lay eggs,
vein walls and tn enter bladder.
Haemorrhaging of the bladder which are released into the bloodstream.
creates bloody urine and
painful urination.
Main host., human
When someone washes or swims In the
wate1, the ce1ca1 lae attaches and bo1es
lntn the person's skin, where It enters the
The eggs a1 e I eleased by / blood sb eam.
o
JJ ) /
the human host In the /

l
lll lne and faeces Into _
"'
freshwater such as 1lve1s"""'"""i oaf, oaf, """'"""' """'"""'---...."""°"""...,,"""'"""
and streams. 3 - 7 weeks late,� tl1e
\ ( matrne la1va worms,
A;
� called ce1caIiae,
V:
e
� \
eme1ge f1om the snail
Into the water.

The larva (mlracidlum) hatch an�--..__ (f�

must find a snail, the ---....,�� a,
lnte11nediate host, wltl1ln 26 V'
hours to su1 vive. Intermediate host, the freshwater snail
11le larva matures and multipl!es In tl1e foot of the
snail.

Figure 9.12 Life cycle of bilharzia

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology mE
 Bilharzia infects people when bathing or drinking water where the snails carrying the worms live. It is
more common in rural communities where the standards of hygiene are low. The parasite has a complex
life cycle involving two hosts; an intermediate host being the freshwater snail, and the main host being
the human. Once in the human, the female worm burrows into the blood vessels. Here they lay 300 to
3500 eggs daily releasing in the blood.

The symptoms of the disease begin with itching or a rash due to allergic reactions to the parasites. Other
symptoms are lower abdominal pain, fever, diarrhoea and blood in the urine and stools. As the infestation
increases, the flukes and the eggs build up in the body, leading to serious liver damage, kidney stones,
renal failure, and brain and lung damage. It may also cause infertility in women. Eggs visible in the urine
or tissue taken from the rectum diagnose bilharzia infection. The drug praziquantel is used to destroy the
parasite in the human body. In areas where bilharzia is endemic, educational programs are important to
educate communities of ways to combat the infection. Tips such as avoid swimming in contaminated
water, do not urinate or defecate near water used for drinking, washing or bathing and always boil all
water before use, create awareness to prevent bilharzia infections.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 6: 8 marks

Read the passage and then answer the questions:

BILHARZIA - WATER IS NEVER SAFE
In South Africa, bilharzia is said to be the second most serious parasitic infection after malaria. People
get infected when they come into contact with water infested with the parasites. Early symptoms of the
infection are an itchy rash, a fever, cough and muscle aches and pains; however, some people do not
have any early symptoms. Serious symptoms are caused by the eggs of the parasite.

According to researches, bilharzia is a serious threat to HIV/AIDS sufferers, as it suppresses the

immune system, This results in the HIV/AIDS progressing faster in patients infected by the bilharzia
parasite. The irony is that although bilharzia is responsible for affecting 2.Smil/ion people in South
Africa, it has been overshadowed by malaria and HIV/AIDS, Yet treating bilharzia may even help to fight
the other two.

1. Describe three initial symptoms of a person who has been infected by bilharzia. (3)

2. You are a nursing sister in a travelling clinic. You are visiting a remote rural village. You suspect that
some of the villagers are suffering from bilharzia. Suggest two management strategies that the
health department and important people such as teachers or chief in the village can take to combat
bilharzia. (4)

3. Some of the villagers suffering from HIV/AIDS also have bilharzia. What threat is this to HIV/AIDS
sufferers? (1)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [ml
I SOCIAL ORGANISATION I
When overcrowding occurs in a population, there will be an increase in competition and in mortality rate.
Many species have developed special adaptations to control the size of the population and prevent too
much competition. Such populations show intraspecific associations. Certain animals live in groups or
colonies and show a social organisation. Insects and mammals show highly developed social order and
patterns of behaviour that improves the chances of survival of the individuals in the population.
Behaviour adaptations and patterns ensure that individuals work together to protect their feeding and
breeding rights. Many of these animals will ensure that their young are cared for and protected

HERDS AND FLOCKS (AVOIDANCE)

Animals form large groups to help and protect each other. Schools of fish, flocks of birds, herds of
buffalo, troops of baboons, prides of lions, are examples groups that work together to protect one
another from predators. The benefit is many individuals looking out for predators instead of just one.
When a predator is spotted, the alarm is given and the herd respond by running away from the predator.
This makes it far more difficult to attack an individual in a moving group than an animal on its own.
Flamingos live in groups of thousands of birds. This gives them protection as they feed. Some insects,
such as mayflies, are vulnerable on their own in the air, so the larvae all change into adults at the same
time, resulting in a dense cloud of insects. Elephants and buffalos form protective half-circles around
young and weaker members of the group if there is any danger. Working in groups also provides a
greater chance of finding food when part of a group. Older, more experienced animals lead the other
members of the herd or flock to the best places for grazing or foraging. In addition, as animals in a group
share the task of looking out for predators, individuals have more time to look for food and eat. There is
a greater chance of finding a suitable mate and successfully reproducing as there are many animals to
choose.

Figure 9.13 a) Impala form heard to avoid predators b) Lions form groups to hunt successfully

PACKS (HUNTING)
Many carnivores hunt in groups making them efficient hunters than on their own to capture food. Lions
hunt as a team. The female lions usually do the hunting. The benefits allow members of a pack to take on
different roles while hunting, making the hunt successful. When working as a team, prey animals that
are much larger than the predators can be tackled with the help of other animals in the pack. This team
effort also protects the kill from scavengers. Young animals are left in the care of older animals while the
other adults are hunting.

DOMINANT BREEDING PAIRS

In many animal populations, a leader of a group is chosen. An individual asserts his position in a group
by means of threat displays and actual fighting. In this way, he obtains space, food and mating partners.
Aggressive displays used against other species warn or scare off a competitor. This behaviour ensures
that the fittest and strongest males are selected for mating. This results in genes for strong, healthy
offspring being transmitted, producing strong and healthy offspring. Baboons, hyenas and elephants live
in female-dominated societies. The African elephants are social animals. They form small, close herds to
protect themselves. A dominant female or matriarch leads each herd and makes the decisions of the
herd. When the herd is threatened, she will aggressively confront the danger. Aggressive body posture,
raising her trunk, trumpeting and charging with ears extended outwards wards off danger. Elephant
herds also form a tight circle to protect each other. Some animals, such as African wild dogs, form a
hierarchy of females and males in the group. The dominant male and female ( called the alpha male and
female) form a breeding pair and the whole pack looks after the young.
Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition
Topic 9 • Population Ecology EB]
 DIVISION OF TASKS (CASTES)
In termites, ants and bees there is a clear division of work to ensure the survival of the populations.
Each caste has a different job in the colony and is structurally suited for the role. The queen controls the
colony with chemical messages known as pheromones. In bee colonies, as shown in Figure 9.14, there
are three different individuals or castes: the queen is solely responsible for laying eggs, the male drones
fertilise the queen, and the sterile female workers gather food and prepare, maintain and protect the

!
hive.

Queen
Fertilized by a drone

Lays�eggs

!
Unfertlllsed eggs

!
fertilised eggs

Hatch to form
Larvae

!
Larvae

!
fed Royal jelly for a few days fed R oyal jelly for first few days
and then honey and digested pollen

j
and then

�
Pupae Royal jelly replaced by honey Royal jelly only

!
Drones
And digested pollen

! !
Pupae

�.·-::'
'��
. /.
Pupae

! !
Queens

•:
Fertile males with Workers
reduced mouthparts
:,,:�.
� fertile female with
sterile females with well reduced mouthparts
developed mouthparts
for feeding on nectar and
adapted to collect pollen

Figure 9.14 Role of different bees in the hive

The caste system is determined partly by genetic inheritance and partly by the diet supplied to the
larvae. The behaviour of the bees is controlled by instinct or from pheromones secreted by the queen
bee. Sustaining a colony increases if the individuals can send information to each other in some way.
Honeybees show excellent communication ability. They inform other bees in a hive where food is by
means of dances. A round dance indicates food is within 100 metres of the hive. A waggle dance
indicates where the food is relative to the sun and the hive.

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Topic 9 • Population Ecology Im:
 ,.. �
1f���I
Y' �'(

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

I
Activity 7: 23 marks

Read the passage and then answer the questions:

WHY DO LARGE CARNIVORES

LIVE IN GROUPS?
Southern Africa has six species of large carnivores; lions, leopards, cheetahs, spotted and
brown hyaenas and wild dogs. Four out of the six; lions, 'cheetahs, spotted hyaenas and wild
dogs live in groups and sometimes (cheetahs), usually (lions and spotted hyaenas) or always
(wild dogs) hunt communally. Brown hyaenas live in groups, but they forage alone, and
leopards are entirely solitary.
What, then, explains why some large carnivores live in groups?
Young male lions form coalitions to give themselves a better chance of taking over a pride
by ousting the resident males, while lionesses team up against infanticidal, invading males;
but this probably only affects group size rather than being the primary reason why lionesses
live together.
Only in wild dogs does protecting the young seem to be one of the purposes of group
living; they leave a guard with the puppies while the group is on a hunting foray. Newborn
lion cubs are not protected by the pride, because the lionesses go off alone to give birth. In
both species of hyaenas babies seek refuge in small tunnels at the back of the clan's den
where nothing big enough to harm them can get at them. Group-living cheetahs are most
often males, and they have nothing to do with raising cubs.
Killing efficiency is unquestionably an important reason for spotted hyaenas to hunt in
groups. They even change the size of their hunting parties to suit the prey they are after; one
or two go for gazelles, an average of two to three for adult wildebeest and an average of 11
for zebra. Lions also do better when they hunt in groups and although the improvement in
success does not keep pace with increases in the size of a hunting party, being a member of
a hunting group provides meals more regularly than operating alone.
Male cheetah who share a territory may also hunt together and be ·able to down more for­
midable prey than they could tackle alone.
Wild dogs always hunt in packs but the chase is usually led by the alpha male or female and
the other dogs actually play a role only if the prey circles, when they gain on it by cutting the
corner, and once the leader has caught up with it. when they pile in for the kill.
In none of the four species where hunts are collaborative does teamwork help with prey
detection, or even very much with its capture. It is at the kill itself that extra sets of teeth and
claws make a positive contribution - pulling down and killing large, dangerous prey more
quickly, and with less danger of retaliation, than a lone predator would be able to manage.
In contrast. foraging cannot be the reason why brown hyaenas live in groups because they
search for food singly. What does favour group living is the provisioning of growing cubs with
food by all members of a social unit, most of whom are as closely related as half siblings.
Another reason to live in a group is to stop others from stealing your food - and to be able
to steal theirs if the opportunity arises, Lions and spotted hyaenas score on this account by
stealing regularly from each other and from other predators. This is probably why clans and
prides, which defend and steal food, are bigger than hunting parties that only have to catch
and kill it. In one-to-one contests over food the ranking is lion. spotted hyaena, leopard and
brown hyaena, wild dog, cheetah but the tables can be turned by strength in numbers - a
pack of wild dogs can put a lioness off a kill.
The only benefit of group living that is cor.nmon to all the social. large carnivores is that the
duties of territory defence -whether fighting, scent-marking or patrolling - are shared by the
whole group, thus cutting down the burden falling on any one member. Probably only in the
case of cheetahs is this the primary reason for groups to form - in the others groups that
have formed for some other reason are able to hold territories where single animals could
not.
Source: Wild Ways - Field Guide to the behaviour of Southern African Mammals by Peter Apps
1. Identify which carnivore species are discussed in the passage. (5)

Complete Book © Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [m
 2. Which of them display social behaviour by living in groups? (1)

3. Which carnivores hunt communally? (2)

4. What is the advantage of hunting in a group? (1)

5. What is unusual about the Brown hyena's social behaviour? (1)

6. What is the advantage of the Brown hyena's social behaviour? (2)

7. Identify one solitary animal mentioned in the passage. (1)

8. Name some of the reasons why large carnivores live in groups. Give three examples mentioned in
the passage. (3)

9. Discuss the methods that lions, wild dogs, and hyena do to protect their young while hunting. (3)

10. Describe the hunting strategies of wild dogs and the spotted hyena. (2)

11. Give two examples of other animals that display a hierarchical system. (2)

Complete Book © Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology �
 COMMUNITY CHANGE OVER TIME
Within an ecosystem, different communities of plants and animals interact and affect the environment
within an area gradually changing it. A gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over
time is called ecological succession. Succession can occur over a few days or take hundreds of years. An
ecosystem is gradually colonised by communities that are adapted to thrive under the specific
environmental conditions of the time. As environmental conditions change, other communities better
adapted to the new environmental conditions replace the existing community. Succession involves the
whole community. Plant communities will influence the animal communities that live in and feed off the
plants. The herbivore communities dictate the specific carnivore communities that live in the community.
When the plant species in an area change, so will the animal species change until a stable or climax
community is reached. Succession occurs in different stages known as seres. These are characterised by
the different communities in the area until the climax community is reached. Climate and the physical
environment generally influence the rate of succession. Once the climax community is established, there
is no further succession. There are two main forms of succession: primary and secondary.

PRIMARY SUCCESSION
Primary succession occurs on newly exposed rocks, sand dunes or any bare area, which has never been
colonised by any living thing before. The first organisms to colonise this bare ecosystem are called the
pioneer species. Lichen, moss or algae are pioneer species that attach to the bare rock surfaces and trap
particles of sand and other debris to help form humus. These plants reproduce rapidly to form a green
carpet over the bare area. Over several generations as soil f orms small plants, ferns and grasses take
over. Larger plants with deeper roots appear. Animals that live on the plants at each stage also colonise
the developing ecosystem. As larger plants such as bushes and shrubs replace the small plants, the
animal communities also change. Fast growing trees form a dense forest or woodland, which provides
homes for other plant and animal species. This is the climax community. The climax community will not
change unless affected by climatic or physical environmental changes. Succession occurs in any type of
ecosystem such as savanna, fynbos, and aquatic ecosystems not only tropical forests. Figure 9.15
illustrates the succession of a forest community.

Annual Perennial weeds Mature forest with established trees

Shrubs Young forest with tree
and weeds and grasses making up a climax community

TIME
Figure 9.15 Succession of a forest community

SECONDARY SUCCESSION
Secondary succession is the regeneration of a living community after a major disturbance such as a veld
fire, a flash flood or land cleared for crop farming. The existing community has been disturbed or
damaged and only the soil, a few soil organisms and some small plants remain. The pioneer species in
this type of succession is usually grasses and fast-growing plants. It follows the same stages or seres as
primary succession just regeneration is much faster as grasses are replaced by shrubs and fast-growing
trees.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology mn
 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION

Activity 8: Identify examples of succession on the school grounds

Materials: Paper and pencil, clipboard, camera or cell phone

Method:
1. Identify any areas where changes have occurred such as the paving in an area that is neglected, the
school goal posts after a hectic soccer or hockey season, a parking area. Take photographs or make
sketches of these areas.
2. Find examples of primary or secondary succession.
3. Draw a map identifying where these areas have occurred.
4. Give examples of the pioneer species in the selected area. Take photographs of these species.
5. What would happen to the school field if neglected by the grounds man? What would the field look
like in 50 years time if left unattended?
6. Present your findings as a poster.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 9: 15 marks
In the process of succession, land on a newly formed volcanic island will be gradually colonised. Over
time, changes in the composition of the plant and animal communities will occur until eventually no
further change takes place.

1. What term describes the final stable community at the end of a succession? (1)

2. Explain why one community is gradually replaced by another during succession. (2)

3. Describe how each of the following farming practices influences the process of succession.
Regular grazing by sheep (2)

Ploughing fields each year (2)

Complete Book© Explore Serles 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology [m
 4. Explain two ways in which the expanding human population is placing increasing demands on
natural communities. (2)

5. Under natural and suitable conditions, bare soil would eventually become covered by a woodland
community. Explain how farming practices prevent this from happening. (2)

6. The diagrams show stages in a succession from a lake to a forest.

�/-�-£ '<,-·y-
Stream'"'-,

Lake

1 2 3
Aquatic plants Reeds with underground stems Sledges

4 6
grasses-building Alder trees Oak trees

(a) The aquatic plants and the reeds both contribute to the formation of soil. Suggest how the aquatic
plants and reeds contribute to raising the soil level. (2)

(b) Explain why the ecosystem is likely to have more species in the later stages than in the earlier stages
of succession. (2)

Complete Book © Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology Eiil!]
I HUMAN POPULATIONS
Human populations follow the same developing trends as other living organisms. The earth is an example
of a closed ecosystem, as only natality and mortality control the size of the earth's human population.
With the world population, increasing as such a rapid rate it will
soon exceed the carrying capacity of Earth. This will damage the
environment and lead to increased environmental resistance. The
human population has shown a dramatic increase in numbers since
about 300 years ago. This rapid increase in the world's population is
due to an excess of births and a decrease in deaths. It is estimated
the world population will reach 8 billion in 2026.

Man is a very intelligent being, which allows him to take control of

the human population growth rate. With man's influence, mortality
has dropped and natality has risen. As the need for food increased,
humans used agriculture and animal domestication to meet the
specific human needs. With technology man developed sophisticated methods of food production to feed
the increasing masses. With this new knowledge on diseases and treatment, there is a reduction in infant
mortalities and human life expectancy has increased, with more people surviving to have more children.
These factors have lead to the present-day population explosion.

Interspecific and intraspecific competition also affects the human population. Overcrowding allows
diseases and parasites to spread quickly. This was the case in China and Europe in the 1330s where 25
million humans died in five years with the spread of the bubonic plague. Fleas living on rats transmitted
the bubonic plague to people. Further outbreaks over the next three centuries killed a further 100 million
people in Europe. As the human population increases more space is needed, which results in wars to gain
more territory.

Figure 9.16 The aftermath of the tsunami that destroyed Northern Japan on the 11 March 2011

Some areas on earth have exhausted available resources leading to famine and starvation of millions
such as in Ethiopia and other African countries. Density independent factors such as natural or man-made
disasters can reduce population numbers, regardless of whether carrying capacity has been reached. The
tsunami that occurred on the 11 March 2011 in Japan wiped out 17 000 people in a day.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology EJ!I]
 APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 10: 17 marks

Study the graph indicating the growth of the world population from 1804 to 2039 and answer the
questions:

15

13

11 - - ---- ---

:c 5

Year Population Passes Another BIiiion

1. State the world population size in 2012. _______________________,(l)

2. When was the first time that the world population doubled itself? How many years did it take to
double itself? (2)

3. In 1922 the population was 2 billion; in what year did the population double itself? How many years
has it taken to double itself? (2)

4. Which year was the population 4 billion? What year is the population estimated to be double that
number? (2)

5. What time frame has it taken to reach this number? (1)

6. What is the anticipated population size for 2039? ___________________ (1)

7. Which growth curve applies to the population growth from 1804 to 2039? Explain your answer. (2)

8. What trend is evident in the human population growth rate? (1)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps E_dition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology fl!!]
 9. Death rates in many countries around the world have been increasing over the last 20 years. Give a
possible reason for this. (1)

10. Why has the human population increased so dramatically over the past 2 centuries? (2)

11. Scandinavian countries have a negative growth rate. What does this mean? Why do they have this
growth rate? (2)

AGE AND GENDER DISTRIBUTION STATISTICS FOR DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

This population growth trend can be shown using age-gender distribution graphs or an age-gender
pyramid. The age-gender pyramid provides a summary of the number of individuals of each age in the
population. This is useful in understanding and predicting the growth of a population. Population growth
is uneven throughout the world - many countries have very low natality rates and slow or even negative
population growth, while others, particularly developing countries, have high natality rates. Migration also
affects population growth. Thus, an increasing share of the world's future population is likely to live in the
developing countries of the world. Figure 9.17 shows the age-gender distribution graph of South Africa as
calculated in 2010.

80+
75-79
Male 70-74
65-69 Female
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 .0 2.5
Population (in millions)
Figure 9.17 The age-gender distribution graph for South Africa in 2010

The age-gender pyramid divides age groups in five-year age groups such as 0-4, 5-9, or 10-14, along
the y-axis and population size along the x-axis. Each age group is divided into males on the left and
females on the right. Population numbers are measured as the total number or as a percentage of the
total population. If you look more closely at the age-gender pyramid in Figure 9.17, you will notice that in
the younger groups the numbers of males and females is almost equal, however at the upper age groups
there are more females than males. Females generally have a longer life expectancy than males so many
countries will have more females in the upper age group.

The shape of the age-gender pyramid can show if a country is growing rapidly or slowly, or if there is
zero growth. The age-gender pyramid of India as shown in Figure 9.18 indicates an increasing population
where there is a rapid population growth rate. The wide base indicates a large number of children (high
birth rate). The gradual decrease to a point shows a short life expectancy in adults with a low proportion
of people surviving to old age. India, many African countries and Mexico are examples of developing
countries where the majority of people are below 20 years, and very few old age survivors.
This type of pyramid represents a country with limited access or a lack of education to birth control,
negative environmental factors and poor access to health care.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology ElI!]
 India 2010 Sweden 2010
80• Male 80•
75-79 75-79
Ma!e 70-74 70-N
65-69 65-69
60-64 60-64
55-59 55-59
50-54 50-54
45-49 45-49
40-44 40-44
35-39 35-39
30-34 30-34
25-29 25-29
20-24 20-24
15-19 15-19
10-H 10-14
5-9 5-9
0-4 0-4
60 50 40 30 10 10 0 0 10 10 30 40 50 60 350 300 25-0 100 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 35C
Population (in millions) Population {in thousands)

Figure 9.18 The age-gender distribution graphs for India and Sweden in 2010

The age-gender pyramid of Sweden as shown in Figure 9.18 indicates a stable population. There are
almost an equal number or births as there are deaths, which occur within the year. Italy, France, and
Bulgaria are examples of stable populations.

The pyramid of Japan as shown in figure 9.19 shows a shrinking population. The narrow base indicates a
small number of children (low birth rate), with a top-heavy population of many older people surviving to
old age. A low death rate indicates a long-life expectancy due to good health care and few or no negative
environmental factors. This pyramid represents a very developed country, where there is easy access and
incentive to use birth control and a high level of education. Japan, Germany, Austria, Denmark are
examples of a declining population.

Japan 2010

6 5 3 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Population (in millions)
Figure 9.191 The age-gender distribution graph of Japan in
2010

A shrinking population has its own challenges. One trend emerging from low natality is the increased
share of the population at older ages. Population aging presents challenges, particularly for those
societies that have limited resources to support the older and aged group.

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology Eim]
 APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 12: 30 marks

Age-gender pyramids represent the number of people in each age group within a population. The age­
gender pyramids below represent the populations of three countries: One growing rapidly, one growing
slowly, and one that is declining.

Ma!e Female Ma!e Female Male Female

67654321012345678 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 01 2 3 4
Country A Country B Country C

1. Identify which country is growing rapidly, growing slowly, and declining. Give a suitable reason for
your answer. Give an example of each. (6)

When analyzing age-gender pyramids you must consider how many people are in three major groups:
below reproductive age, reproductive age, and above reproductive age.

2. Why is it the number of people in the 15-44 age brackets important? (2)

3. What accounts for the expanded base of Country A? Explain why this has occurred. (2)

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology EJlE
 CONSEQUENCES OF EXPONENTIAL HUMAN GROWTH
The human population is escalating; it is time to find alternative ways to become environmentally
friendly. One of the definitions of sustainability is a "state in which human kind lives within the earth's
carrying capacity," says Gerry Joubert, senior lecturer in Architecture at Tshwane University of
Technology. Scientists have developed the concept
of the 'Ecological footprint,' meaning the sum of all
the areas on earth needed to sustain human
existence. Currently for each individual on the
planet to live we require 2,4ha, yet there is only
1, 7ha available for each individual.

In 2004, the World Wildlife Foundation issued the

WWFs Living Planet Report. The main aim was to
inform the population on the planet's ecological
status and identify what efforts were being made
to enhance sustainability and reduce the rate at
which biodiversity is being lost. Now divide.

The report drew two conclusions:

1. The living Planet Index - this measures the overall trends in the population of wild �
species globally. Between the years 1970 and 2000, the LP! has declined by 40%, which �
�
represents a significant blow to the preservation of the world's
natural ecosystems. DID vou KNOW? '
The human population
2. Humanity's Ecological Footprint - this measures our species use exceeded its biological capacity
of renewable natural resources. In 2001, the Ecological Footprint of the Earth in 1985. We have
was 2,5 times greater than 40 years ago. This means that we have been living beyond our means
since then.
exceeded the planet's capacity, which is clearly not sustainable.

CONSEQUENCES OF SOUTH AFRICAN POPULATION GROWTH

The increase in the population of South Africa has resulted in the exploitation of our valuable natural
resources. High levels of exploitation were possible in the past due to our abundance of natural
resources. High levels of consumption and high population growth rates in South Africa are placing
greater demands on the environment. As our human population increases in size and density, the
habitats of plants and animals are under strain or even destroyed. This has an impact on the balance of
food pyramids. Overexploitation has resulted in a severe reduction in our biodiversity through habitat loss
to agriculture and plantations. Land use practices result in overexploitation of species, pollution and the
generation of waste. The impact of human activities in the natural environment and their influence in
climate change are the greatest threats to biodiversity. Overgrazing by farm animals, the growth of crops
and commercial forests are widespread and pose persistent threats to our biodiversity.

As the South African population increases, there will be more demand for food, water, fuel and minerals,
which will lead to us clearing natural forests and draining more wetlands for additional farmland. The
misuse of farmland, exposing more soil and increased use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers will lead
to poorer quality soil and the expansion of deserts. In the attempt to find more living space and farming
space we will wipe out plants, forests and brushland which provides us with oxygen, fuel and paper, and
chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Millions of species will lose their habitats, with many disappearing
forever. This will also upset the carbon dioxide balance in the atmosphere triggering climatic
disturbances, as we are already experiencing today.

Figure 9.20 Expansive population growth has led to overcrowding and inadequate waste disposal

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology E1i.m
 Populations must be kept in check or we will be finding more people living in poverty, being malnourished
or starving. Many will be without clean water, sewage treatment, medical treatment, or shelter. Conflicts
erupt as more people compete for declining resources that has led to fights. A breakdown in our social
systems, our economic structures and our political organisation has become the greatest threat to our
society. With the growing piles of rubbish, pollution and toxic waste that cover our landscapes, will
pollute our waterways, which will reduce our clean water to drink. More sewage produced as the
population increases, leads to disease. With everyone living so close together disease can spread more
quickly. It is important to reduce the number of children per family and use birth control to ensure small
families.

Our destructive actions have resulted in

POPULATION CRISIS + RESOURCES CRISIS = CRISIS OF MANKIND!!

I IMPORTANT TERMS I NEED TO KNOW

Give the correct term for each of the following definitions.

TERM
1. Two individuals of the same or different species attempting to get the
same resource
2. The phase of a growth curve in which the birth rate increases at a rate,
which is faster than the death rate
3.
The rate at which individuals die
4.
The rate at which individuals are born
5.
The study of the change in size of a population over time
6. Factors in the environment, which relies on the number of organisms in
an area
7. Factors in the environment, which does not rely on the numbers of
individuals in an area
8.
The permanent movement of organisms out of an area
9. The phase of a growth curve in which the birth rate is the same as the
death rate
10. The phase of a growth curve in which the population grows in size very
slowlv
11. Resources in the environment, which regenerate so that they do not run
out
12.
The movement of organism's individuals into an area
13.
The phase of a growth curve in which the birth rate starts decreasing
14. Any method of calculating population size, which requires the
investinator to count everv individual oresent in the oooulation
15.
A direct sampling method used to calculate human population size
16. Sections of an area, usually squares or rectangles, selected to perform
□o□ulation estimates
17. An educated guess as to how many individuals of the same species there
are in a certain area at a snecific time

Complete Book_© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology !Im
 I CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

QUESTION 1
Use the information in the passage and table below to answer the questions that follow.
'Tsunamis are huge ocean waves that begin when an earthquake takes place on the seabed. In
deep water, tsunamis travel almost unnoticed below the surface. However, once they reach
shallow coastal waters they rear up into waves of 30 m or higher. The biggest tsunami ever
recorded was a 85 m high wave which struck Japan on 24 April 1771. Tsunamis can travel along
the seabed as fast as a jet plane at 700 km/h or more.'

Earth uake-aenerated tsunamis

Year Cauntry Height af wave Number of deaths
fm\
1982 Jaoan 6.7 110
1983 Jaoan 7.7 104
1985 Chile 7.8 200
1993 Mexico 8.1 9500
1995 Japan 7.6 200
1999 Turkev 6.8 15250
2003 Alaeria 6.9 2266
2006 Thailand 3.0 547
2011 Japan 8.9 21 234
1. What causes tsunamis to occur? (1)
2. Why would one regard tsunamis as density-independent factors? (2)
3. Name any TWO other density-independent factors. (2)
4. State the height of the highest tsunami ever recorded. (2)
5. From the information given above, predict which country is most likely to experience another tsunami.
Give an explanation for the prediction. (3)
6. In which country was the mortality rate the highest in the last 12 years? (1)

QUESTION 2
A learner wanted to know how many fish were in a dam. He caught 10 fish and marked them by clipping
out a small section of their tail fin. He then released them back into the dam. A few days later he caught
20 fish, of which 5 had been marked.

1. Estimate the total number of fish in the dam by using the following formula:
P = Fxs P = Total number of fish in the population
M F = Number of fish caught and marked in the first catch
s = Number of fish caught in the second catch
M = Number of marked fish in the second catch (3)
2. Explain TWO reasons why the method used by the learner to mark the fish could result in inaccurate
results. (4)

QUESTION 3
A group of students studies a population of a species of arthropods over 5 days. The results are indicated
in the table below
Time {days) Number of 1. Define the term population. (3)
arthrooods 2. Use the data from the table and plot a line graph to
1 20 show how the number of arthropods varied during
2 100 the 5 days. (10)
3 400 3. What type of population growth is represented by
4 800 your graph up to day 4? (1)
5 100
4. What is the carrying capacity of this population? (2)
5. How many times did the population size double from day 2 to day 3? (1)
6. Give two possible reasons for the sudden decrease in the size of the population. (4)
7. Suggest a method the students could have used to measure the size of the population. (1)
8. Explain how territoriality regulates the population density of animals such as lions in their natural
environment. ( 4)
44 marks

Complete Book© Explore Series 2017 - Revised Caps Edition

Topic 9 • Population Ecology �