TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

MODULE 1
LESSON NOTES ON INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

About this module

This module is composed of lessons that cover the process and
instrumentation diagram, open and close loop system, piping
and instrumentation diagram (P&ID), level and fluid flow
measurements and mechanical and electrical elements.

Engr. Cheerjoy M. Curitana, RME

Instructor
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

Disclaimer

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the faculty assigned for their
respective teaching loads assignments. Various sources are cited and mentioned at the end of document
as well as freely available open access material from internet were utilized for preparing this document.
The ownership of the information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purpose and the faculty is not accountable for any
issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The faculty make no representations or
warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and
specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The
faculty member shall not be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but
not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Acknowledgement

The faculty member gratefully acknowledges all references utilized for preparing this lecture
note and also wants to express gratitude to the person out there who think knowledge should be free
and be accessible and sharable without any restrictions so that every single student on this university
has the same opportunity to explore, expand and become enlightened. However apart from this lecture
notes, students are strongly recommended to follow the listed references at the end of each module and
above all confer and consult with the concern faculty for thorough understanding of the given subject
in electrical engineering.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this section, you will be able to:

❑ Define process and control
❑ Define process control
❑ Describe the importance of process control in terms of variability, efficiency, and safety

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control of level, temperature,
pressure and flow is important in many process applications. This module introduces you to control in process industries,
explains why control is important, and identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured.

Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of changing or refining raw
materials to create end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry
(a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored,
or handled in some other way to produce the end product.

Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the
pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and the power industry.

Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when manufacturing a product. For
example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the temperature of the materials, how well the
ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end
product.

The Importance of Process Control

Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end products can be a precise,
demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a process can have a large impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently
controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Process control technology
is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running within specified limits and to set more precise
limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.

Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:

❑ Reduce variability
❑ Increase efficiency
❑ Ensure safety

Reduce Variability
Process control can reduce variability in the end product,
which ensures a consistently high-quality product.
Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize efficiency. For example, a control point might be
the temperature at which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency.
Manufacturers save money by minimizing the resources required to produce the end product.

Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain
precise control of all of the process variables. The consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic.

Precise process control may also be required to ensure safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by
controlling the inflow of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing boiler
implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of workers.

Control Theory Basics

This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which to understand more
complex control processes and algorithms later described in this module. Common terms and concepts relating to
process control are defined in this section.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this section, you will be able to:

❑ Define control loop
❑ Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur:
• Measure
• Compare
• Adjust
❑ Define the following terms:
• Process variable
• Setpoint
• Manipulated variable
• Measured variable
• Error
• Offset
• Load disturbance
• Control algorithm
❑ List at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement industries
❑ At a high level, differentiate the following types of control:
• Manual versus automatic feedback control
• Closed-loop versus open-loop control
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

The Control Loop

Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you
throw another log on the fire. This is an example of a control loop. In the control loop, a variable (temperature) fell
below the setpoint (your comfort level), and you took action to bring the process back into the desired condition by
adding fuel to the fire. The control loop will now remain static until the temperature again rises above or falls below
your comfort level.

Three Tasks
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way, requiring three tasks to occur:
❑ Measurement
❑ Comparison
❑ Adjustment
In this figure, a level transmitter (LT) measures the level in the
tank and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to
a controller (LIC). The controller compares the reading to a
predetermined value, in this case, the maximum tank level
established by the plant operator, and finds that the values are
equal. The controller then sends a signal to the device that can
bring the tank level back to a lower level – a valve at the
bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let some liquid out of
the tank. Many different instruments and devices may or may
not be used in control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors,
controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks of
measurement, comparison, and adjustment are always present.

Process Control Terms

As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms that you should be familiar with and that you will use
when talking about control technology.

PROCESS VARIABLE
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing process in
some way. In the example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was temperature. Common process variables
include:
❑ Pressure
❑ Flow
❑ Level
❑ Temperature
❑ Density
❑ Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
❑ Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel)
❑ Mass
❑ Conductivity
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

SETPOINT
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained. For example, if a process temperature
needs to keep within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the
temperature at setpoint. The sensor is inserted into the process, and a controller compares the temperature reading from
the sensor to the setpoint. If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the process is above
setpoint and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly until the process cools to 100 °C. Set points can also
be maximum or minimum values.

MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS VARIABLES, AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES

In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is temperature, which must be held close to 100 °C. In
this example and in most instances, the measured variable is also the process variable. The measured variable is the
condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the designated setpoint. Sometimes the measured variable is not the
same as the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and out of a storage tank to determine
tank level. In this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable. The factor
that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint is called the manipulated variable. In the example described,
the manipulated variable would also be flow.

ERROR
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either positive or negative. In the
temperature control loop example, the error is the difference between the 110 °C measured variable and the 100 °C
setpoint – that is, the error is +10 °C.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be well
understood. Any error can be seen as having three major components. These three components are:

❑ Magnitude
− The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values
of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of error at any
point in time compared to the previous error provides the basis for
determining the change in error. The change in error is also an important
value.

❑ Duration
− Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
existed.

❑ Rate Of Change
− The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot.
 TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA

INTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

OFFSET
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the
control system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5
°C exists.

LOAD DISTURBANCE
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process variable. In the temperature
control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load disturbance because it would lower the
temperature of the process fluid.

CONTROL ALGORITHM
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control
function. Using the temperature control loop example, V in the
equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as:
V = f (±e)
The fuel valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or
negative) of the error (e).

Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much more complex control loops than the one described
here. In more complex control loops, questions such as “How far should the valve be opened or closed in response to a
given change in setpoint?” and “How long should the valve be held in the new position after the process variable moves
back toward setpoint?” need to be answered.

MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems. Conversely,
control operations in which no human intervention is required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a
level controller, are called automatic control systems.

CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS

A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct
any deviation from setpoint. An open control loop exists where the process variable is not compared, and action is taken
not in response to feedback on the condition of the process variable but, is instead taken without regard to process
variable conditions.

References

Fundament of Control, 2006, PAControl.com