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OSCILLATORS

OSCILLATORS
• An oscillator can be described as a source of alternating voltage.
• An amplifier delivers an amplified version of input signal while
oscillator generates an output waveform without an input signal.
• The additional power content in the output signal is supplied by an
external DC power source.
• The oscillator requires no external signal to initiate or maintain the
energy conversion process.
• Instead, an output signal is produced as long as a DC power source is
connected.

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PRINCIPLES OF OSCILLATORS
• Oscillators are amplifiers with positive feedback.
• Consider a feedback amplifier with an input signal Vin
and output Vo as shown in the figure below.

• A is the open loop gain of the amplifier.

• Without feedback, output voltage of amplifier is
V0 = A x Vin
• Since positive feedback is used, feedback voltage Vf is added with
input signal Vin
• Thus the input to the amplifier is Vin + Vf
• With feedback, the output voltage Vo = A (Vin+ Vf)
Vo = A (Vin+βVo) because Vf = βVo
V0 (1 - Aβ) = Avin
=
• Which denotes the gain of the amplifier with feedback.

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• Consider the case when the input signal Vin is removed and Vf is
directly connected to the amplifier.

• This is the case of an oscillator that no input signal is applied to it.

• Then the condition for a non - zero output to exist can be derived
from the equation Vo / Vin = A / (1-Aβ), which is Vin= 0 (since there
is no input for an oscillator) and Vo should be non zero.

• So for Vo(1-Aβ) = 0, then Aβ must be equal to 1.

• Then the gain with feedback (closed loop gain) becomes infinite.
• Loop gain Aβ =1 implies that
Aβ = 1
<Aβ = 0
• Thus the conditions for sustained oscillations are
1. The magnitude of the loop gain Aβ of the circuit must be equal to unity.
2. The phase shift of the loop gain Aβ around the circuit must be 0 or 3600
• These requirements are known as Barkhausen criteria.
• Barkhausen Criterion: A linear system will produce sustained oscillations only
at frequencies for which the gain around the feedback loop is 1 and the phase
shift around the feedback loop is ZERO or an integral multiple of 2π.

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• The criterion Aβ = 1 is satisfied only at one frequency.

• Oscillations will not be sustained if Aβ < 1 or Aβ > 1
• Figure below shows the output for Aβ < 1 and Aβ > 1

• Aβ = 1
• Aβ < 1 Aβ

Aβ > 1

• If Aβ is less than unity AβVin is less than Vin and the output signal will die
out.
• If Aβ > 1, then AβVin is greater than Vin and the output voltage builds up
gradually.
• If Aβ = 1, then the output voltage is sine wave under steady state conditions.
• Block diagram for an oscillator is shown in the figure below.

• It consists of an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity and a frequency

selective network to determine the frequency of oscillation.

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• Passive components normally determine the frequency of oscillation.

• They also influence stability, which is a measure of change in output
frequency with time, temperature or other factors.
• Passive devices may include resistors, inductors, capacitors,
transformers and resonant crystals.
• An RC phase shift network which offers 1800 phase shift is shown in
the figure below.

• Oscillators are classified in terms of their

• Output Waveform
• Frequency Range
• Components or circuit configuration
• If the output waveform is sinusoidal, it is called sinusoidal oscillator.
• Otherwise, it is called relaxation oscillator, which include square,
triangular and sawtooth waveforms.
• Oscillators employ both active and passive components.
• The active components provide energy conversion mechanism.
• Typical active devices are BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor), FET
(Field Effect Transistor) etc.

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CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS
• Oscillators can be classified in a variety of different ways. Some of the
more common classes are:
• Operating frequency band (Audio, Radio).
• Output waveform (Sine wave, Square wave, Triangle wave, Sawtooth
wave).
• Components used to set the frequency (RC, LC, crystal).
• Configuration of those components (Phase Shift, Wein Bridge,
Hartley, Colpitts).
• Purpose of the oscillator (Local oscillator, Beat Frequency oscillator,
system clock, signal generator, function generator).
• Available tuning range (fixed, adjustable, wide range).
• Technology used (Analog, Digital, CMOS).

OSCILLATOR OPERATION
• The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier
having closed-loop gain |Af | greater than 1 and satisfies the phase
conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit.
• An oscillator circuit then provides a varying output signal.
• If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as
a sinusoidal oscillator.
• If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later
drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit is generally
referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.

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• To understand how a feedback circuit performs as an oscillator, consider

the feedback circuit of Fig. 18.18.

• When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.

• Consider that we have a fictitious voltage at the amplifier input (Vi).
• This results in an output voltage Vo = AVi after the amplifier stage and
in a voltage Vf = β (AVi) after the feedback stage.
• Thus, we have a feedback voltage Vf = βAVi, where A is referred to as
the loop gain.

• If the circuits of the base amplifier and feedback network provide A of a

correct magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi.
• Then, when the switch is closed and fictitious voltage Vi is removed, the
circuit will continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to
drive the amplifier and feedback circuits resulting in a proper input
voltage to sustain the loop operation.
• The output waveform will still exist after the switch is closed if the
condition Aβ = 1, is met.
• This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
• In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillator going.
• Only the condition Aβ = 1 must be satisfied for self-sustained oscillations
to result.
• In practice, Aβ is made greater than 1 and the system will start oscillating
by amplifying noise voltage, which is always present.

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WIEN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR

WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

• The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a
frequency-selective form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit
that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is
very easy to tune, making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency
oscillator.
• This type of oscillator is simple in design, compact in size, and
remarkably stable in its frequency output.
• This type of oscillator uses RC feedback network so it can also be
considered as RC oscillator.

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• The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a

series RC circuit connected with a parallel RC of the same
component values producing a phase delay or phase advance
circuit depending upon the frequency.
• At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o.
• Consider the circuit below.

• At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high
so acts a bit like an open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin
resulting in virtually no output signal, Vout.
• Likewise, at high frequencies, the reactance of the parallel capacitor,
(C2) becomes very low, so this parallel connected capacitor acts a bit
like a short circuit across the output, so again there is no output signal.
• So there must be a frequency point between these two extremes of C1
being open-circuited and C2 being short-circuited where the output
voltage, VOUT reaches its maximum value.
• The frequency value of the input waveform at which this happens is
called the oscillators Resonant Frequency, (ƒr).
• At this resonant frequency, the circuits reactance equals its resistance,
that is: Xc = R, and the phase difference between the input and output
equals zero degrees.
• The magnitude of the output voltage is therefore at its maximum and is
equal to one third (1/3) of the input voltage as shown below.

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MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

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• The circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscillator is shown in the

figure below.

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• It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with an R-C bridge circuit.

• R-C bridge circuit (Wien bridge) is a lead-lag network.
• The phase’-shift across the network lags with increasing frequency and
leads with decreasing frequency.
• By adding Wien-bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes
sensitive to a signal of only one particular frequency.
• This particular frequency is that at which Wien bridge is balanced and
for which the phase shift is 0°.
• If the Wien-bridge feedback network is not employed and output of
transistor Q2 is fedback to transistor Q1 for providing regeneration re-
quired for producing oscillations, the transistor Q1 will amplify signals
over a wide range of frequencies and thus direct coupling would result
in poor frequency stability.
• Thus by employing Wien-bridge feedback network frequency stability is
increased.

• This bridge circuit can be used as feedback network for an oscillator,

provided that the phase shift through the amplifier is zero.
• The two transistors Q1 and Q2 causes a total phase shift of 360° and
ensure proper positive feedback.
• The feedback network has an attenuation of 1/3.
• Thus, in this case, voltage gain A, must be equal to or greater than 3, to
sustain oscillations.
• WORKING
• The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change in base current of
transistor Q1, that may be due to noise inherent in the transistor or
variation in voltage of dc supply.
• This variation in base current is amplified in collector circuit of
transistor Q1 but with a phase-shift of 180°, the output of transistor Q1 is
fed to the base of second transistor Q2 through capacitor C4.

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• Now a still further amplified and twice phase-reversed signal appears at

the collector of the transistor Q2.
• Having been inverted twice, the output signal will be in phase with the
signal input to the base of transistor Q1.
• A part of the output signal at transistor Q2 is fedback to the input points
of the bridge circuit (point A-C).
• A part of this feedback signal is applied to emitter resistor R4 where it
produces degenerative effect (or negative feedback).
• Similarly, a part of the feedback signal is applied across the base-bias
resistor R2 where it produces regenerative effect (or positive feedback).
• At the rated frequency, effect of regeneration is made slightly more than
that of degeneration so as to obtain sustained oscillations.
• We can change the frequency range of the oscillator by switching into
the circuit different values of resistors R1 and R2.

• Advantages
1.Provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of
frequency.
2.The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance
boxes.
3.The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied by varying capacitances
C1 and C2 simultaneously.
4.The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
• Disadvantages
1.The maximum frequency output of a typical Wien bridge oscillator is
only about 1 MHz.
2.The circuit needs two transistors and a large number of other com-
ponents.
3.The maximum frequency output is limited because of amplitude and the
phase-shift characteristics of amplifier.

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HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

LC OSCILLATOR RESONANCE
• At high frequencies the reactance of a capacitor is very low, acting as a
short circuit while the reactance of the inductor is high acting as an
open circuit.
• At low frequencies the reverse is true, the reactance of the capacitor acts
as an open circuit and the reactance of the inductor acts as a short
circuit.
• Between these two extremes the combination of the inductor and
capacitor produces a “Tuned” or “Resonant” circuit that has a
Resonant Frequency, (ƒr) in which the capacitive and inductive
reactance’s are equal and cancel out each other, leaving only the
resistance of the circuit to oppose the flow of current.
• This means that there is no phase shift as the current is in phase with
the voltage.

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BASIC LC OSCILLATOR TANK CIRCUIT

• Consider the circuit below.
• The circuit consists of an inductive coil, L and a
capacitor, C.
• The capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field and which produces a
potential (static voltage) across its plates, while
the inductive coil stores its energy in the form of
an magnetic field.
• The capacitor is charged up to the DC supply
voltage, V by putting the switch in position A.
• When the capacitor is fully charged the switch
changes to position B.

• The charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the

inductive coil so the capacitor begins to discharge itself through the
coil.
• The voltage across C starts falling as the current through the coil
begins to rise.
• This rising current sets up a magnetic field around the coil which
resists this flow of current.
• When the capacitor, C is completely discharged the energy that was
originally stored in the capacitor, C as an electrostatic field is now
stored in the inductive coil, L as a magnetic field around the coils
windings.
• As there is now no external voltage in the circuit to maintain the
current within the coil, it starts to fall as the magnetic field begins to
collapse.

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• A back emf is induced in the coil (e = -Ldi/dt) keeping the current

flowing in the original direction.
• This current charges up capacitor, C with the opposite polarity to
its original charge.
• C continues to charge up until the current reduces to zero and the
magnetic field of the coil has collapsed completely.
• The energy originally introduced into the circuit through the
switch, has been returned to the capacitor which again has an
electrostatic voltage potential across it, although it is now of the
opposite polarity.
• The capacitor now starts to discharge again back through the coil
and the whole process is repeated.
• The polarity of the voltage changes as the energy is passed back
and forth between the capacitor and inductor producing an AC
type sinusoidal voltage and current waveform.

• This process then forms the basis of an LC oscillators tank circuit

and theoretically this cycling back and forth will continue
indefinitely.
• However, things are not perfect and every time energy is
transferred from the capacitor, C to inductor, L and back from L
to C some energy losses occur which decay the oscillations to zero
over time.

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RESONANCE FREQUENCY

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• This equation shows that if either L or C are decreased, the frequency

increases.
• This output frequency is commonly given the abbreviation of ( ƒ r ) to
identify it as the “resonant frequency”.
• To keep the oscillations going in an LC tank circuit, we have to
replace all the energy lost in each oscillation and also maintain the
amplitude of these oscillations at a constant level.
• The amount of energy replaced must therefore be equal to the energy
lost during each cycle.
• If the energy replaced is too large the amplitude would increase until
clipping of the supply rails occurs.
• Alternatively, if the amount of energy replaced is too small the
amplitude would eventually decrease to zero over time and the
oscillations would stop.

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
• The Hartley Oscillator design uses two inductive coils in series with a
parallel capacitor to form its resonance tank circuit and produce
sinusoidal oscillations.

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• In a Hartley oscillator the oscillation frequency is

determined by a tank circuit comprising of two inductors
and one capacitor.
• The inductors are connected in series and the capacitor is
connected across them in parallel.
• Hartley oscillators are commonly used in radio frequency
(RF) oscillator applications and the recommended
frequency range is from 20KHz to 30MHz.
• The circuit diagram of a typical Hartley oscillator is
shown in the figure below.

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• In the circuit diagram resistors R1 and R2 give a potential divider bias

for the transistor Q1.
• Re is the emitter resistor, whose job is to provide thermal stability for
the transistor.
• Ce is the emitter by pass capacitor, which by-passes the amplified AC
signals.
• If the emitter by-pass capacitor is not there, the amplified ac voltages
will drop across Re and it will get added on to the base-emitter voltage
of Q1 and will disrupt the biasing conditions.
• Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor while Cout is the output DC
decoupling capacitor.
• The task of a DC decoupling capacitor is to prevent DC voltages from
reaching the succeeding stage.
• Inductor L1, L2 and capacitor C1 forms the tank circuit.

• When the power supply is switched ON the transistor starts

conducting and the collector current increases.
• As a result the capacitor C1 starts charging and when the capacitor C1
is fully charged it starts discharging through coil L1.
• This charging and discharging creates a series of damped oscillations
in the tank circuit and it is the key.
• The oscillations produced in the tank circuit is coupled (fed back) to
the base of Q1 and it appears in the amplified form across the collector
and emitter of the transistor.
• The output voltage of the transistor (voltage across collector and
emitter) will be in phase with the voltage across inductor L1.
• Since the junction of two inductors is grounded, the voltage across L2
will be 180° out of phase to that of the voltage across L1.

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• The voltage across L2 is actually fed back to the base of Q1.

• From this we can see that, the feed back voltage is 180° out of phase
with the transistor and also the transistor itself will create another
180° phase difference.
• So the total phase difference between input and output is 360° and it is
very important condition for creating sustained oscillations.
• Barkhausen Criterion: A linear system will produce sustained
oscillations only at frequencies for which the gain around the feedback
loop is 1 and the phase shift around the feedback loop is ZERO or an
integral multiple of 2π.
• The frequency of oscillation can be calculated in the same way as any
parallel resonant circuit, using:

• This basic formula is adequate where the mutual inductance between L 1

and L2 is negligible, but needs to be modified when the mutual
inductance between L1 and L2 is considerable.
• Mutual inductance is an additional effective amount of inductance
caused by the magnetic field created around one inductor (or one part of
a tapped inductor) inducing a current into the other inductor.
• When both inductors are wound on a common core, the effect of mutual
inductance (M) can be considerable and the total inductance is
calculated by the formula:
LTOT =L1 + L2 ±2M
• The actual value of M depends on how effectively the two inductors are
magnetically coupled, which among other factors depends on the spacing
between the inductors, the number of turns on each inductor, the
dimensions of each coil and the material of the common core.

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SUMMARY

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

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CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

INTRODUCTION
• Some of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an
oscillator generally include: variations in temperature, variations
in the load, as well as changes to its DC power supply voltage, to
name a few.
• Frequency stability of the output signal can be greatly improved
by the proper selection of the components used for the resonant
feedback circuit, including the amplifier.
• But there is a limit to the stability that can be obtained from
normal LC and RC tank circuits.
• To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal
is generally used as the frequency determining device to produce
another types of oscillator circuit known generally as a Quartz
Crystal Oscillator, (XO).

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• When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of

quartz crystal, it begins to change shape producing a
characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect.
• This Piezo-electric Effect is the property of a crystal by
which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by
changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a
mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an
electrical charge.
• This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical vibrations or
oscillations which can be used to replace the standard LC
tank circuit in the previous oscillators.
• Its size and shape determines its fundamental oscillation
frequency.

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QUARTZ CRYSTAL
EQUIVALENT MODEL

SERIES-RESONANT CIRCUITS
• To excite a crystal for operation in
the series-resonant mode, it may be
connected as a series element in a
feedback path.
• At the series-resonant frequency of
the crystal, its impedance is
smallest and the amount of
(positive) feedback is largest.
• A typical transistor circuit is shown
in Fig.

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• Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage divider stabilized dc bias

circuit.
• Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, and the RFC
coil provides for dc bias while decoupling any ac signal on the power
lines from affecting the output signal.
• The voltage feedback from collector to base is a maximum when the
crystal impedance is minimum (in series-resonant mode).
• The coupling capacitor CC has negligible impedance at the circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc between collector and base.
• The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set, then, by the series-
resonant frequency of the crystal.
• Changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters, and so on have
no effect on the circuit operating frequency, which is held stabilized by
the crystal.
• The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability,
which is good.

PARALLEL-RESONANT CIRCUITS
• Since the parallel-resonant impedance of a
crystal is a maximum value, it is connected in
shunt.
• At the parallel-resonant operating frequency, a
crystal appears as an inductive reactance of
largest value.
• Figure shows a crystal connected as the
inductor element in a modified Colpitts circuit.
• The basic dc bias circuit should be evident.
• Maximum voltage is developed across the
crystal at its parallel-resonant frequency.
• The voltage is coupled to the emitter by a
capacitor voltage divider—capacitors C1 and
C2.

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MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

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MULTIVIBRATORS

INTRODUCTION

• Multivibrators belong to a family of oscillators commonly

called “Relaxation Oscillators“.
• Clock pulses are generally continuous square or
rectangular shaped waveform that is produced by a single
pulse generator circuit such as a Multivibrator.
• A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH” state
and a “LOW” state producing a continuous output.

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TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATORS
• There are basically three types of Multivibrator circuits:
• Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable
states but switches continuously between two states this action
produces a train of square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.
• Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has
only ONE stable state and is triggered externally with it
returning back to its first stable state.
• Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that
produces a single pulse either positive or negative in value.

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• An Astable Multivibrator or a Free Running Multivibrator is the
multivibrator which has no stable states.
• Its output oscillates continuously between its two unstable states
without the aid of external triggering.
• The time period of each states are determined by Resistor Capacitor
(RC) time constant.
• Regenerative switching circuits such as Astable Multivibrators are the
most commonly used type of relaxation oscillator because not only are
they simple, reliable and easy to construct, they also produce a constant
square wave output waveform.

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• These circuits generally comprise of passive components like resistors

and capacitors together with active elements which can be BJTs
(Bipolar Junction Transistors) or FETs (Field Effect Transistors) or
Op-Amps or 555 timer ICs.

• It consists of two common emitter amplifying stages.

• The output of an astable multivibrator is available at the collector
terminals of either transistor.
• However, the two outputs are out of phase with each other.
• In this kind of circuit, the application of the supply voltage VCC causes
one of the transistors to turn ON earlier than the other due to the
inevitable difference in their electrical properties.
• Let us suppose that Q1 is On and Q2 is off.
• The circuit operation may be explained as follows.
1. Since transistor Q1 is in saturation, output O1 will be at zero
potential.
2. Since Q2 is in cutoff,no current flows through Rc2 and hence O2 will
be at Vcc.

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3. Since O2 is at 0V, capacitor C2 starts charging through R2 towards

Vcc.
4. When the voltage across C2 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7V), it
forward biases Q2 and it starts conducting.
5. O2 starts decreasing from Vcc to almost zero as Q2 saturates.
6. This potential decrease (negative swing) is applied to the base of Q1,
driving it into cutoff.
7. Since now O1 is at 0V, capacitor C1 starts charging through R1
towards Vcc.
8. When the voltage across C1 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7V), it
forward biases Q1 and it starts conducting.
• In this way, the whole cycle is repeated.
• This cyclic phenomenon gives rise to the oscillatory waveform where
complementary square signals are generated at the collector terminals
of either transistors.

• The time in each state depends on RC values.

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MONOSTABLE
MULTIVIBRATORS

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Monostable Multivibrator or One-Shot Multivibrator has only one
stable state.
• By default monostable multivibrator will be in its stable state, but when
triggered it will switch to unstable state (quasi-stable state) for a time
period determined by the RC time constant in the circuit.
• Generally speaking, discrete multivibrators consist of a two transistor
cross coupled switching circuit designed so that one or more of its
outputs are fed back as an input to the other transistor with a resistor
and capacitor ( RC ) network connected across them to produce the
feedback tank circuit.
• In this multivibrator, a single narrow input trigger pulse produces
single rectangular pulse whose amplitude, pulse width and wave shape
depend upon the values of circuit components rather than upon the
trigger pulse.

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WORKING
• INITIAL CONDITION
(In the absence of
Trigger Pulse)
• When the circuit is
switched ON, transistor
Q1 will be OFF and Q2
will be ON, since
sufficient base current
flows to Q2 through
R1.
• Capacitor C1 gets
charged through R to
Vcc during this state.

WHEN TRIGGER PULSE IS APPLIED

• When a trigger pulse is applied to Q1 through C2, the circuit will switch
to its opposite unstable state where Q2 is cut-off and Q1 conducts at
saturation.
• The chain of circuit actions is as under:
1. If positive trigger pulse is of sufficient amplitude, it will give it a
forward bias.
• Hence, Q1 will start conducting.
2. As Q1 conducts, its collector voltage falls.
• It means that potential of V1 falls (negative-going signal).
• This negative-going voltage is fed to Q2 via C1 where it decreases its
forward bias.

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3. As collector current of Q1
starts decreasing, potential of
V2 increases (positive-going
signal).
• Soon, Q2 comes out of
conduction.
4. The positive-going signal at
V2 is fed via R2 to the base of
Q1 where it increases its
forward bias further.
• As Q1 conducts more,
potential of point V1
approaches 0 V.
5. This action is cumulative
and ends with Q1 conducting
at saturation and Q2 cut-off.

RETURN TO INITIAL STABLE STATE

1. As point V1 is at almost 0 V, C1
starts to discharge through
saturated Q1 to ground.
2. As C1 discharges, the negative
potential at the base of Q2 is
decreased.
As C1 discharges further, Q2 is
pulled out of cut-off.
3. As Q2 conducts further, a
negative-going signal from point
V2 via R1 drives Q1 into cut-off.
• Hence, the circuit reverts to its
original state with Q2
conducting at saturation and Q1
cut-off.

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• It remains in the stable state till another trigger pulse

comes along and the entire cycle repeats itself.
• As shown in Figure, the output is taken from the collector
of Q2 though it can also be taken from point V1 of Q1.
• The width of this pulse is determined by the time constant
of C1 R1.
• Since this MV produces one output pulse for every input
trigger pulse it receives, it is called mono or one-shot
multivibrator.
• The width or duration of the pulse is given by
T = 0.69 C1R1
• It is also known as the one-shot period.

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BISTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR

• A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states.

• The circuit stays in any one of the two stable states.
• It continues in that state, unless an external trigger pulse is given.
• This Multivibrator is also known as Flip-flop.
• The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from one stable state to
the other by the application of an external trigger pulse thus, it requires
two external trigger pulses before it returns back to its original state.
• The discrete Bistable Multivibrator is a two state non-regenerative
device constructed from two cross-coupled transistors operating as
“ON-OFF” transistor switches.
• In each of the two states, one of the transistors is cut-off while the other
transistor is in saturation, this means that the bistable circuit is capable
of remaining indefinitely in either stable state.

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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
• Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and RL2 are
connected in feedback to one another.
• The base resistors R3 and R4 are joined to a common source –VBB.
• The feedback resistors R1 and R2 are shunted by capacitors C1 and C2
known as Commutating Capacitors.
• The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at the base through the
capacitor C3 and the transistor Q2 is given a trigger input at its base
through the capacitor C4.
• The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as Speed-up Capacitors, as they
reduce the transition time, which means the time taken for the transfer of
conduction from one transistor to the other.

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OPERATION
• When the circuit is switched ON, due to some circuit imbalances as in Astable,
one of the transistors, say Q1 gets switched ON, while the transistor Q2 gets
switched OFF.
• This is a stable state of the Bistable Multivibrator.
• By applying a negative trigger at the base of transistor Q1 or by applying a
positive trigger pulse at the base of transistor Q2, this stable state is altered.
• So, let us understand this by considering a negative pulse at the base of
transistor Q1.
• As a result, the collector voltage increases, which forward biases the transistor
Q2.
• The collector current of Q2 as applied at the base of Q1, which reverse biases Q1
and this cumulative action makes the transistor Q1 OFF and transistor Q2 ON.
• This is another stable state of the Multivibrator.
• Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then either a negative trigger
pulse at transistor Q 2 or a positive trigger pulse at transistor Q1 is applied.

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• Advantages
• The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Stores the previous output unless disturbed.
• Circuit design is simple
• Disadvantages
• The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.
• A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.
• Applications
• Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as pulse
generation and digital operations like counting and storing of
binary information.

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