100 INTEGRALS

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 100 INTEGRALS

Solutions and Engineering Applications

MEHRZAD TABATABAIAN, PHD, PENG

MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

Boston, Massachusetts
Copyright ©2023 by MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION LLC. All rights
reserved.
An imprint of De Gruyter Inc.

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MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION

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M. Tabatabaian. 100 Integrals: Solutions and Engineering Applications.

ISBN: 978-1-68392-967-3

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To the relentless explorers of integral calculus, may this textbook become
your trusted companion, guiding you through the labyrinth of calculations,
modelling, and simulations in engineering and technical fields.
CONTENTS

Preface

About the Author

PART 1: LIST OF SELECTED INTEGRALS WITH THEIR STEP-BY-

STEP SOLUTIONS

Table 1 List of Selected Integrals for Part 1

Integral 1

Integral 2

Integral 3

Integral 4

Integral 5

Integral 6

Integral 7

Integral 8

Integral 9

Integral 10

Integral 11
Integral 12

Integral 13

Integral 14

Integral 15

Integral 16

Integral 17

Integral 18

Integral 19

Integral 20

Integral 21

Integral 22

Integral 23

Integral 24

Integral 25

Integral 26

Integral 27

Integral 28

Integral 29
Integral 30

Integral 31

Integral 32

Integral 33

Integral 34

Integral 35

Integral 36

Integral 37

Integral 38

Integral 39

Integral 40

Integral 41

Integral 42

Integral 43

Integral 44

Integral 45

Integral 46

Integral 47
Integral 48

Integral 49

Integral 50

Integral 51

Integral 52

Integral 53

Integral 54

Integral 55

Integral 56

Integral 57

Integral 58

Integral 59

Integral 60

Integral 61

Integral 62

Integral 63

Integral 64

Integral 65
Integral 66

Integral 67

Integral 68

Integral 69

Integral 70

Integral 71

Integral 72

Integral 73

Integral 74

Integral 75

Integral 76

Integral 77

Integral 78

Integral 79

Integral 80

Integral 81

Integral 82

Integral 83
 Integral 84

Integral 85

Integral 86

Integral 87

Integral 88

Integral 89

Integral 90

Integral 91

Integral 92

Integral 93

Integral 94

Integral 95

Integral 96

Integral 97

Integral 98

Integral 99

Integral 100

PART 2: EXAMPLES APPLIED IN ENGINEERING

1 Semi-Circle Shapes

2 Circular Segment Shapes

3 Semi-Ellipse Shapes

4 Two-Degree Polynomial Shape-Quadratic

5 Three-Degree Polynomial Shape-Cubic

6 n-Degree Polynomial Shape-Spandrel

7 Sinusoidal Shapes

8 Triangular Shapes

9 Rectangular Shapes

10 Complex Shapes

11 A Cantilever Beam with Cubic Load Distribution

12 A Cantilever Beam with Quarter-Ellipse Load Distribution

13 A Cantilever Beam with Inverse Cosine Load Distribution

14 A Cantilever Beam with Parabolic Load Distribution

15 A Cantilever Beam with Circular Segment Cross-Section and

Quarter-Ellipse Load Distribution

16 Probability Density Functions-PDF

References
 PREFACE

This monograph contains a collection of integrals, some more

challenging than others, with their worked-out solutions as indefinite
integrals. The integrals were randomly selected, modified, or designed
with the condition of having closed forms solutions with common
functions. This list is meant for helping readers in practicing and getting
hints for working out solutions to similar integrals that they might
encounter. Readers might want to add their own favorite integrals to this
list. By no means is this a comprehensive list of integrals, as many
authors have created such lists ( [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9],
[10]).

The exercise of integration operation is a mind stimulating activity,

as it requires the knowledge of certain mathematical techniques and the
discovery of tricks and short cuts while solving them. The latter feature
makes integration different and more enjoyable compared to other topics
in calculus (e.g., differentiation and algebraic manipulation).

In addition, we present the application of some integrals in

engineering related topics. For example, nonuniform loading,
hydrostatic force, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia, etc.

We introduce an up-to-date online software tool, WolframAlpha1

that can be used for comparing our answers for the integrals listed.
However, readers may want to update to WolframAlpha Pro for
recovering some of the integrals’ step-by-step solutions. Interested
readers might like to try this tool for their selected integrals from the list.
However, please note that sometimes equivalent results are provided by
this tool for the same integral as input when compared to the results
presented in this volume. In addition, similar CAS (computer algebra
system) tools like Maple2, Mathematica3, or Mathcad4 may also be
employed.

Finally, readers should be aware that some integrals may have

alternative equivalent solutions rather than a corresponding unique one.
Thus worked-out solutions may be different, but equivalent, to those
provided by some online CAS tools.

Mehrzad Tabatabaian, PhD, PEng

Vancouver, B.C.
July 22, 2023

1 https://www.wolframalpha.com/calculators/integral-calculator/

2 https://www.maplesoft.com

3 https://www.wolfram.com/mathematica/

4 https://www.mathcad.com
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Mehrzad Tabatabaian is a faculty member in the Mechanical

Engineering Department, School of Energy at the British Columbia
Institute of Technology. He has several years of teaching and industry
experience. Dr. Tabatabaian is currently Chair of the BCIT School of
Energy Research Committee. He has published several papers in
scientific journals and conferences, and he has written textbooks on
multiphysics and turbulent flow modelling, advanced thermodynamics,
tensor analysis, direct energy conversion, and Bond Graph modelling
method. He holds several registered patents in the energy field resulting
from years of research activities.

Dr. Tabatabaian volunteered to help establish the Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy Division (EERED), a new division at Engineers
and Geoscientists British Columbia (EGBC).

Mehrzad Tabatabaian received his BEng from Sharif University of

Technology (former AUT) and advanced degrees from McGill
University (MEng and PhD). He has been an active academic, professor,
and engineer in leading alternative energy, oil, and gas industries.
Mehrzad has also a Leadership Certificate from the University of
Alberta and holds an EGBC P.Eng. License.
 PART 1
LIST OF SELECTED INTEGRALS WITH THEIR STEP-BY-STEP SOLUTIONS
TABLE 1 List of selected integrals for Part 1
INTEGRAL 1

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let , then we have . After rewriting the integral in terms

of variable , we get . Integrating by parts gives,
. Performing the integration by parts
technique, two times, on the second term gives
. Factoring out
and substituting for , we can rewrite the result in terms of the
original variable as .
INTEGRAL 2

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Rewriting the integral in terms of variable gives

. Now, let . Rewriting
the new integral in terms of variable , gives
But, using the identity we get
Now, using the = (1 +
identity, we get . Expanding the integrand and
integrate each term gives
. Rewriting this expression in terms of variable and
subsequently , we get
.
INTEGRAL 3

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Rewriting the integral in terms of variable gives

. Now, let . Rewriting the new
integral in terms of variable gives .
Substituting back and rewriting the answer in terms of variable , after
some manipulations, gives
INTEGRAL 4

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We use integration by parts technique with considering . Therefore,

we can write
Performing the integration gives

Now, we let

. Rewriting the new integral in terms of the variable ,

gives . But using , and the
integration by parts technique we can write
. Now, we let
. Hence, the latter integral can be written as
after using the
identity. But and after rewriting the last integral we
have . After
collecting all related answers and rewrite them in terms of the original
variable , we get the solution as shown.
INTEGRAL 5

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Partial fractions, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We rewrite the integral using the trigonometric identity .

Therefore, But the

integrand can be written as, using the partial fractions technique,

Therefore, to have equality valid, the constants and should satisfy

Or, and . Solving for a and b
 gives, and . Therefore, the original

integral can be written as

. But and

. Using these relations and recalling that

, we can arrive at the final answer for the integral as

. To simplify, after dividing the numerator

and denominator of the argument of the logarithm by , we get

Short-cut solution:

An alternative solution can be obtained as follow:

Let . Rewriting the integral gives

. But , where in terms of the
original variable the answer reads .
INTEGRAL 6

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Partial fractions, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We apply the integration by parts technique to the integral, Or

. This requires calculating
the . But, by inspection the derivative of an expression, like

would contain the correct expression as exists in the

denominator of the integrands (i.e., ). Assuming as a
polynomial function, we then have
, with prime symbol indicating
differentiation operation. To have the numerator equal to 1, the function
should be a sinusoidal one. Here, we let . Note that
selecting works as well. Therefore,

Therefore, we can write . The original integral

can be written as
. But can be worked out by first
dividing the integrand by , or . Now,
we can manipulate the integrand in this integral as

Now we take the from RHS to the LHS, to get

. But the last integrand can be written as

. Finally, the original integral can be

written as . Factoring ½ and
rearranging the terms gives the expression as shown above for the
answer.
INTEGRAL 7

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Writing the integral in terms of variable ,

gives The integrals in
the last expression, can be worked to have and
. After substituting and rewriting the integral in terms of
original , we get
. Further simplification gives
, as shown in the answer.
INTEGRAL 8

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

By inspection and considering the denominator of the integrand, we

have . Therefore, we rewrite the integral as

To calculate the new integral, we let . Therefore,

rewriting this integral in terms of the variable we get
. Back substituting, gives the final answer
in terms of the variable as shown
INTEGRAL 9

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We rewrite the denominator of the integrand as .

Therefore, the integral reads as . Now, let
and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable , or
. Now, we let and write

the new integral in terms of the variable as . The last

integral is readily equal to , after back substitutions and rewriting
the integral in terms of the original variable , we get
as shown in the answer.
INTEGRAL 10

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

We rewrite the integral as . But

and . Now, let and
rewrite the new integral in terms of the variable to get
. After collecting both integrals results and
write them in terms of the original variable we get
.
INTEGRAL 11

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

We perform the division operation for the integrand to get

. Therefore, the integral reads
. But the new integral can be

written as . Now, let and rewrite the last

integral in terms of the variable to get

. After collecting both integrals

results and write them in terms of the original variable we get
.
INTEGRAL 12

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We rewrite the integral in terms of half-angle to have

. Let . Therefore,

, and . Rewriting the integral in terms of the

variable , we get, after some simplifications,

. Now let and

rewrite the integral in terms of the variable . Therefore, we have

 . After rewriting this integral in terms of the original
variable , we get as shown in the answer.
INTEGRAL 13

Problem

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Rewrite the integral using trigonometric identities as

. Now, manipulate the integrand by writing is as

follows, . But , since

. For the other integral, we write

After collecting all terms,
we get the answer as .
INTEGRAL 14

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

change of variables, Integration by parts, trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Now, rewriting the integral in

terms of the variable gives Now

we can write
. But and
. Collecting all related terms gives the answer as
. Rewriting the result in terms of the original
variable , having , gives . An
alternative form of the answer, in terms of polynomial functions of , can
be obtained by substituting into the expression to

get .
INTEGRAL 15

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

change of variables, partial fractions, trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . We rewrite the integral in terms of the

variable , to get . Now, let and the latter
integral can be written as . The denominator of the
integrand can be written as .
Therefore, using the partial fractions technique, we can write the integral
as
 . Now we have two new integrals to
calculate. Working on the latter, we can write the denominator of the
integrand as . Now let

, and write the latter integral in terms of variable as

. But
. The former integral reads
and the latter . Writing
the results in terms of variable , gives

Similarly, the remaining integral can be worked out and reads as

. Therefore,

solution reads as

. The last

term simplifies to

. Simplified solution reads as

INTEGRAL 16

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Knowing that and , we apply the integration

by parts technique to the integral to get
. But
and Therefore, after substitution, we get
Or, after rearranging
the involved terms, we get
But . Therefore, after
substitution, we get
 . Or
.
INTEGRAL 17

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Rewrite the integrand and apply the integration by parts. Therefore, we

get . Applying the integration by

parts successively twice again to the last integral, gives

. After collecting all terms, we receive the

answer as .
INTEGRAL 18

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

We use the integration by parts technique and consider . Therefore,

we can write .

Now, let and write the new integral in terms of variable

as . Using partial fractions, we can write
. Performing the integration, gives
. After collecting all terms and write
them in term of the original variable , we get the answer as
.
INTEGRAL 19

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

We use the integration by parts technique along with considering .

Therefore, we can write

with the prime symbol indicating differentiation. Therefore,

. After simplifying the integrand, we get

 . Let . Therefor, the

latter integral in terms of variable can be written as

. Now, let . Rewriting the

latter integral in terms of the variable , we have

After back

substituting for in terms of and we get the results as

. Multiplying the last expression by its
conjugates ratio gives, . After
collecting all related terms, we get the final answer as
. Please note that .
INTEGRAL 20

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, and . Now

we can write the integral in terms of variable , as
. Using the integration by parts, we
have . But writing the latter integral in terms
of original variable , we get
. Now collecting all
related terms, we get the solution as , for .
INTEGRAL 21

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let , then we have .Using the trigonometric

identities, we have , and .

Therefore, the integral can be written in terms of the variable as

. But the denominator of the integrand can be
written as . Now we
rewrite the integral as . Using the
partial fractions technique, we can write

Finally, we can write the solutions by

integrating each term, as .

Therefore, the answer in terms of the original variable is

. Please note that the absolute value of

the argument of the logarithm should be considered.

INTEGRAL 22

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Logarithm identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let We can write , or .

Therefore, . Rewriting the integral
in terms of the variable , we get But
, and after rewriting this expression in terms of the
original varaiable we get
.
INTEGRAL 23

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using the integration by parts technique, we can write the integral as

. But .

Therefore, the latter integral reads Let

and write the latter integral in terms of
variable , as . Now, let
and write the latter integral in terms of variable as
. This
expression in terms of the original variable reads
 , for . Collecting all related
terms, we get the solution as . But
. Hence, the solution simplifies to
.
INTEGRAL 24

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Rewrite the integral as . Using the

integration by parts, we get

Repeating the similar operation on the latter integral, we get

. But the latter
integral reads . Collecting all related results, we get
the solution as .
INTEGRAL 25

Problem:

and are positive integers.

Solution:

For

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Recursive relation

Step-by-step solution:

The solution provides a recursive relation applicable to integer values of

and . We work out the general solution and apply it to a numerical
example.
 Applying the integration by parts technique, we can write
. For example, for , we have
. But, using the general relation again for
, we get . Using the general formula
for the latter integral, for , we get , with
. After collecting all related terms, we get
. Or, after simplification, we get
the final answer as .
INTEGRAL 26

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Rewriting the integral in terms of the variable , we

get . Now, let . After
back substituting, we get . Using the integration by
parts technique, we get the answer, .
Rewriting the results in terms of variables , and then , we get
.
INTEGRAL 27

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Partial fractions, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, the integral can be written in

terms of the variable as . But

, hence we get

. Now, after multiplying the integrand by , we have

. Let and

. Therefore, we have . Now

let and writing the latter integral in terms of the variable ,
we get . After using the partial fractions techniques, we can

write . The latter integral reads

. But for calculating the integral we let

and . After

substation, we get . But, using

trigonometric identity , we get

. Now, after a series of back substitutions and

collecting related terms, we get . This

expression simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 28

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Let , rewriting the integral in terms of the variable gives

. Using the integration by parts technique we get
. Note that we used the derivative of
inverse tangent function of , or . Now, we work out the
latter integral by using the partial fractions technique to get
But
. Collecting all related terms, we get
. After simplification and
rewriting this expression in terms of the original variable , we get
INTEGRAL 29

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Using integration by parts technique we get,

. But using the partial fraction technique

we can write the latter integral as
. But ,
and . For the third integral in the last expression, we
let . Therefore, . Collecting
all the related terms we get the answer as
.
INTEGRAL 30

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Change of variables, Partial fractions.

Step-by-step solution:

Using the integration by parts technique, we can write

. Note that Let

, then . We
calculated the integral of in the previous section (see Integral 5).
Therefore, we have . But we have
. Therefore, after some manipulations,
we get and . After back substituting, we get
 . Final answer,

after writing the results in terms of the original variable , is

.
INTEGRAL 31

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using the trigonometric identity and

, we can rewrite the integral by applying the
integration by parts technique as

. But

. Collecting the related terms, we get the

answer as .
INTEGRAL 32

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using the trigonometric identity and

, we can rewrite the integral by applying the
integration by parts technique as

.
INTEGRAL 33

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Using the relation , we can rewrite the integral by

applying the integration by parts technique as
. But .
Collecting all related terms, we get the answer as
.
INTEGRAL 34

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

The expression under the radical could be written in the form of an

expression containing the term . Knowing that we
can write Therefore, let

. After writing the integral in terms of the variable ,

we get Further, this

integral can be written as . But

and . Collecting all related
terms and rewriting the result in terms of the original variable , we get
. After simplification, we

get the answer as .

INTEGRAL 35

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

We rewrite the integral as .

But . To calculate the latter integral, we get a

hint from the relation and rewrite . Now let

. Therefore, we have

The denominator of the

integrand can be simplified as

Therefore, we have But .
Collecting all related terms, we get
.
INTEGRAL 36

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Using the partial fractions method, the integrand can be written as

. Therefore, we get ,
, and . Now rewrite the integral as
.
Using the logarithm summation rule, we get the answer as
INTEGRAL 37

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Integration by parts, Change of variables

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, the integral can be written in terms of the

variable as . After expanding the
terms in the nominator of the integrand, we get
. Using the partial fractions
technique, we can write the integral as
. Rewriting the results in
terms of the original variable , we get
.
INTEGRAL 38

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of Variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Writing the integral in terms of the variable gives,

. After multiplying the

integrand by we get

Now we let and differentiate both sides to get

. Having , we can write

. After substituting for , we can write the

integral as

But and .

Therefore, we get the answer in terms of the original variable as

.
INTEGRAL 39

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Change of variables, Integration by parts.

Step-by-step solution:

Using the partial fractions technique, we can write the integral as

. Therefore, we get
for the former integral. For the latter integral, we
rewrite this integral as

But

. For the other integral, we

have we let and rewrite the

integral in terms of the variable as . Using the

partial fraction technique, we get .
Rewriting the obtained results in terms of the original variable , we get
the answer as
INTEGRAL 40

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Change of variables

Step-by-step solution:

Let and the integral in terms of the variable , after

simplifications, reads . Now, let
and the integral in terms of variable can be
written as . Performing the
integrations gives . Therefore, the final solution in terms of
the original variable is . Or,

after simplifications, we get the answer as .

INTEGRAL 41

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, the integral can be written in terms of the

variable as But,
using the integration by parts technique, we have
. After
rearranging the terms,
. The new integral can be
worked out using the integration by parts technique as .
Therefore, the answer reads as
 Rewriting the solution in
terms of the original variable , we get .
INTEGRAL 42

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Using the integration by parts technique, we can write

. But ,

by using the partial fractions technique. Therefore,

. Now we rewrite this integral as
. But .
Now, for performing the integral , we rewrite the
denominator as Now,

let . Therefore, the integral an be written in terms of

the variable as

. Collecting all the calculated related

terms, we get the answer as .

INTEGRAL 43

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . We can rewrite the integral in terms of the

variable as . But
. Therefore, the integral can be written as
. Now writing this result in terms of the
original variable , we get . Note that

and .
INTEGRAL 44

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable to

get . But . Therefore, the
integral can be written as, using the partial fractions technique,
Performing the integration
of the integrals gives . After
writing the results in terms of the original variable we get .
INTEGRAL 45

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Rewriting the integral in terms of the variable we

get, after some simplifications, . Now,

let . Substituting into the integral (writing

the integrand in terms of both and variables), we have

Therefore, the answer

in terms of the original variable can be written as
.
INTEGRAL 46

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

The denominator of the integrand can be written as

. Noticing that , a multiple of the
numerator after multiplying it by . Now let .
Therefore, the integral can be written in terms of the variable as
. Or, in terms of the original

variable we get .
 Please note that it is possible to calculate this integral without using
the tip mentioned above. But it will be a lengthier operation.
INTEGRAL 47

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

The integrand can be written, using trigonometric identities, as

. Now let . Therefore, the
integral can be written in terms of variable as
. After expanding the
integral we get Performing the integration
operation for each term gives, . Rewriting the results in
terms of the original variable gives . Or simplify
to have .
 Note that this integral is a version of the general recursive formula,
given as:

We calculated this integral as given by Integral 24, using only

integration by parts technique. Readers can verify that the result given in
this section and that of section 24 are equivalent.
INTEGRAL 48

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, the integral can be written as

. Using the integration by parts technique we

get . Or in terms of the original variable , we have

.
INTEGRAL 49

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, the integral can be written in terms of

the variable as . Performing the
integration operation for the latter integral gives
. Writing the results in terms of the original
variable , we get
. This expression simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 50

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let , and write the integral in terms of variable to get

Now let , and
write the integral in terms of variable along with applying the
integration by parts technique, to get

. Hence, we can write

 . For the latter integral we use the partial fractions
technique to have . The former integral
reads . Or . Rewrite the latter
integral as . But we have
. For

the remaining integral, we rewrite it as

Now let

, and write the integral in terms of variable . Hence

. But we have . Or,

. Collecting all

answers, we get the solutions as

.
INTEGRAL 51

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Rewriting the integral as sum of two parts, we get

. But the latter integral can be calculated, using the integration

by parts as . Note that

. Now, by collecting all terms we have

.
INTEGRAL 52

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometry identities

Step-by-step solution:

Expand the integrand,

. Let
and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable , to get
. Rewriting the results in terms of the
original variable , we get .
INTEGRAL 53

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Manipulating the integrand gives,

. Let and write the integral in

terms of the variable , to get . But .
Therefore, the result in terms of the original variable reads
.
INTEGRAL 54

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Manipulating the integrand gives .

Therefore, the integral can be written as .

But . For performing the latter integral, let

and rewrite this integral in terms of the variable to get
. But . Therefore,
. Collecting all related terms and
rewriting the results in terms of the original variable gives
. But the last term in the
latter expression can be written as . But,
having , we get . Therefore, the results of the
integral can be written as .
INTEGRAL 55

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Chane of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let , and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable to

get . Using the integration by parts technique, we
get . Note that . Therefore,

. To calculate the remaining integral, rewrite it as

.
After collecting all obtained results, as underlined, and simplifying we
get the solution as .
INTEGRAL 56

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

The expression , can be written as .

Substituting into the integral, we get . Now,

let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable to

get . Now, Let and .

Therefore, . Using the trigonometric identity

 , we get

. Let ,

and the solution of the integral in terms of the variable reads, after
substitution, .

The answer can be written in terms of the original variable , after

substitution, as . But

, and .

Therefore, in terms of the variable , having we get

. Finally, in terms of the original variable

, we get . This expression

simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 57

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Having , we use the integration by parts technique to get

. But the

integrand, after expanding and some manipulations, reads

. After back substitution, we get

. Or, after
rearranging the terms in the last equation, we get
 . But
But and
. Therefore, the final answer, after collecting all related
terms, reads . The answer can be

simplified to
.
INTEGRAL 58

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Now, using the trigonometric identity

, rewrite the integral in terms of variable as

. But . Now

let , and rewriting the latter integral in terms of the variable

 gives . But . Therefore, writing

the answer in terms of variables and then gives

.
INTEGRAL 59

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable , to

get . Now using the results from
Integral 57, we can write the answer as . Or in
terms of the original variable , we have .
INTEGRAL 60

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities, Change of variables

Step-by-step solution:

Simplify the expression inside the bracket of the integrand to

. But we have .
Therefore, the integral can be written as .

Now, let and write the integral in terms of the

variable as . Using the partial fractions

technique, we get

. The first two integrals in the latter

expression read

. For the

remaining integral, let and write the integral in terms

of variable as

. Or after simplification reads . Similarly, the last integral can

be worked out to have . After collecting all

underlined related answers we get the solutions as

. After some simplifications

we get the answer as .

INTEGRAL 61

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Having , rewrite the integral as

. Now, using the integration by parts

technique, we get .

But the latter integral can be worked out as

. After collecting all related
terms, we get the answer as . This expression can
be simplified to

.
INTEGRAL 62

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Having , we can rewrite the numerator as

. Therefore, the integral can be written as
. But
. For calculating the latter integral, rewrite
the denominator as . Now let

and the integral in terms of variable reads

. Now let
 , thus the integral in terms of variable reads

But .

Therefore,
. Collecting all related terms,
we get the answer as .
INTEGRAL 63

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Having the algebraic identity , the denominator

polynomial common factors are , , , . Using
the partial fractions technique we form the following equation, which
should be satisfied, for specific values of unknown polynomials
:

. After some

manipulations (i.e., equating equal power of coefficients) the

expressions for the unknown polynomials can be obtained as
 and . Therefore, the integral can be written as
.

But . For , let and rewriting the

integral in terms of variable gives . For
, having , we get . For
let and rewrite the integral as

. After collecting all

related terms, we get the answer as .

This expression can be simplified to .
INTEGRAL 64

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Partial fractions, Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Having the order of polynomials for both numerator and denominator of

the integrand being equal, we apply division operation to get
. Therefore, the integral can be written as
. But and for calculating the remaining
integral, we use partial fractions method;
. Therefore, to maintain the equality
we must have which requires to have .
Therefore, after equating the coefficients of equal power of on both
sides of the equality, we have . The solution for this system

of equations is and . Using these values, we can write

. But . For the

remaining integral, rewrite it as

. But . Note that

. Now for performing integration for the remaining

integral, rewrite it as

. Now, let and we can write the last

integral in terms of the variable as . But

. Therefore, .
Collecting all related terms, we arrive at the solution of the original
integral as .
INTEGRAL 65

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using integration by parts, we can write the integral as

. Therefore, we require to have
. Let and . Therefore, we can write
. In terms of the original variable , we
get . Now, back to the original problem, we can
write
. Expanding the
remaining integral, we get
 . For the latter integral,
let . Rewriting the integral in terms of variable , gives
. But

. For the former integral, let and

rewrite the integral in terms of variable as .

But we have and rewriting in terms of the original
variable , we get . After collecting all
related terms, we get the answer as
. This
expression simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 66

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

After writing the trigonometric functions in half-angle form, we get

Expanding
the logarithm expression, we get .
Therefore, we can write the integral in terms of summation of its parts,
as , , , ,
 . Now we perform the integration operation for new
integrals. Therefore, , . Using the integration

by parts technique, we have . But

. But for , let

and rewrite the integral in terms of variable we

get . Similarly, we

can perform the integration process for the remaining integrals. These
results are tabulated as shown below:

After collecting all related terms and simplifying, we receive the answer
as shown above, as solution.
INTEGRAL 67

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Having , use the integration by parts technique to get

. For the new integral, let

, and write the integral in terms of variable as

. After applying the integration by parts
technique, we get . For the new
integral, after substituting , we have
. Now we have two integrals to
calculate. For , apply the integration by parts technique twice to
get Now, after
rearranging the terms and rewriting this expression as
, we get . Or in terms of the
original variable we have . Similarly, apply
the same integration process to the remaining integral, .
Therefore, we get
. Now, after rearranging the terms and writing this
expression, we get . Or in terms of the
original variable we have
Collecting all related terms gives the
answer as Using the
expansion of the trigonometric functions, we can simplify the answer as

.
INTEGRAL 68

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Rewrite the integrand as . Let

and write the integral in terms of the variable to get

. Now let .

Therefore, we have . Let and

rewrite the latter integral in terms of the variable as,
After several
substitutions, we can write the answer in terms of the original variable
as .
INTEGRAL 69

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Having and rewriting the

, we have the integral as follows:

. Now we have two integrals to

calculate. For the latter integral, use the integration by parts technique to

get
 . Now let and write the
remaining integral in terms of variable as , or
. For the former integral, let . Hence

. Therefore, in terms of the

variable , we get . Collecting all
related terms gives
.
INTEGRAL 70

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and write the integral in terms of the variable to

get . Using the integration by parts technique,
we have . Note that .

Therefore, . To calculate the remaining integral,

rewrite it as and apply the integration by parts

technique to get Therefore,

. To calculate the latter integral, let and write the

integral in terms of the variable to get . But
 . Hence, . Therefore,
.
After collecting all obtained results, as underlined, and simplifying we
get the solution as .
INTEGRAL 71

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

The integral can be written in terms of half-angle using the

trigonometric identities and as

Now let and write the integral in terms of the

variable as . Using the partial fraction technique, we get
. Performing the integration
for the new integrals gives and .
Collecting results gives the answer as . Rewriting the answer in
terms of the original variable gives .
INTEGRAL 72

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Rewrite the denominator as . Now let

and write the integral in terms of the variable to
get . But , and in terms of the
original variable the answer reads .
INTEGRAL 73

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

The expression can be written as

. Now, let and rewrite the integral in

terms of variable , as . For

calculating the new integral, let and rewrite the

integral in terms of variable , as
Using the integration by parts technique, we have
. But
 . Therefore,
. Rearranging terms involved in the last equation; we
get . The solution to the new integral was
presented in the Integral 5 section. Or . After
collecting all related terms, we get the answer in terms of the original
variable as

. This expression simplifies

to
INTEGRAL 74

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable , to

get The new integral

can be written as . Now we have two

integrals to calculate. For the first integral we can write

. For the remaining integral, let .

Therefore, we have . But

and the new integral reads

. After collecting all related answers, in terms of the original variable ,
we have . The

answer can be simplified to, .

INTEGRAL 75

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable

to get, . Using
trigonometric identity, , we get
. Now in terms of the original variable we have the answer
as . This expression

simplifies to , assuming . This expression

simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 76

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using the integration by parts technique we can write

. But letting
, or , we can write, by differentiating both
sides, . Now using , we have
and . Therefore,

. For calculating the latter integral, let

and write the integral in terms of the

variable as . Now using the
trigonometric identity , we have
. Therefore, in terms of the original variable , we
can write . Collecting
all related terms, we receive the answer as
.
INTEGRAL 77

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let , and write the integral in terms of the variable as

. Write the denominator as
. Now let and write
the new integral in terms of the variable as
. But we have .
Or in terms of the original variable we get
.
INTEGRAL 78

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Write the integral as a summation of its terms,

. But . For the remaining integral,
rewrite the integrand by using logarithm rule as,
. Now, let
, and rewrite the new integrals in terms of the
variable . Therefore, . Using the integration by parts
technique twice, we get .

Similarly, . Collecting
all answers and rewrite them in terms of the original variable , we get

. The answer simplifies

to .
INTEGRAL 79

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities, Partial

fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Using the integration by parts technique, we can write the integral as

. But having

, or , we get, after differentiating both

side, . But we have . Or

. Therefore, . Now by

plugging back into the new integral, we get

 . Now, let and write the

integral in terms of the variable as

. For

performing the latter integral, let . Therefore,

. Using trigonometric half-angle identities we can

write the integral as For

performing the new integral let , and rewrite the

integral in terms of the variable as

. Now by using the partial

fractions technique, we can write the integrand as

and the integral as a

combination of its terms

. The new integrals can

be worked out as , ,

, and . by subsequent change of

variables we get , assuming .

Therefore, after collecting all results and writing them in terms of the
original variable , we get the answer as .
INTEGRAL 80

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

The denominator of the integrand can be written as

. Therefore, using the partial fractions
technique we get . Or
and . Collecting the
answers, we get the solution as .
INTEGRAL 81

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, we can write the integral in

terms of the variable as . Using the integration by
parts technique, we get . The results
in terms of the original variable reads, .
INTEGRAL 82

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, we can write the integral

in terms of variable as . Using the integration by
parts technique, we get . But
. The results in terms of the original variable

reads, . Note that

having we can calculate, .
INTEGRAL 83

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, we can write the

integral in terms of variable as . Using the
integration by parts technique, we get
. The results in terms of the
original variable reads, . Note that
, using the trigonometric identity .
INTEGRAL 84

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, we can write the

integral in terms of variable as . Using the
integration by parts technique, we get . But
. The results in terms of the original
variable reads, .

Note that having we can calculate, .

INTEGRAL 85

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Therefore, we can write

the integral in terms of the variable as .
Using the integration by parts technique, we get
. But (see Integral

5). Therefore, we can write the results as

.
The results in terms of the original variable reads,
.
INTEGRAL 86

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Write the denominator of the integrand as

. Using the partial fractions techniques, write the
integral as . But
. The latter
integral can be worked out, since , as
. For the former integral, write it as
. Now let and write the integral

in terms of variable as .
Similarly, The remaining integral can be worked out as
. But
. For the former integral

. Collecting all related terms, we receive the

answer as . This
expression simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 87

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Expand the denominator of the integrand as

. Therefore, the integral reads
. Now, using the partial fractions

technique1, we get

. Now, perform the new integrals,

one by one. For . For

 . For .
Collecting all related results, we receive the answer as
. This expression simplifies to

.
INTEGRAL 88

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Partial fractions

Step-by-step solution:

Write the expression in the denominator of the integral as a product of

two terms. Therefore, . But,
using the partial fractions technique, we can write the integral as
. Now we

perform the integration of the new integrals. Rewrite the former integral
as .
Therefore, . Note that
. Now, after manipulating the expression in the
denominator of the latter integral, we have
. Therefore, we have

. Let and write the

integral in terms of the variable , as

. Or in terms of the original

variable, we get .

Similarly, for the remaining integral, we have

.

Therefore, . Note that

. Now, after manipulating the expression in the
denominator of the new integral, we have
. Therefore, we have

. Let and write the

integral in terms of the variable , as

. Or in terms of the original

variable , we get . Collecting all related results, we get the

answer as
 . This

expression simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 89

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Now write the integral in terms of variable , as

. Using the trigonometric identity,
rewrite the integral as . For the new
integrals, we get and, using the integration by parts technique,
.
Therefore, rearranging terms in the last expression gives
. Now, we can write
. This expression written in the original
variable gives the answer as
INTEGRAL 90

Problem:

Solution:

Or

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Using the trigonometric identity, , rewrite

the integrand as .
Now, after substitution, rewrite the integral as
. For the latter new
integral, using the integration by parts, we get .
For the former integral, using the trigonometric identity,
, we have
. The new integrals are
worked out as , and . Collecting
all related terms, the answer reads . This
expression simplifies to . Or the answer in
terms of the cosine function reads .
INTEGRAL 91

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let , and write the integral in terms of the variable

as . Note that .
Rewriting the latter integral using the trigonometric identity,
, as . But
. Collecting related terms, the results read .
This expression in terms of the original variable reads
.
INTEGRAL 92

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Expand the integrand, . Therefore,

. Integrate former integral by using the

integration by parts technique, to get .

Collecting all related terms gives .

INTEGRAL 93

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and rewrite the integral in terms of the variable , to

get . The expression in the
denominator can be written as
. Therefore,

the integral reads . Let

, . Now, write the latter integral in terms of the

variable , as . Expand the new integral,

as . For the former integral, we

have . For the latter integral, let
and write the integral in terms of the variable , as
. Collecting all

related terms and write them in terms of the original variable , gives

. This expression simplifies to

.
INTEGRAL 94

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and write the integral in terms of the variable , as

. Now let

and write the new integral in terms of the variable , as

. But . Therefore, we have
. Therefore, the answer in terms of
the original variable reads
. But , using
, or , and calculating . The answer simplifies to
.
INTEGRAL 95

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let and write the integral in terms of variable , as

. Now, using the integration by parts technique we

get . This

expression in terms of the original variable gives the answer as

.
INTEGRAL 96

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let and write the integral in terms of the variable , as

. Now, let and the new

integral in terms of the variable reads . After

expanding the polynomial, we have . Therefore,
. Performing
the new integrals, gives . Write this expression in
terms of the original variable gives the answer as
 . This expression
simplifies to .
INTEGRAL 97

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let and . Write the integral in terms of the

variable , as . Using the integration by parts
technique, we get
Writing the answer in terms of the original variable , gives
.
INTEGRAL 98

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts

Step-by-step solution:

Let . Taking logarithm of both sides gives , or and

after differentiating we have . Therefore, . Now,
write the integral in terms of the variable , as
Using the integration by parts
technique, the latter integral reads . This expression in terms
of the original variable gives the answer as .
INTEGRAL 99

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Logarithmic identities

Step-by-step solution:

Let , and write the integral in terms of the variable , as

. Using the integration by parts, gives
. For calculating , let and take the

logarithm of both sides. Therefore, . After differentiating

both sides, we get . Or . Note that .
Back substituting into the latter integral gives
. Now, plugin back into the former
expression, gives . Rearranging the terms, gives
 . Or . Write this expression in terms of
the original variable , to get the answer as . Note
that we used the logarithmic identity, .
INTEGRAL 100

Problem:

Solution:

Techniques used:

Change of variables, Integration by parts, Trigonometric identities

Step-by-step solution:

Write the sine function as half-angle, using the identity ,

and expand the integrand to get

. Now, we

have three new integrals to calculate.

For , write it in terms of half-angle using the identity

. Therefore, after some manipulations we get

. Let , and
write the integral in terms of the variable . Thus
. Therefore, the answer in terms of variable

reads

For , using integration by parts we get

. But

and we have . Therefore,

Write the later integral

in terms of variable (recall ) as
. For the latter integral, use
partial fraction technique to get
. The first two new integrals
from the latter expression read , and
. The remaining integrals can be worked
out as , and
.

For , using integration by parts we get

. But

and we have .

Therefore, . Write the

latter integral in terms of variable (recall ) as
 . For the latter integral, we use

partial fraction technique to get .

The first two new integrals from the latter expression read
, and .
The remaining integral can be worked out as
.

Collection all related underlined answers, we get the solution to the

integral, after some simplifications, as .

1 A CAS tool (e.g., Wolfram Alpha) can be employed for this step.
 PART 2
EXAMPLES APPLIED IN ENGINEERING

In this part of the book, we present some integrals along with their
solutions related to engineering topics. The list is not exclusive but
meant to help readers with their learning from Part 1 with some
application examples in technical computations. The examples will
focus on area properties of sections, structural beams, and a couple of
probability distributions commonly used in engineering fields.
1 SEMI-CIRCLE SHAPES

We consider a half-circle shape with radius as shown in Figure 1. Its

area, centroid, and moment of inertia is calculated using related integrals
and the worked-out solutions.

A half-circle shape can be the cross section of a beam, rod, or shape

of hydraulic gate, for example.

Figure 1 A Semi-circle shape and differential area element

Area is equal to , from geometry. We calculate the area using

integration of area differential element , where is the radial
disctance from the center and is polar angle w.r.t -axis. Therefore,
.
Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area and is
located at when symmetry about -axis exists as shown in Figure 1.
Or , where . Note that is measured from the

centroid of the differential element. But

.

Therefore, .

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,
Note that is
measured from the centroid of the differential element. Performing the
integrations gives . Note that

. We can calculate , directly as well.

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid, . Or , where is the
normal distance between -axis and that parallel passing through the
point C at the centroid, or . Therefore
.

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin as the reference,
. Note that .

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the polar moment of
inertia with respect to the centroid, . Or , where is the
distance between origin and the centroid. Therefore,
.

Table 2 lists the results for semi-circle shape.

Table 2 Results for Semi-circle

2 CIRCULAR SEGMENT SHAPES

We consider a segmental shape of a half circle with radius as shown in

Figure 2, shaded area. Its area, centroid, and moment of inertia is
calculated using related integrals and the worked-out solutions.

A circular segmental shape can be the cross section of a beam, rod,

or shape of hydraulic gate, for example.

Figure 2 A Circular segment area shape

Assuming total angle , from geometry we have , , and
. The equation of a circle reads . Therefore, for the sector
we can write y .

Area: We calculate the area using the integration of area differential

element . Therefore,

But . Let
. Therefore, the limits of the integral reads
and write the latter integral in terms of the

variable to get

. After applying the limits, we get

. Collecting all related answers, we

get . Hence, .

Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area and is
located at when symmetry about -axis exists as shown in Figure
2. Or , where is measured from the -axis to the centroid

of the differential element. But

The latter integral reads . Therefore,

. Now, we

have .

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,
. But
. Now, after substituting for , the

latter integral reads . After rewriting the latter

integral in terms of the variable (recall ), we get

But using the

trigonometric relation, we get

But we have .
Therefore, . Collecting the
results, we get . After
simplification, we get .

Similarly, considering -axis as reference,

. But
 . Now, after substituting for , the latter

integral reads . After rewriting the latter integral in

terms of variable (recall ), we get

. But using the trigonometric relation,

we get

. But we have

. Therefore,
. Collecting the results, after some
simplifications, we get .

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the centroid, . Or , where is the distance
between -axis and the centroid, or . Therefore

. Or, after

simplification,

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin as the reference,
. Therefore, using previously obtained results,
we have . After some
simplifications, we have .
Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the polar moment of
inertia with respect to the centroid, . Or , where is the
distance between origin and the centroid, or . Therefore

Table 3 lists some of the results for circular segment shape.

Table 3 Results for circular segment

3 SEMI-ELLIPSE SHAPES

We consider a half-ellipse shape with major and minor radii and ,

respectively. Its area, centroid, and moment of inertia is calculated using
integrals.

A half-ellipse shape can be the cross-section shape of beams, rods,

or hydraulic gates for example.

Figure 3 A Semi ellipse area shape and differential element

Area is equal to , from geometry. We calculate the area using

integration of the area differential element as shown in Figure 3.
Using the equation of ellipse, we have . Let
and

Performing the
integration gives . Note that due to symmetry, area of
an ellipse is .

Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area and is
located at when symmetry about -axis exists. Or . But

. Performing the integration, after writing it in

terms of the variable , for values gives,

Therefore, .

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering the -axis as reference,
Performing the

integrations gives

Similarly, we can calculate . Note that is measured from

the centroid of the differential element.

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid, . Or , where is the
normal distance between axis and that parallel passing through the
centroid, or . Therefore .

Similarly, .

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin as the reference,
.
we can calculate the moment of inertia with respect to the centroid, .
Or .Therefore, .

Table 4 lists the results for semi-ellipse shape.

Table 4 Results for semi-ellipse

4 TWO-DEGREE POLYNOMIAL SHAPE-QUADRATIC

Consider a quadratic polynomial shape of degree two, which

is bounded between coordinate axes in the first quadrant (i.e., and
) as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 A quadratic area shape with a=2 and b=3.

Area, we calculate the area using integration of the differential area

element . Using the equation of polynomial, we have
. Performing the integration gives

. Simply, subtracting this area from that of the

enclosing rectangle, we get the value of the area over the polynomial,
or .

Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area. Or

. But

Performing the integration, gives, . Therefore,

.

Similarly, we can calculate the -coordinate of the centroid,

. But .

Performing the integration, gives, . Therefore,

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,
.

Performing the integrations gives .

Similarly, we can calculate

. Performing the integrations gives .

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid, . Or , where is the
normal distance between axis and that parallel passing through the
centroid, or . Therefore . Similarly,
.
Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a
desired point. Considering the origin,

we can calculate the polar moment of inertia with respect to the centroid,
. Or .

Table 5 lists the results for a quadratic/parabolic polynomial shape.

Table 5 Results for a parabolic shape

5 THREE-DEGREE POLYNOMIAL SHAPE-CUBIC

Consider a cubic polynomial shape of degree three, y which is

bounded between coordinate axes in the first quadrant (i.e., and )
as shown in Figure 5

Figure 5 A cubic area shape with a=2 and b=4

Area, we calculate the area using integration of the differential area

element . Using the equation of polynomial, we have
. Performing the integration gives

. Simply, subtracting this area from that of the

enclosing rectangle, we get the value of the area over the polynomial,
or .

Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area. Or

. But

Performing the integration, gives, . Therefore,

.

Similarly, we can calculate the -coordinate of the centroid,

. But .

Performing the integration, gives, . Therefore,

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,

Performing the integrations gives .

Similarly, we can calculate .

Performing the integrations gives .

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid, . Or , where is the
normal distance between axis and that parallel passing through the
centroid, or . Therefore . Similarly,
.
Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a
desired point. Considering the origin,
.

we can calculate the polar moment of inertia with respect to the centroid,
. Or .

Table 6 lists the results for a cubic polynomial shape.

Table 6 Results for cubic polynomial shape

6 -DEGREE POLYNOMIAL SHAPE-SPANDREL

As shown in Figure 6, consider a polynomial of degree with its vertex

at the origin. The polynomial equation reads . The area under the
polynomial, Spandrel is of interest in engineering. A differential element
is used for the following calculation.

Figure 6 A spandrel area shape with a=2 and b=4

Area, we calculate the area using integration of the area differential

element . Using the equation of polynomial, we have
Simply, subtracting this
area from that of the enclosing rectangle, we get the value of the area
over the polynomial, or . Note that for , previous results for a
parabolic are obtained.

Centroid is the first moment of area scaled by total area. Or

. But After substituting for

and performing the integration, gives,

. Therefore, .

Similarly, we can calculate the -coordinate of the centroid,

. But . After substituting for and

performing the integration, gives, .

Therefore, .

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,
Performing the
integrations gives . Similarly, we can calculate
.

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid, . Or , where is the
normal distance between axis and that parallel passing through the
centroid, or . Therefore

Similarly, .

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin,
.

We can also calculate the polar moment of inertia with respect to the
centroid, . Or .Therefore

Table 7 lists the results for a parabolic shape.

Table 7 Results for Spandrel

These results are comparable to those obtained in the previous sections

for two- and three-degree polynomials.
7 SINUSOIDAL SHAPES

Consider a sinusoidal shape, y which is bounded between

coordinate axes in the first quadrant (i.e., and ) as shown in
Figure 7, for example for and .

Figure 7 A sinusoidal area shape, .

Area, we calculate the area using integration of the differential area

element . Using the equation of the profile, we have
. Performing the integration gives

. Simply, subtracting this area from that of the

enclosing rectangle, we get the value of the area over the sinusoidal
curve, or .

Centroid is the first moment of area scaled by total area. The -

coordinate of the centroid is . But

. After substituting for and performing the

integration, we get

. Therefore, .

Similarly, we can calculate the -coordinate of the centroid,

. But . After substituting for and

performing the integration, we get

Therefore, .

This result confirms that from the shape symmetry (i.e., the shape is
symmetric about the line at ).

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,
. Rewrite the latter integral as

and performing the integration,

we get

.
Similarly, we can calculate .
Performing the integration gives
The latter integral reads

. Therefore,

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the axis at the centroid parallel to the -axis, . Or
, where is the normal distance between axis and that
parallel passing through the centroid, or . Therefore
. Similarly,

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin,
.

We can also calculate the polar moment of inertia with respect to the
centroid, . Or .Therefore
.

Table 8 lists the results for the sinusoidal shape area:

Table 8 Some results for sinusoidal shape

8 TRIANGULAR SHAPES

We consider an equilateral triangle shape with side . Its area, centroid,

and moment of inertia are calculated using related integrals.

A triangular shape can be the cross-section shape of beams, rods, or

hydraulic gates for example.

Figure 8 A triangular area shape

Area is equal to , from geometry. We calculate the area using the

integration of the area differential element as shown in Figure 8.
Using the geometrical properties of the triangle we have ,
where is the height of the triangle. Therefore, we have

Centroid is the first moment of area divided by its total area and is
located at when symmetry about -axis exists. Or . But

. Therefore, .

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as reference,

Performing the integral gives

Similarly, we can calculate the moment of inertia with respect to the

axis. Or .

Performing the integral gives

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment of inertia
with respect to the parallel axis at the centroid, . Or , where
is the normal distance between axis and the parallel axis passing
through the centroid, or . Therefore .

Polar moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired point. Considering the origin as the reference,
.
9 RECTANGULAR SHAPES

We consider a rectangular shape with base and height . The area,

centroid, and moment of inertia are calculated using related integrals.

A rectangular shape can be the cross-section shape of a beam, rods,

or hydraulic gates for example.

Figure 9 A rectangular area shape

Area is equal to , from geometry. We can calculate the area using

integration of the differential area element as shown in Figure 9.
Therefore, considering a coordinate system, with its origin at the
down left vertex, we have .
Centroid is the first moment of area divided by total area. We can write
. Therefore. After performing the integration operation,

we get . Similarly, .

Therefore, the centroid is at . Theses results are consistent with

those obtained from the symmetry property of the rectangular shape.

Moment of inertia is the second moment of area with reference to a

desired axis. Considering -axis as the reference, we can write
. Therefore, . Similarly, moment
of inertia about -axis reads .

Using parallel axis theorem, we can calculate the moment inertia about a
system of coordinates, with its origin at the centroid. Or
, and .

Polar moment of inertia about origin , is . Also, the

polar moment of inertia about centroid reads .

We can also calculate using the parallel axis theorem, as

.
10 COMPLEX SHAPES

A complex shape can be divided into simple shapes. This facilitates the
calculation of the area properties for complex shapes using those of
simple shape components. The only requirement is this that for each
simple shape property, for example moment of inertia, we consider a
common reference axis. Again, parallel axis theorem can be used for
transformation of properties.

10.1 Example: A semi-circle with a semi-elliptical hole

We consider a semi-circular shape with radius and with its center

located at the origin. A semi elliptical shape is taken away from the
original area with its semi radii being and , respectively (
and , are constants). Figure 10 shows the complex shape.
Figure 10 A complex semi circular area shape with a semi ellipse
hole

Area can be obtained by subtracting the area of the semi-ellipse from

that of the semi-circle. As shown in the previous sections (see Table 3
and Table 5), we have .

Centroid is located at distanced from the - axis on the -axis. Using

the obtained results from the previous sections, we have

Moment of inertia with respect to -axis is simply that of semi-ellipse

part subtracted from the semi-circle’s. Therefore,
 . But moment of inertia with respect to the
axis at the centroid of the complex shape requires the application of the
parallel axis. For the semi-circle part we have, using the previously

obtained results, . For the semi-

ellipse part we have, using the previously obtained results,

.

As a numerical example, let , and . Therefore, we get the

following results as shown in Table 9.

Table 9 Results for a composite shape

10.2 Example: A rectangle with circular segment sides

We consider a rectangular shape with base and height . The two

vertical sides are composed of two circular segments where the
corresponding circles’ centers are located at with radii . Figure 11
shows the complex shape.
 Figure 11 A complex rectangular area shape with circular
segment sides

Considering the complex shape composed of two parts: a rectangle and

two circular segments. We use the results obtained in previous sections
for calculations.

Area can be obtained by subtracting the area of the segments from that
of the rectangle. As shown in previous sections we have
. But, from geometry, . Therefore, we have
. Note that is the angle corresponding to the
circular arc.
Centroid is simply at the geometrical center of the shape, due to
symmetry. Therefore, .

Moment of inertia with respect to the axis at the centroid and parallel to
the base is simply that of rectangle part subtracted by the circular
segments. Therefore, . Therefore, after
simplifications, we have .
Similarly, the moment of inertia with respect to axis at the centroid and
parallel to the sides is that of the rectangle part subtracted by the circular
segments. But the distance from the centroid of the circular arc to the y-

axis reads, from geometry, . Therefore, the

moment of inertia of the circular sectors with respect to the y-axis ,

using the parallel axis theorem, reads

Therefore, for the complex shape we can write

From these results, the polar moment of inertia about centroid can be
calculated .
10.3 Example: A semi-circle with a triangular shape hole

We consider a semi-circle with radius when a triangular shape with

base and height . Is subtracted from it, as show in Figure 12. The
complex shape is symmetric about the y-axis with conditions that
.

Figure 12 A complex semi-circular area shape with a triangular

shape hole
Considering the complex shape composed of two parts: a rectangle and
two circular segments. We use the results obtained in the previous
sections for calculations.

Area can be obtained by subtracting the area of the triangle from that of
the semi-circle. Or .

Centroid is simply at the geometrical center of the shape. Therefore,

with reference to the base axis we have

. After some simplifications, we have . Due to symmetry,

Moment of inertia with respect to the x-x axis can be calculated as that
of triangle, from the semi-circle’s, . Or . After using
the parallel axis the orem, we can calculate the moment inertia about the

centroid as . Or, after simplifying

this expression we get .

Similarly, using symmetry, the moment of inertia with respect to the -

axis can be written as .

From these results, the polar moment of inertia about the centroid can be
calculated .
11 A CANTILEVER BEAM WITH CUBIC LOAD DISTRIBUTION

A cantilever beam is loaded with a cubically distributed load, as shown

in Figure 13. The load is given as where, is the maximum load
density per unit length (in N/m), and beam length. We calculate the
equivalent load, its acting location , and the distribution of the shear
and bending moment for this beam.

Figure 13 A Cantilever beam with cubic load distribution.

Equivalent load , is the area under the distribution. Therefore, we can

write . Performing the integration gives

.
Centroid of the load, is where is acting. Therefore,

. We can calculate the support reaction

force , and the moment , after writing the

balance of forces in the -direction and the that of the moments of point
.

Shear force distribution, as a function of x, is given as

where, is determined by the boundary conditions for the shear force,
for example . Performing the integration, gives
. Applying the boundary conditions gives
. Hence . Note that the shear force
equation recovers the reaction force at the support A, or ( .

Bending moment distribution, as a function of , is given as

where, is determined by the boundary conditions for the
moment, for example . Performing the integration, gives
. Applying the boundary
conditions gives . Hence
. Note that the bending moment equation recovers the reaction
moment at the support A, or ( .
12 A CANTILEVER BEAM WITH QUARTER-ELLIPSE LOAD
DISTRIBUTION

A cantilever beam is loaded with an elliptical quarter distributed load, as

shown in Figure 14. The load is given as where, is the

maximum load density per unit length (in N/m), and beam length. We
calculate the equivalent load, its acting location , and the distribution of
the shear and bending moment for this beam.

Figure 14 A Cantilever beam with quarter-ellipse load

distribution.

Equivalent load , is the area under the distribution. Therefore, we can

write . Let . Writing the integral

in terms of the variable and performing the integration gives

.
Centroid of the load, is where is acting. Therefore,

. Writing the integral in terms of the

variable and performing the integration gives

. Therefore,

We can calculate the support reaction force , and the moment

, after writing the balance of forces in the -
direction and the that of the moments about point .

Shear force distribution, as a function of , is given as

where, is determined by boundary conditions for the shear force, for
example . Performing the integration, gives .
Writing the integral in terms of variable (recall )
gives . Applying the boundary
condition, gives . Hence,
. Writing the shear force equation in terms of the

original variable , gives

. Note that the shear force equation

recovers the reaction force at the support A, or .

Bending moment distribution, as a function of , is given as

where, is determined by boundary conditions for the
moment, for example . writing the integral, gives
 .

But writing the former integral in terms of the variable

reads

. Similarly, the
latter integral can be written as
.

After collecting all related answers, we get the solution as

. Applying the boundary
condition, gives . Hence, the bending
moment equation, after simplification, reads
. Note that the bending moment

equation recovers the reaction moment at the support A, or (

.
13 A CANTILEVER BEAM WITH INVERSE COSINE LOAD
DISTRIBUTION

A cantilever beam is loaded with an inverse cosine distributed load. The

load is given as where, is the load density per unit length
(e.g., N/m), and beam length. In this section, we present the
calculations for the equivalent load, its acting location from the
support, and the distribution of shear and bending moment along the
length of this beam.

Equivalent load , is the area under the distribution. Therefore, we can

write . Let .
Note that the limits of integral change to for and for .
Writing the integral in terms of the variable and performing the

integration gives .

Centroid of the load, is distance from the support where is acting.

Therefore, . Writing the integral in terms

of the variable and performing the integration gives

 . Therefore, .

We can calculate the reaction force at the support, point A as ,

and the moment , after writing the balance of
forces in the -direction and the that of the moments about point .

Shear force distribution, as a function of is given by

where, is determined by the boundary conditions for shear force, for
example . Performing the integration gives .
But the integral in terms of the variable reads (see previous paragraph)
. Applying the boundary condition at the tip of the
beam, or gives . Hence, shear force as a function of reads
. Note that the shear force equation recovers the

reaction force at the support A, or .

Bending moment distribution, as a function of , is given by

where, is determined by the boundary condition for
moment, for example . Performing the integration, gives
. But the integral in terms of the variable

reads (recall ), But, using the

integration by parts technique, we have
Therefore, after combing the

results we have
. The remaining integral can be written as
 . Therefore,
. Applying the boundary condition,
, we get . Now, writing the equation for in terms of
the original variable , we get

. After collecting similar terms in this expression and simplifying, we

have .
14 A CANTILEVER BEAM WITH PARABOLIC LOAD
DISTRIBUTION

A cantilever beam is loaded with an inverse cosine distributed load. The

load is given as where, is the load density per unit length
(e.g., N/m), and beam length. In this section, we present the
calculations for the equivalent load, its acting location from the
support, and the distribution of shear and bending moment along the
length of this beam.

Equivalent load , is the area under the distribution. Therefore, we can

write . Performing the integration gives

Centroid of the load, is distance from the support where is acting.

Therefore, .

We can calculate the reaction force at the support, point A as ,

and the moment , after writing the balance of
forces in the -direction and the that of the moments about point .

Shear force distribution, as a function of is given by

where, is determined by the boundary conditions for shear force, for
example . Performing the integration gives
 . Applying the boundary condition at the tip of
the beam, or gives . Hence, the shear force as a function
of reads . Note that the shear force equation recovers
the reaction force at the support A, or .

Bending moment distribution, as a function of , is given by

where, is determined by the boundary condition for
moment, for example . Performing the integration, gives
. But the integral reads

. Applying the boundary condition,

, we get . Now, writing the equation for we get
.
15 A CANTILEVER BEAM WITH CIRCULAR SEGMENT CROSS-
SECTION AND QUARTER-ELLIPSE LOAD DISTRIBUTION

We consider a cantilever beam with a circular segment cross-section.

The beam is under a quarter elliptical distributed load. We calculate the
bending and shear stresses at the point of maximum value.

In previous sections, we calculated the moment of inertia and the

centroid of a circular segment. These results are repeated here for
convenience, after some simplifications:

Centroid , distance of centroid from the segment

base.

Moment of inertia , with respect to the

neutral axis at the centroid.

Also, in the previous section, we calculated the maximum bending

moment and the shear force due to a quarter-ellipse load distribution.
These results are repeated here for convenience:

. where, is the maximum load density per unit

length measured at the beam support location, and beam length.
 The bending stress is given as . Where, is the distance
measured from the neutral axis in the plane of the cross section.
Assuming a bending moment that puts the top fiber of the beam at the
tension (i.e., negative moment), we get

. Therefore,

. After some

simplifications, we get .

Similarly, the stress due to bending at the bottom fiber of the beam reads

Note that the ratio of the stress at the top and the bottom of the beam
cross section is exactly equal to the value of . Or

. These results confirm that the

variation of the stress is linear across the cross section of the beam.

Exercise problems
1. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia
for a quarter circle. Consider the axis through centroid for the
calculations.

2. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half circle with a half circular hole. Consider the axis through
centroid for the calculations.

3. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a quarter ellipse. Consider the axis through centroid for the
calculations.

4. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half ellipse with a half circle hole. Consider the axis through
centroid for the calculations.

5. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half ellipse with a half ellipse hole. Consider the axis through
centroid for the calculations.

6. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half circle with a half ellipse hole. Consider the axis through
the centroid for the calculations.

7. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a quadratic polynomial shape. Consider the axis through centroid
for the calculations.

8. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half ellipse with a quadratic hole. Consider the axis through
 centroid for the calculations.

Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

9.
for a half ellipse with a spandrel hole. Consider the axis through
centroid for the calculations.

10. Calculate area, centroid, moment of inertia, polar moment of inertia

for a half circle with a rectangular add on to it along the diameter.
The width of the rectangle is equal to the circle radius divided by
two. Consider the axis through the centroid for the calculations.
16 PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTIONS-PDF

Probability density functions/distributions (e.g., Normal, Weibull) are

used in engineering and statistics. Usually, the integral of these functions
is needed and are referred to as CDF (cumulative distribution function).
In practice, engineers use standard tables for related calculations. In this
section, we use the integration techniques for calculating the CDF
related to Gaussian/Normal and Weibull distributions.

16.1 Normal distribution

Basic form of Normal distribution is given as , also related to

as Error function. Plotting the shows that it has a maximum value of
1 at and symmetrically decreases about the vertical axis. This so-
called bell-shape can represent many natural and industrial random data
probability distributions. In this section, we show how to perform
integration this function and calculate for an infinite range, .

We can write the integral as . Since the answer is

equivalent regardless of the variable or . Now, we calculate
. This equation is valid since, for example,
the value of the integral in terms of the variable is treated as a constant
for the integral in terms of , or vice versa.

Now, we transform the integral from Cartesian to polar coordinate

. We can write and . Therefore, and
 (i.e., the differential area elements defined in each coordinate
system). This can be shown as follow:

and . But the

Jacobian of transformation reads , determinant of the
Jacobian matrix. Therefore, the differential elements are related through
.

Now we can write . Note that the limits of the

integrals read and , consistent with . Now we
calculate this integral in terms of , or . Let and
write the new integral in terms of the variable as

. Therefore, .

Or . Note that due to symmetry, .

The normalized form of the integral, can be calculated by dividing

both side with , or . Similarly, we have .

The standard form of the integral, can be calculated by using the

change of the variable technique. Let and the normalized
form of the integral in terms of the variable reads as .

Similarly, we have .

It is customary to plot the distribution about its mean , versus origin

and scale it with its standard deviation , or . Mean is defined as

the integral of the first moment of distribution. Or .

 The Variance (or Standard deviation square, ) is defined as the integral
of the second moment of distribution. Or .

16.2 Weibull distribution

Weibull density function is given as . It gives distribution

of the function vs. time for given shape factor, and scale factor, .
Here we use two-parameter Weibull for our calculations. For a given set
of data, the values of and can be obtained to fit a given set of data. For
example, for Weibull and Normal distributions are closely alike.

The CFD, is . Let . Therefore, writing the

integral in terms of gives

Performing the integration gives .

Mean and variance can be calculated as well. These quantities involve

special function, Gamma [8]. The Gamma function is defined as
It can be shown that . The mean for

Weibull distribution can be worked out as .

Similarly, the variance .

Weibull distribution has extensive applications in Reliability

engineering.
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