BESC-131

Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Nature and Perspectives
School of Education

Block

2
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
Unit 5
Education and Philosophy 89
Unit 6
Schools of Thought 107
Unit 7
Contribution of Indian Philosophers 123
Unit 8
Contribution of Western Philosophers 145
Philosophical Perspective
of Education BLOCK 2 PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
Introduction to the Block
‘Philosophical Perspective of Education’ is the second Block of the Course,
BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. Every discipline
has its contexts and perspectives. The discipline of education has also
philosophical, sociological, historical, and political perspectives. This Block
specifically addresses the philosophical perspective of education with special
reference to the ideas and principles of education and thoughts of great Indian
and western educationists and their implications for educational practices.
The first Unit (Unit-5) of this Block, ‘Education and Philosophy’ provides
a base for understanding the concept of education, philosophy and their
interrelationships. The Unit, critically analyses the definitions of philosophy given
by great philosophers with its functions and different domains of philosophy such
as metaphysics (understanding the reality), epistemology (understanding knowledge)
and axiology (understanding values). The Unit also further establishes
interrelationships between education and philosophy and provides understanding
on various aspects of education such as aims, methods, curriculum, etc.
The second Unit (Unit-6) of this Block, ‘Schools of Thought’, discusses the
ideas & ideals and principles of education deduced from various schools of
thought such as Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Realism and
Humanism. The Unit also explains the educational implications of the above
schools of thought in the context of aims of education, methods of teaching,
curriculum and role of teachers and learners.
The third Unit (Unit-7) of this Block, ‘Contribution of Indian Philosophers’
explains the concept and principles of education given by great Indian
educationists like Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri
Aurobindo, J. Krishnamurti and Gijubhai Badheka with special reference to
framing aims of education, curriculum, pedagogy and role of teachers and
students.
The fourth Unit (Unit-8) of this Block, ‘Contribution of Western Philosophers’
explains the concept and principles of education given by great western
philosophers and educationists like Plato, Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel
Kant with special reference to framing aims of education, curriculum, pedagogy
and role of teachers and students.

88
 Education and Philosophy
UNIT 5 EDUCATION AND
PHILOSOPHY
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 What is Philosophy?
5.3.1 Philosophy as Analysis
5.3.2 Philosophy as Synthesis
5.3.3 Philosophy is the Process of Philosophisation

5.4 Definitions of Philosophy

5.5 Branches of Philosophy
5.5.1 Metaphysics
5.5.2 Epistemology
5.5.3 Axiology
5.5.4 Logic and Education
5.5.5 Branches of Philosophies and their Basic Questions

5.6 Education and Philosophy: Interrelationships

5.6.1 Interrelationships between Philosophy and Education
5.6.2 Philosophy and Aims of Education
5.6.3 Philosophy and Curriculum
5.6.4 Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
5.6.5 Relationship between Teachers and Learners

5.7 Let Us Sum Up

5.8 References and Suggested Readings
5.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit deals the concepts of Education and Philosophy and their inter-
relationships. It also focuses on different branches of philosophy and how it helps
to understand education. We have begun our discussion with a preliminary
understanding of word philosophy as the most general way of reflecting on its
etymological meaning and then reflecting upon understanding of Indian and Western
philosophies.
The Unit describes various philosophical types so that learners will be able to gain
familiarity with different branches of philosophy i.e. metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic as they apply these to educational discourses subsequently.
Further, the Unit also focuses on the questions dealt by different branches of
philosophy. Further, the Unit tries to acquaint you with the relationship between
philosophy and education in terms of Aims of Education, Curriculum, Methods of
Teaching, relationships between teachers and learners, etc. Lastly but not the
least, an attempt has been made to give you an insight on the role of philosophy
in understanding education as an area of study.
Dr. Sunita Singh, CIE, University of Delhi. 89
Philosophical Perspective
of Education 5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 explain the concept of philosophy and education;
 differentiate between the Indian and Western concepts of philosophy;
 analyse different branches of philosophy and its role in understanding
education; and
 establish inter-relationship between philosophy and education.

5.3 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Etymologically the word philosophy is derived from the Greek words “Philos
(love)” and “Sophia” (of wisdom), it means “love of wisdom”. Wisdom is not the
same as knowledge but much more than that. It is closely related to experience
and worth bearing a sense of knowledge. There is an observation by Plato in his
book “Republic” which reflects the belief that philosophy is that love of knowledge
which makes a man wise and love wisely and also write ‘he who has a taste for
every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied
may be just termed as a philosopher’.
The word ‘Philosophy’ is difficult to define in a specific way that is universally
acceptable. There are different meanings of philosophy. Sometimes, it refers to a
certain method of thinking. As with all thought, philosophy arises out of an attempt
to solve a problem, to make sense out of a confusing situation or to explain an
inadequacy. But unlike most kinds of thought, it has no immediate objective. In
other words, we may say that, philosophy is concerned not so much with solving
a confronting problem as with finding, the deeper meaning of problems.
Knowledge of philosophy is fundamental not only to an understanding of education
as a whole but also to decide or select the techniques of teaching and their
effective use. For example, a teacher teaches the principles of the square root in
a class. You may find that the methodology used by the teacher is suitable for the
understanding of the children, the teacher knows psychological conditions to
create an appropriate classroom situation, but, has he done enough in teaching
every pupil to solve problems involving square roots? Is the task of a teacher
simply to impart the subject matter specified in the syllabus? Or is education a
means for improving all human behavior? Can it be a model for thinking? Can it
help us to understand the nature of the universe and our place in it? Such are the
questions that philosophies in general and educational philosophy, in particular,
strive to answer. Generally, analysis and synthesis are the two basic functions of
philosophy. The first one is philosophy as analysis and another one is philosophy
as synthesis.

5.3.1 Philosophy as Analysis

If you go through the history of philosophy, you may find that most of the
philosophers were not meta-physicians, rather they were analyst, such as: Locke,
Berkley, Hume, Mill, Moore, Hegel, etc. The analytical philosophers examined
such concepts as mind, truth, cause(s) and assesses. You may observe that under
90 analytic philosophy an object conveys different meaning under different contexts.
The different meanings they convey in a different context. Today analytical Education and Philosophy
approaches of philosophy dominate across the world. Analytical philosophy clarifies
what we already know and point(s) of inconsistencies in our thinking. It does not
build a new system of thought.
5.3.2 Philosophy as Synthesis
The other main function of philosophy is a more traditional one. It attempts to
synthesize all knowledge and man’s total experiences. Here the emphasis is upon
the anticipated result, rather than the tools and methods employed. This view was
held by some early philosophers who did not claim to be a wise man, but merely
lovers of wisdom. They claimed that their role was to help others in the search
of wisdom. So in this sense philosophy is an attempt to give meaning to one’s
existence through the continued search for a comprehensive and consistent answer
to basic problems. This makes philosophers an active person. For example,
Socrates himself took philosophy as an activity.
In the words of Plutarch, another philosopher mentioned about Socrates is,
“Socrates neither set up benches for his students nor set on a platform, nor set
house for his teachers. He was philosophizing all the time while he was joking,
while he was drinking, while he was soldering. Whenever he met you on the street
and met the end when he was in prison and drinking the poison. He was the first
to start that all your life, all the time, in everything you do, whatever you are doing
is the time for philosophy.” (Source: Jackson, 1988)
5.3.3 Philosophy is the Process of Philosophisation
You may be wondering ‘what is the process of philosophisation in philosophy. Let
go through the given para, mentioned by Harold H. Titans, ‘To philosophize is
not merely to read and to know philosophy; it is to think and to feel
philosophical’. The two terms, ‘Philosophy’ and ‘Philosophisation’ needs to be
understood properly before understanding the process of Philosophisation.
Philosophisation may be explained as working on creating new knowledge and
examining that new knowledge for establishing a theory. The process and steps
that we adopt for creating new knowledge, experimentation, process of
inquiry, agreeing or disagreeing with the facts, etc. can be said as
Philosophisation. It is therefore, Philosophisation is the way to reach at the
wisdom or truth which is ‘Philosophy’. Through this process, Socrates develops
his other method of teaching. He posed his questions to his students and invited
them to teach him by giving the best answers. Then he helps them to examine
critically their own answers, to modify and then to alter or further modify till they
reach at the truth.

Check Your Progress 5.1

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Define the term ‘Philosophy’.
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Philosophical Perspective
of Education 2. Name some analytic philosophers?
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3. Explain the term ‘Philosophisation’.
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5.4 DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

As a learner you may be very uncomfortable to begin the study of philosophy to
find that different philosophers have given different definitions of the term
philosophy. You may find that some of them have laid emphasis on the
psychological facts and others gave importance to the values. Philosophy raises
questions in the mind and again it inspire the person to get the answer of the
questions from the pursuit of his/her existing knowledge, experiences or creating
new knowledge. It raises the following questions to get the appropriate answers
to it:
 What is knowledge?
 What is the World?
 Who has created the World?
 Is there a God?
 Who am I?
 What is the aim of life?
 Why should I live?
 What is the purpose of this World?
Definitions of philosophy laid down by the great philosophers mostly address the
above questions and also explain the processes to get the answers of these
questions. It is therefore rightly said, ‘one who asks many questions, try to get
the answers of the questions and never satisfied with the answers are truly become
a philosopher’. In view of this, some of the definitions of philosophy given by the
various philosophers have been given here under:
“Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that
it signified achieving wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.”
- John Dewey
Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather
than a body of conclusions about experience.
92 - Edgar S. Brightman
Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy Education and Philosophy
is a general theory of criticism.
- C.J. Ducasse
Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order to change it.
- Karl Marx
Men live in accordance with their philosophy of life, their conception of the
world. This is true even of the most thoughtless. It is impossible to live
without metaphysics.
- Huxley
Philosophy and education are like the two sides of the same coin; the one
is implied by the other; the former is the contemplative side of life, while the
later is the active side.
- J.S. Ross
He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn
and is never satisfied may be justly termed as a philosopher.
- Plato
Philosophy is a science which discovers the real nature of supernatural
elements.
- Aristotle
Philosophy is a view of life. It gives a direction to life, offers a design for
living.
- S. Radhakrishnan
Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.
- - Herbert Spencer
Our subject is a collection of sciences, such as the theory of knowledge,
logic, cosmology, ethics and aesthetics as well as a unified survey.
- Roy Wood Sellars
Philosophies like other studies, aims primarily at knowledge.
- Bertrand Russell
Between science and philosophy the very closest relationship exists. They
spring from the same root, the love of knowledge and they aspire to the
same end, the knowledge of reality. While science describes the facts,
philosophy interprets them.
- Patreck
Science is interested in the proximate or efficient causes of the facts, while
philosophy is concerned with its ultimate or final causes.
- Brubacher 93
Philosophical Perspective Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the general truth that lies
of Education
behind the particular fact, to discover also the realities that lie behind
appearance.
- Raymont
To analyse the above definitions, you may arrive at the following points of
understanding :
 Philosophy is born out of specific experiences, special circumstances and
situations. Therefore, different persons have adopted different philosophies
of life in accordance with the specific circumstances and situation wherein
they spent their lives.
 Philosophy has a deep knowledge pursuits and it provides a shape, analyses
the knowledge base of each and every discipline.
 Scientific enquiry is the base of philosophy and philosophy has an intimate
relation with science. As you are aware that science deals with realities of
nature and life, i.e. animal, plant or human. Those realities are integral part
of human life. These are the base to generate knowledge and experiences of
the child and further it goes to form philosophy.
 One of the main features of philosophy is that it comes out of specific
experiences, special circumstances and situations.
 All those persons may be called as philosophers, who in one way or the
other search for truth and realities.
 Human being undergoes with various kinds of experiences throughout their
life, from birth to death, these experiences provide them with new knowledge
and this search of knowledge makes the individual a philosopher.

Check Your Progress 5.2

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
4. Mention any two basic aspects of philosophy?
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5. Analyse the definition of philosophy given by J.S. Ross and Herbert
Spenser.
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 Education and Philosophy
5.5 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
This has been discussed in the earlier sections that ‘Philosophy’ deals knowledge,
situations and experiences. Defining and shaping Knowledge is the most important
function of philosophy. It characterizes the type of knowledge and processes of
acquisition that cater in a discipline. Even though knowledge is the main function
of philosophy, it also discusses science, realities and values of life. It is therefore,
in the section, different branches of philosophy have been dealt which deals with
its various aspects such as knowledge, reality, values, etc. Let us learn these
branches of philosophy in the following aspects:
 Metaphysics
 Epistemology
 Axiology
 Logic

5.5.1 Metaphysics
The derivative meaning of ‘Metaphysics’ is the ‘science of what is beyond the
physical’. It means, the term ‘Metaphysics’ discusses the ultimate reality which
is beyond the physical world. This term metaphysics derives from the two words,
‘Meta’ which means ‘after’’ and ‘physics’ which means ‘science’. So it may be
said that the very meaning of ‘Metaphysics’ is ‘after science’. The term ‘after
science’ is abstract in nature and it may be little spiritual to realize it. Many
philosophers say ‘metaphysics’ as a ‘theory of reality’.
Metaphysics implies the study of the nature of ultimate reality and it involves
speculation about the nature of existence. It asks the question of what is genuinely
real. The belief about the nature of reality determines how one perceives relationships
to the universe and to the society. Their beliefs raise most important questions,
like, what is real and what is not? It begins to provide the answers to the following
questions: is there a spiritual realm of existence or is reality material? What is the
origin of the universe? Is it inherently purposeful by its own design or do we
create our own purpose? So, metaphysics in their speculations regarding the
nature of reality and accordingly draw various conclusions. It is therefore,
metaphysics is also called as ‘theory of reality’.
Metaphysics and Its Relation with Education
You may be curious to know that how metaphysics is related to educational,
theory and practice in many ways. The subjects or areas of studies, experiences,
and skills in the curriculum reflect the conception of reality held by the society that
supports the educational institutions. Many school subjects such as History,
Geography, Chemistry, and so on describe certain dimensions of reality to the
students. In high school science, if a student concludes the discussion on evolution
that the universe as a whole has no purpose, it follows that his/her life has to
mean only as he/she personally derives that it should. Again in Geography, the
concept such as measurement of earth, altitude, weather and environment in
different regions, different land forms and appropriateness of crops in that land
forms, etc. are the knowledge base of the discipline, but, when we say the
existence and reality of that geographical substance and its utilitarian qualities for
the human society is something related to Metaphysics of that subject or area of 95
Philosophical Perspective study. Accordingly, different disciplines are having a knowledge base as well as
of Education it addresses the reality of that knowledge, which implies Metaphysics.
With addressing the knowledge aspects, the metaphysical views of contents in an
area of study are being properly taken care of in designing school text-books,
curriculum and methods of teaching.
5.5.2 Epistemology
Epistemology is defined as ‘Theory of Knowledge’. It is a branch of philosophy
which investigates the origin, nature, methods, and processes of acquiring
knowledge. In other words, the nature and worthiness of knowledge, methods of
acquiring knowledge, etc. fall under Epistemology. So this branch of philosophy
considers important questions, such as:
 How do we know?
 What do we know?
 What processes of knowing do we base our knowledge of the world and
society?
 What is the authority on which we base our claims to truth?
 Do our knowledge claims derive from divine revelation, empirical evidence,
or personal and subjective experiences?
All the above questions address a knowledge pursuit. Exploring, experimenting,
enquiring and examining the facts are the processes of acquiring knowledge that
come under epistemology. Thus, epistemology addresses the cognitive aspect of
domain. Figure 1 depicts the key epistemological terms:

Fig. 1 : Key Epistemological Terms

(Source: Retrieved from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Epistemology_and_
96 Learning_Theories on 28.01.2020)
Figure 1, presents the origin of knowledge as per the epistemological branch of Education and Philosophy
philosophy. Origin of knowledge may be from objectivism, pragmatism and
interpretivism. Objective knowledge may be acquired through empiricism which
is possible through sensory experiences. According to objectivism, knowledge
exists and it is real so there is no need to construct knowledge. Another type of
knowledge acquisition is through pragmatism as it emphasizes there is no single
truth of knowledge. Knowledge could be tested, experimented, interpreted,
experienced and created. Another way is interpretivism that focuses on knowledge
could be constructed, knowledge is not uniform or identical, rather it may exist
in multiple forms. Every individual has the ability to interpret the facts, link their
experiences with existing knowledge and also to construct their own knowledge.
Epistemology and Education
The narrative of the term epistemology is present in all the disciplines. We often
say that there is disciplinary knowledge, it means, in every discipline there is a
knowledge base with certain principles and theories of knowledge. As an example,
in Psychology, we have certain principles and theories; similarly in Education we
have many pedagogical principles that help us to understand the concept and to
teach that concept by using a suitable pedagogy, etc. Epistemology is closely
related to the method of teaching and learning for example- an Idealist may hold
that knowledge based on ideas, which are present in the mind but not known to
the individual. The appropriate educational method for an idealist would be the
Socratic dialogue in which the teacher attempts to bring latent ideas to the student’s
consciousness by asking the leading questions. While existentialist contends that
we create our own knowledge by choosing what we wish to believe.
It is therefore difficult to say the existence of a discipline without a knowledge
base, its methods and practices to acquire and create new knowledge in that
discipline. Epistemological philosophy also emphasizes that the discipline has a
research base and a group of strong followers who conduct various researches
in that discipline and bring changes. It also has an academic manifestation and it
is being taught in the education system as a subject or discipline.

5.5.3 Axiology
‘Axiology’ is one of the branches of philosophy which defines as ‘Theory of
principles or values’. The sub-division of axiology is Ethics and Aesthetics.
Ethics refers to the philosophical study of moral values and conduct. Aesthetic is
concerned with the study of values in the realm of beauty and art. Some school
subjects such as art, drama, music, dancing etc. fulfill aesthetic sense and make
human life, harmonious, balanced and beautiful. So on one hand where metaphysics
attempts to describe the nature of reality, axiology refers to prescriptions of moral
behavior and beauty. These discussions also affect educational perspectives such
as discipline, school environment, student-teacher relationships, etc. Axiology deals
mainly with the affective domain of knowledge.
Axiology and Education
Axiology plays a very important role in the education system in general and
curriculum designing, development and transaction in specific. As you might have
been aware that the National Curriculum Frameworks (2005) gives stress upon
the value based and moral education as a separate entity of education and also
integrate it with the core subjects. It is therefore, integrating aesthetic sense, moral 97
Philosophical Perspective and value education, art and craft, peace education, etc. in school curriculum and
of Education
syllabus is a challenge before the curriculum committee. You might have come
across that the Education Committees and Commissions at different times have
also given importance and documented in their report for implementing educational
values through the courses and curriculum. So, axiology has direct impact on
education from the very beginning of the ancient system of education. In another
words that it is the heart of an education system. The concept of life skills such
as self awareness, critical thinking, decision making, effective communication,
coping with stress, empathy, creative thinking, problem solving, interpersonal
relationships and coping with emotions and their integration in the schooling and
education is also emphasizes the importance of axiology and education.

5.5.4 Logic and Education

By definition, ‘logic’ is a method of reasoning that involves series of statements,
each of which must be true if the statement before it is true. Logic is the branch
of philosophy that deals with correct and logical thinking. It is concerned with
how one organizes and sequences one’s thinking and form arguments according
to a coherent pattern and that one organizes his/her supporting evidences to make
a case for or to explain something. The two major patterns of logic are deduction
and induction. In deduction, one moves from general statement or principle to
specific cases or examples, whereas in induction, one moves from particular
examples to generalization i.e. to establishing theory or principle.
Example of deductive principle:
All men are mortal…..Rohit is a man…..therefore, Rohit is mortal.
In deductive principle, we move from general statement (all men are mortal) to
specific cases (Rohit is a man, so, Rohit is mortal)
Example of inductive principle:
Rohit is mortal…….Alok is mortal……..Alex is mortal……Harjeet is mortal….
Ankit is mortal…..etc.
The above specific instances imply that they are human being. So, we can say that
‘All human beings are mortal’.
In inductive principle, the person moves from specific instances, cases or
situations to a larger generalization.

5.5.5 Branches of Philosophy and their Basic Questions

From the earlier section, you have been familiar with various branches of philosophy.
In the Table 5.1, different branches of philosophy and basic questions they deal
for the pursuit of knowledge, reality, values and logical thinking have been prescribed
here.

98
 Table 5.1 : Branches of philosophies and their basic questions Education and Philosophy
Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology Logic
Ethical Values Aesthetic Values

Examines what Examines what Examines what is Examines what is Examines the rules
ultimately is real is knowledge right and wrong; beautiful or ugly. of correct thinking.
or truth and how do good and evil.
we know.

Is reality a Is truth intuitive, Are ethics, the Is beauty a Is logic deductive, from
cognitive or subjective, and standards of reflection of the the general principle
spiritual personal? behavior, objective universal, absolute, to the specific
phenomenon? and universal, and unchanging? example?
reflecting the
nature of the
universe?

Does objective Is truth revealed Are ethics Is beauty Is logic inductive, from
reality exist from God in a subjective or/and subjective, in the the specific example
outside of one’s sacred or holy personal likes and eye of the beholder? to the general principle
mind? book? dislikes? or finding?

Is reality based Is truth revealed Are ethics Is beauty -

on one’s from reasoning? culturally relative, determined by
experiences? depending on cultural
cultural norms at preferences?
given time?

Does one Is truth empirical, - - -

construct or constructed by
make one’s own using our senses
reality? and the scientific
method?

The above branches of philosophy concentrate basic questions as given in the

table and accordingly education helps to get the answers of those questions.
Getting an accepted answer of the above questions is the work of education.
Educational practices engage in discourses by doing educational experiments and
observations of the things and also develop certain educational theories and
principles. Further, those educational theories and principles get implemented by
using teaching-learning techniques, methods, maxims, etc. which we call pedagogy.

Check Your Progress 5.3

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
6. Explain the concept of ‘metaphysics’.
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Philosophical Perspective
of Education 7. What are the different branches of philosophy?
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8. Mention the major two patterns of ‘Logic’ and give an example of each
type.
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5.6 EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY:

INTERRELATIONSHIPS
Before discussing the relationship between Education and Philosophy, let us
understand the concept of education. You have already studied the concept and
nature of education in Unit-1 of this Course. To recapitulate the concept, we may
say that the word ‘Education’ has been derived from the Latin words ‘Educare’,
‘Educere’ and ‘Educatum’. The word ‘Educare’ means to ‘nourish’ or to ‘bring
up’. The word ‘Educere’ means to ‘Lead forth’ or to ‘draw out’. The word
‘Educatum’ has again composed in two terms, i.e. ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. Here ‘E’
means, a movement from ‘inward’ to ‘outward’ and ‘Duco’ means ‘developing’
or ‘progressing’.
Therefore, we may say that the meaning of ‘Education’ is to nourish or bring up
the best in an individual/child for her/his complete development of personality. In
other words, this may also be said that ‘Education’ can lead to the individual/child
from ignorance to knowledge. Further the meaning of the word, ‘Education’ also
implies to develop and progress the child moving them from inwards towards the
outwards. As an example, we know that every individual has some inner abilities,
experiences and understanding. Education helps the individual to identify those
inner abilities of the individual and to bring it to the light by providing opportunities
and by facilitating the individual.
In other words, in order to understand the relationship between education and
philosophy, it would be better to understand in detail, the relationship between the
two disciplines in view of the major aspects of education i.e., aims of education,
curriculum, methods of teaching and relationship between teachers and students.

5.6.1 Interrelationships between Philosophy and Education

There is supplementary and integral relationship between philosophy and education.
Various philosophical theories and principles have been developed and used in
educational discourses for implementing it in education time and again. It is rightly
said that Philosophy is the theoretical part of developing knowledge and education
100 is the practical and action part to implement that knowledge among the students.
Philosophy is the means of development of human life. Philosophy determines the Education and Philosophy
aim of human life and education plays the role as a mean to achieving of those
aims. Both philosophy and education are integrally and interdependently related
to each other. According to J.S. Ross, ‘Philosophy and education are like the
two sides of the same coin; the one is implied by the other; the former is the
contemplative side of life, while the later is the active side’ (Quoted from
Saxena, 2009). Philosophy is thinking process of life and education is functional
part to materialise the thinking process. Educational problems are discovered in
educational discourses and it has somehow a link with the philosophy to theorise
it and to way forward for solving that problem. Therefore, it is important to
understand philosophy before understanding the educational objectives, system,
organisation and teaching methods.
Establishing relationship between Philosophy and Education, Saxena (2009), in
his book ‘Principles of Education’ has highlighted the following points:
 Philosophy determines the real destination towards which education aims at.
 Philosophy determines the goal of life and also provides suitable and effective
guidance and supervision for education to achieve the goal.
 Philosophy provides the principles and theories of learning whereas education
implements those principles and theories in the process of teaching and
learning.
 True education is practicable only by a true philosophy (Spencer).
 Philosophy determines various aspects of education like the teaching methods,
principles of teaching, curriculum, and the role of the teachers and learners
as well.
 Philosophy and education are like the two sides of a coin, present different
views of the same thing, and that one is implied by the other.
 Great philosophers are great educationists at all the times like, Plato, Dewey,
Rousseau, Gandhi, and Aurobindo.
 ‘Education is the dynamic side of the philosophy’ (John Adams) as because
education translates the ideas of philosophy into action and practice.
 Philosophy determines the aims of life whereas education is a means to
achieve the goal.
(Source : The section, 5.7 has been taken from B.Ed., BES-122, Contemporary
India and Education, Block-3, pp.27-28, IGNOU 2016).
Now, let us discuss the interrelationship between philosophy and education in
various other aspects of education. In the next section, philosophy in the context
of aims of education has been dealt.

5.6.2 Philosophy and Aims of Education

Philosophy determines the aims of education. We all know that education is an
objective and purposeful activity. Aims of education are related to the aims of life.
Again aims of life are the creation of philosophy of a certain time (Saxena, 2009).
It is therefore, aims of education are determined by the philosophy. We prepare
aims of education as per the aims of our life and aims of life are determined by 101
Philosophical Perspective the philosophy of life. It is therefore, aims of education never go beyond the
of Education
philosophy of one’s life. Thus, when aims of life change, aims of education also
change accordingly. As an example, when aim of our life is to arrange for livelihood
and to exist in the society, so as the aim of education sets to meet those needs
and accordingly education prepares the individuals skilled to engage themselves
in world of work and to earn for their livelihood.
It is therefore, philosophers and educationists in different periods have concerned
about the aims of life and accordingly aims of education have been implemented.
Now you might be correlating it with the aim of life and aim of education practiced
in earlier times i.e. during the ancient and mediaeval periods and also in the
present modern period. Development of science and technology in the modern
period has not happened automatically, rather it is the reflection of the aims of life
and education of the individual at the present time.
Further, aims of education in various schools of philosophy such as: Idealism,
Naturalism, Pragmatism, Realism, etc. are different as the philosophical principles
of the schools of thought are different. You will study the detail about different
schools of philosophy and their aims of education in the next unit (Unit-6) of this
Block. So, aims of education at different times were different as philosophy of life
of the society at that period was also different. As example, aims of education at
the Ancient Period, Medieval Period, Modern Period are different as aims are
determined by a time period. The above discussion signifies that philosophy and
aims of education are closely related with each other.

5.6.3 Philosophy and Curriculum

Developing school curriculum is one of the most important components in an
education system. School curriculum links students’ life with the content and
courses transacted in the curriculum which has a direct link with our community
expectations and societal practices. Thus as philosophy determines the aims of
education, therefore, it determines the curriculum. Again, just like there is a
philosophical perspective of discipline, the curriculum and subjects or courses are
also having the philosophical perspective. The philosophy of a country/society is
reflected in the curriculum and accordingly school activities and experiences are
designed. As example, if the philosophy of a country is to spread democratic
attitude among the people, that could be done by incorporating democratic principles
in the school curriculum. Moreover, if philosophy of a country is to make its
national self-reliant by engaging them in the world of work, then the aim of
education would be to develop and implement craft and skill-based education
system in the country/society by incorporating it in the school curriculum.
We may elaborate the concept of the linkage between philosophy and curriculum
by giving many more examples. For example, if the major goal of the country is
to transmit and preserve the cultural heritage, so the school curriculum would be
designed in such a way to develop a sense of cultural awareness among the
students by including it and also by organizing seminars, activities, workshops on
the culture of the country and so on.
If the philosophy of the country is to develop science and technology, so the aims
of education and curriculum should be based upon developing scientific temper
among the students by incorporating inquiry and project based knowledge in the
curriculum and further scope may be given to the students to study and acquire
102 skills in these areas.
You might have observed from the above mentioned examples about the importance Education and Philosophy
of philosophy in curriculum construction. The pragmatic school of philosophy
discusses the methods of the value of empirical knowledge, so they give importance
to those teaching methods in which there is active involvement of sense organs
rather than giving importance to innate ideas. On the other hand, rationalist thinkers
have emphasized knowledge is innate and it develops only through rational thinking.
David Hume rightly pointed out that certainty can be made possible only in
mathematics and not in the field of science while critical philosophers advocate
that knowledge is neither a- priori- nor a- posteriori. So they believe in all
experimental and scientific knowledge and set curriculum according to their
understanding of knowledge.
5.6.4 Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
Philosophy is closely related to methods of teaching. In the next unit of this Block
(Unit-6), you will study the specific methods advocated by various schools of
thoughts. Idealist school of thought suggests traditional method such as ‘lecture
method’ as an ideal method of study. The naturalist school of thought emphasizes
‘self-study method’ and role of a teacher as a ‘facilitator and guide’. The
pragmatic school emphasizes activity, problem-solving and project methods
for teaching. Idealistic school gives importance to teacher-centred methods.
Naturalistic school of thought believes in laissez-faire concept of freedom for the
learners and thus gives importance to self-study method. The pragmatic schools
of philosophy provide democratic freedom to learners for their study and
implement child-centered methods like activity and project methods. The
above discussion tries to clarify that philosophy has a deep relation with the
methods of teaching.
5.6.5 Relationship between Teachers and Learners
Education systems require a relationship between teachers and learners. You may
be aware of that, a teacher is not as content expert only but in a true sense a
philosopher. A teacher directly influences the learners. This is quite natural that the
personality of learners is influenced by the personality of the teachers.
When we talk about the teacher-student relationship as per the schools of
philosophy like Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. we find that idealist teachers
try to impose a strict discipline upon the learners and teachers play a dominating
role in teaching as well as forming behavior of the learners. On the contrary, the
naturalistic teachers provide ample freedom to the students and they work as a
guide and facilitator for the students. They consider that, it is the learner, who has
ample experiences to constitute their own knowledge. Again the pragmatic teachers
provide new and innovative opportunities to their students to create something
creative and innovative which is different from the traditional approach of
understanding the things. Pragmatist teachers believe that change is the ultimate
reality and their every action directed towards to achieve the change, and
accordingly they constitute behavior of their learners.
The above discussion clarifies that the nature of relationship between the teacher-
learners are depended on the philosophical principles that they follow. It is therefore,
this may be rightly said that philosophy has a close linkage to maintain a harmonious
relationship between the teachers and the learners. Autocratic, democratic and 103
Philosophical Perspective laissez-faire behavioral patterns of teachers are not spontaneous rather are the
of Education
reflection of practice of that particular educational philosophy in teaching and to
help the learners to shape their behavior.
In a nutshell, it may be concluded that all forms of philosophy help in determining
the nature and forms of education. Epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, etc. all
play their part in devising educational programmes and as per the aims of education.

Activity 1
1. Mention the nature of relationship exists between the teachers and
learners in the given schools of thought.
Idealism:
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Naturalism:
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Pragmatism:
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

Check Your Progress 5.4

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
9. How does philosophy determine the aims of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. Describe in brief the teaching methods emphasized by John Dewey?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11. Mention any two relationships between philosophy and education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

104 ............................................................................................................
 Education and Philosophy
5.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, you have studied the concept of philosophy and education and how
both are inter-related. We have discussed philosophy as a process of
philosophisation and also as a process of analysis and synthesis. A brief discussion
on different branches of philosophy such as metaphysics, epistemology, axiology
and logic have been provided to make you understand a deep look into
understanding the educational system and inter-relationship with the philosophical
principles. The unit has also provided an understanding on the relationship between
education and philosophy in terms of setting aims of education, curriculum, process
and methods of teaching, and teachers-learners relationships. Finally the Unit
concluded with discussing the role of philosophy in understanding education as a
whole.

5.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Brubacher, J.S. (2007). Modern philosophies of education. 3rd ed. Michigan:
Surjeet publications, New Delhi, pp.1.23
Bruckacher, John. S. (1969). Modern Philosophies of Education. New York: Mc
Graw Hil Co.
Chambliss, J.J. (1996). Philosophy of Education an encyclopedia. New York,
London: Garland publishing, Inc.
Gutek,G.L. (2009). New perspectives on philosophy and education. New Jersey:
person Columbia, Ohio upper Saddle River, Inc.
IGNOU (2016). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122, B.Ed.). Block-
3: Philosophical Perspectives of Education, pp. 27-28, New Delhi: IGNOU.
Kneller, G.F. (1967). Foundations of education, 2nd ed. California: University of
California, Los Angeles pp. 68-69
Mohanty, Jagannath (1994). Indian Education in the Emerging Society. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. R. Lall Book Depot, Meerut,
2009.
Sharma, K.R. (2002). Philosophy of education.3rd ed. Delhi, Atlantic publishers
and distributions, pp.25-30.
Suri, A. & Sodhi T.S. (1998). Philosophical and Sociological foundation of
education. p. 40.
Jackson P. Hershbell (1988). Plutarch’s Portrait of Socrates. Illinois Classical
Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, PLUTARCH (FALL/1988), pp. 365-381 Published by:
University of Illinois Press.

Website Referred:
Retrieved from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/
Epistemology_and_Learning_Theories on 28.01.2020
105
Philosophical Perspective
of Education 5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Etymologically the term philosophy is derived from the Greek words ‘Philos’
(love) and ‘Sophia’ (of wisdom), and it means ‘love of knowledge or wisdom’.
2. Locke, Berkley, Hume, Mill, Moore, Hegel, etc.
3. The term Philosophisation means not merely to read and learn rather to think
and feel philosophical.
4. Self-exercise.
5. The definition of philosophy given by J.S. Ross says that the relationship
between philosophy and education is just like two sides of the same coin,
it means the existence of either one is not possible with the other. Spincer
explains philosophy is concern with everything as universal science.
6. Metaphysics implies the study of the nature of ultimate reality, involves
speculation about the nature of existence.
7. Epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and logic.
8. The two major patterns of logic are deduction and induction. In deduction,
we move from general statement or principle to specific cases or examples,
whereas in induction, we move from particular examples to establishing theory
or principle.
9. As aims of education are related to the aims of life and again aims of life are
the creation of philosophy of a certain time, in this way, philosophy determines
aims of education.
10. Problem solving and project methods are advocated by John Dewey.
11. Self exercise.

106
 Schools of Thought
UNIT 6 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Schools of Thought: An Overview
6.4 Idealism and Realism
6.4.1 Aims of Education
6.4.2 Curriculum
6.4.3 Methods of Teaching
6.4.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

6.5 Pragmatism and Existentialism

6.5.1 Aims of Education
6.5.2 Curriculum
6.5.3 Methods of Teaching
6.5.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

6.6 Naturalism and Humanism

6.6.1 Aims of Education
6.6.2 Curriculum
6.6.3 Methods of Teaching
6.6.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

6.7 Let Us Sum Up

6.8 References and Suggested Readings
6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have studied the concept of philosophy and its relationship
with education. In establishing relationship between philosophy and education,
you have already come to know that philosophy is the base for theories and
principles of education and they are practiced in education.
In this Unit, an attempt has been made to discuss different schools of thoughts in
philosophy viz. Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Naturalism and
Humanism. They have been further enumerated in the sequence of understanding
the concept of different schools of thought, their basic principles, aims of education,
curriculum, methods of teaching and role of teachers and learners.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain various schools of thought;
 identify the basic principles of different schools of thought;
 discuss educational implications of different schools of thought;
Dr. Gaurav Rao, Dept. of Education, MJP Rohilkhand University. 107
Philosophical Perspective  compare and appraise the curriculum of different schools of thought;
of Education
 describe different methods of teaching proposed by the schools of thought;
and
 aware of the role of the teacher and the student in different schools of
thought.

6.3 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: AN OVERVIEW

You may be familiar that systems of education have been in existence since
civilization and their main purpose was acquiring and transmission of knowledge
from one generation to another. You have been also aware of different schools of
thought such as Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. and they have proposed
principles of education and transaction procedures in view of the aims of education,
methods of teaching, curriculum, role of teacher, discipline, etc. For example,
Idealism school of thought gives importance on ‘Ideas’ and ‘Ideologies’ and
accordingly, imposes a strict discipline in curriculum development and uses teacher-
centred methods in implementation of the curriculum while Pragmatism gives
importance to ‘changes and progress’ and believes in flexible approach in
developing child-centred curriculum and its implementation. On the other hand,
Naturalism emphasizes on ‘natural freedom’ of the learners and to develop
curriculum based on the need and requirement of the learners. The differences in
the core concepts of the above schools of thought have been detailed out in this
Unit.

Figure 6.1

Different Schools of thought

6.4 IDEALISM AND REALISM

Idealism is one of the ancient schools of thought. It gives emphasis on ideas and
ideologies. It carries the principles and thoughts of traditional approach of education
where teachers are the major actor in imparting education in comparison to the
students. Teaching-learning techniques and methods are mostly based on teacher-
centred approaches. Value enrichment is one of the important aspects of education
as per the idealism school of thought is concerned. Let us try to understand more
108 about Idealism and its implications for the process of teaching and learning.
Idealism Schools of Thought

Idealism originated from the word ‘Ideaism’ i.e. Theory of Ideas, as it was
difficult to pronounce ‘l’ was added and ‘Idealism ‘was coined its name. Idealism
is a school of thought that believes in supremacy of spirituality. According to this
school of thought, spiritual or mental world is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular,
and universal whereas physical world is destroyable, transitory and false. On the
other hand the spiritual world of ideas, emotions and ideals is eternal and are true
for ever. According to this school of thought, the physical world is just a reflection
of some parts of the spiritual world. This school of thought does not consider
anything beyond ideas and spiritualism, hence idealism in comparison to natural
and scientific facts emphasizes upon the study of Human mind. This school of
thought was supported by Socrates, Plato, Descartes, Spinoza, Berkeley, Kant,
Fichte, Hegel, etc. Plato propounded this view about 400 years BC, in his
famous book, The Republic. According to this school of thought the supreme
power of this universe is idea. The Indian philosophers such as Swami Vivekananda,
Sri Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi are considered as Idealistic school of
philosophers.
Now, you may be familiar with the basic concepts underlying the Idealism school
of thought. There are some important principles and are mentioned hereunder:
 The world has two forms, the spiritual world and the material world:
According to Horne, Idealism school of thought believes that order of the
world is due to manifestation in space and time of an eternal reality and
spiritual reality. It gives more importance to the spiritual world. As per this
school, it is important to know the reality of the spiritual world in order to
know the reality of mind and soul.
 Ideas are more important than objects: As per the present school of
thought, knowledge of mind and soul could be obtained through ideas only.
In the words of Plato, ‘Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance.
They are rather essences or archetypes which give form to cosmos.
These ideas are eternal and unchanging.’
 Importance of human beings over nature: Importance to human being is
given in this school of thought because man is an individual who can think,
imagine and experience about the nature/surroundings material and develop
the object. S/he has a sense of discrimination between objects, ideas and
situations. According to R.R. Rusk, ‘the spiritual or cultural environment
is an environment of man’s making, it is a product of man’s creative
activity.’
 Trust/belief in the spiritual values: Belief in the spiritual values is given
the prime importance. These values are truth, beauty and goodness. It is
believed that these values lead the practitioner nearer to God and hence
divinity. This school of thought considers education to be a moral process.
As the nature of human is spiritual and Godly, the manifestation of which
could only be done through education.
Realism
In this school of thought, the word ‘Real’ has come from Greek word ‘Res’
which means ‘object’. Therefore the main emphasis of this school of thought i.e.
‘Realism’ means object related thought. Realism is a school of thought which 109
Philosophical Perspective deals with the existence of an object and considers this physical world to be real
of Education
and true. As the physical world and object are the main reality hence it accepts
the physical objects and events as real or true, even if it does not come to our
cognizance but it is true and existing. Realism means a belief or theory which
works upon the world as it seems.
Aristotle is the father of Realism. He believed that reality exist independent of
the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus
is on the body/objects. Truth is objective i.e. what can be observed. According
to Butler, ‘Realism is the common acceptance of the world as it appears to
us’.
Some of the principles of this philosophy are as follows:
 Phenomenal world is true: According to this school of thought, there is no
other world. This contemporary / existing world is true as one experiences
it.
 Senses are the gateways of knowledge: As we are aware that the real
knowledge is perceived by the sense organs. Therefore, real knowledge
about an object could be obtained with the help of our sense organs. These
sense organs give signals to our mind and then mind gets connected with the
outer world.
 Regularity in objective world: Realist considers objective regularity in the
processes of the physical world. It emphasizes that the object that we
experience in the real world from where we get direct experience through
our sense organs are the only real way to get knowledge.
 Realism does not accept transcendentalism: Realist believes that life
beyond this world does not exist. It emphasizes that, the life which exists in
the physical world is the only reality.
 Emphasis upon the present and practical life of Man: Realist only
accepts those Ideals, values and rules which are practical. It emphasizes the
theoretical knowledge which take us to an abstract world which lacks practical
knowledge and essence has no meaning and difficult to realize.

6.4.1 Aims of Education

Every school of thought, based on the important premises, has prescribed certain
aims. The main aims of the idealist school of thought are as follows:
 Identify and develop abilities to the best level in an individual in order to
better serve the society.
 Enhancement of Personality or self-realization means the human can
understand his/her own personality and realize the self.
 To achieve spiritual development is one of the major aims of education.
 Conservation and transmission of cultural heritage is one of the important
aims of education.
 Conversion of innate nature into spiritual nature is a prime aim in order to
transform the human beings as spiritual human beings.
110
 Development of Intelligence and rationality of the human being are important Schools of Thought
in order to inculcate scientific judgments in them.
While on the other side, aims of education advocated by the Realism school of
thought are as follows:
 Preparation for practical life: Education helps learners to prepare
themselves for the real world.
 To lead a happy and successful life: The learners would be able to solve
their problems of life so that they could lead a happy and prosperous life.
 Adjustment between social and natural life: Adjustment between the
social and natural life is, as a learner, is the aim of education.
 Development of scientific view of life: This would develop the power of
intelligence, discrimination and judgment of the learners.
 Physical development of the individual: It is important as this is linked
with other developments of the learner.
6.4.2 Curriculum
Curriculum is an important component of any education process. Curriculum is
one of the important aspects of idealistic philosophy. Idealist curriculum emphasises
on ideas or thoughts, feelings and values. Language, Literature, History, Geography,
Mathematics and Science are the major areas of studies included under curriculum
for enhancing intellectual development. For Moral development, areas like
Philosophy, Religion and Ethics are included in the curriculum. Eternal values like
Satyam, Shivam and Sunderam are the three main foundations of an idealist
curriculum. Similarly, Culture of human race must be included in the curriculum.
The curriculum is concerned with the holistic development of human beings as
well as the humanistic society.
On the other hand, Realist appeals for a scientific, standardized and distinct-
discipline based curriculum. It should prepare the learners for day to day needs
of their lives and fulfill the basic needs of their life. Here, learners must be given
option to choose their subjects as per their interest, ability, relevance and usefulness.
Curriculum must have inter-linkages among different areas of studies or subjects.
Curriculum must have utilitarian ingredients of one’s daily life. Teaching of natural
phenomenon must be taught in their mother tongue. Further, vocational subjects
must be included in the curriculum in order to prepare them for the world of
work. It also emphasizes teaching of the physical world, particularly Science and
Mathematics in the curriculum at the school level.
6.4.3 Methods of Teaching
Methods of teaching as per the interest and ability of the learner is the main focus
of idealists’ school of thought. As a result different methods of teachings are used
by the idealistic philosophers. For example, Question-Answer method by Socrates,
Discussion method by Plato, Deduction method was advocated by Aristotle,
Hegel used directive method and so on. Other methods advocated by philosophers
belonging to this school are play way, debate and lecture method. Hence, selection
of method of teaching depended upon the wisdom of the teachers. Teaching
methods like Introspection, Intuition, Insight and whole-part logic are the major
components of any method of teaching in various permutations and combinations
used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. 111
Philosophical Perspective On the other hand, the Scientific method has been advocated by the Realism
of Education
School of thought as the focus was attainment of the objective knowledge by the
learners. Deductive and Inductive methods were highly prescribed for teaching.
Self-experience, Observation, and Experimentation were emphasized to develop
the knowledge of the learners. In situations, where teaching of algebra in Maths,
direct experience of the objects is not possible then models and audio-visual aids
are used appropriately. As per this school of thought, teaching methods should
focus on mastery of content and basic skills through demonstration and drilling.
Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically by
using observation and experimentation methods.

6.4.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

According to idealistic school of thought, teacher holds a high value and position
in the school. S/he is considered to be the gardener of this garden where s/he has
to facilitate the manifestation of the hidden characteristics of the learner. S/he is
the one who facilitates the attainment of holistic development of the learner.
Student remains passive listener because the central position is of ideals, values,
and ideas. Teacher becomes more prominent than the student.
On the other hand, the teacher under the Realism school of thought, though
occupies an important role and place in education but s/he has been visualized as
an expert who cannot be a person who knows everything. S/he tries to inculcate
the scientific temperament, scientific attitude and scientific view point. On the
basis of interest, aptitude and individual differences among the learners, s/he plans
and develops the curriculum. By using teaching methods, s/he supports the learner
to attain the conclusions logically. Here joyful, simple and self-interesting learning
methods are emphasized for learners. Thus a learner tries to explore the demand
of the society by his/her physiological and intellectual abilities made by him/her
together with the knowledge and wisdom perceived through his/her senses that
prepare him/her to establish him/herself in the society. To do this, the learner
under the guidance of his/her teacher develops scientific viewpoint for knowing
the reality of the world.
Activity 1
Critically analyse and highlight any two main points of Idealism and Realism
on the following aspects:
Aspects Idealism Realism
Aims of Education

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Role of Teachers
and Students

112
 Schools of Thought
Check Your Progress 6.1
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Write any two aims of idealist school of thought.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. List any three aims of realist school of thought.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Name any two method of teaching is suggested as per the realist school
of thought.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.5 PRAGMATISM AND EXISTENTIALISM

Pragmatism
This school of thought accepts only those things or situations that can be
experienced or observed. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that the thought must construct actions
as a result. Etymologically the word Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word
‘pragma’ which means activity or the work done. Another assumption that has
been derived from the word ‘Pragmatikos’ is practicability or utility. Thereby
meaning of practical utility is first to prove only and then the idea is accepted.
Contrasting to the realists, they believe that reality is continually changing and
knowledge is gained best through implying experiences and thoughts to problems,
as they arise. The universe is dynamic and developing, a ‘becoming’ view of the
world. This school of thought also says that there is no absolute and unchanging
truth, but on the other hand, it is what works in the present context.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied this philosophy in his progressive approaches
later. He emphasized that learners should adjust with each other and also with
their environment. As per this school of thought, the curriculum of any programme
of study must integrate societal or field experiences at all levels i.e. school level,
university level or any training programmes experiences. According to James B.
Prett ‘Pragmatism offers us a theory of truth of knowledge and a theory
of reality.’
Pragmatism school of thought has some basic principles. They are: 113
Philosophical Perspective  Truth is dynamic in nature or it keeps on changing.
of Education
 It is relational and contextual at times as it is formed by the results it gives.
 The motive force for all the truth seeking is the problems of life and with the
solution of the problem the motive of search for truth diminishes.
 Pragmatism emphasizes upon the social and democratic values of a society
as human are a social being and s/he has to ultimately give his/her service to
the society.
 A person without any social desirable value is unfit for the society, in other
words, any truth found if is not beneficial for the society will not be useful
and practical for a long time.
Existentialism
This school of thought focuses around the individual and his/her existence. There
are several different orientations within this philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855), is considered to be the profounder of existentialism. This school considers
simple human values in special context. It believes that an individual by birth on
this earth will grow his/her individuality by his/her efforts only. For the development
of the personality and choices of the situations to develop ones personality is
individual’s decision. This school of thought has also emphasized upon the
behavioural problems and specific human situations. This philosophy or school of
thought believes that the man is continuously struggling with the complexities
created by him/her. As a result the humanity has faded in front of overcrowded
and complex scientific inventions. Thus the truth is as per the individual’s context.
Existentialism school of thought emerged as a contradiction to earlier schools of
thought, i.e. idealism, naturalism and realism. According to it, the intellectuals have
curtailed free growth of the human existence. The philosophers in this school of
thought believed in the existence of the human beings rather than the essence of
the being, due to his/her exponential potential of excellence to improve the future.
Supporting this Sartre stated ‘Existentialism is the philosophic stand point
which gives priority to existence over essence’. For this the base of the truth
is internal experience, any truth beyond experience is non-existing. It also
concentrates upon the internal states of mental situations of human beings like
happiness, depression and anxiety. Therefore the ultimate truth is self-evolved
concept of an individual. The part ‘Exist’ of Existentialist shows i.e., dynamism to
evolve from present and become better for tomorrow or future. Existentialism is
a school of thought which endeavours to analyse the basic structure of human
existence and emphasises individuals to an awareness of their existence in its
essential freedom.

6.5.1 Aims of Education

Pragmatism school of thought, unlike idealist, does not believe in prefixed aim
of life. Here the aim of life keeps changing with the changes in life. They are as
follows:
 To develop ability in learners to understand his/her social environment,
experiences and decide the ideals of society.
 To be aware of and understand the dynamic situations of the surrounding and
114 adapt to it accordingly.
 To develop social skills in the learners. Schools of Thought

 To get holistic satisfaction in life is ultimate because satisfaction and happiness

to oneself is an important aspect for life.
While Existentialism school of thought proposes the following aims of education:
 Development of individuality of the learner: This is important because
identifying oneself, acknowledging oneself as a human being and as an entity
with intellectual processes is a function of education.
 Development of ego of the learner: This is important for developing his/
her personality. This ego gives him/her courage. An individual feels contended
only when s/he does a task with self-courage and confidence. As we know
that enthusiasm and courage are the two virtues that develops one’s
personality.
 Intellectual development for moral decisions: For the development of
the holistic personality, developments of all the dimensions are necessary.
Thus this school of thought emphasized freedom for the growth in all the
dimensions. Development of intellect is possible, with the help of an individual
who may be able to take moral decisions.
 Preparation for struggle of life: This school of thought considers focuses
to be around an individual and his/her situations. His/her journey from these
situations keeps him/her reminding of old situations or past experiences in
his/her conscious and sub-conscious mind. Hence preparing an individual for
the struggle of life with confidence and accountability is importance for his/
her existence.

6.5.2 Curriculum
Pragmatic curriculum is based on the principle of utility i.e. anything if is of use
for an individual it needs to be included or form an integral part in the curriculum.
Care has to be taken that curriculum must be based on the interest of learners
to enhances usefulness of the curriculum. Curriculum must be based on the
experiences of learners. Incorporation of experiences of the learner in the curriculum
has to be in proximity of the learner to facilitate easy learning. It must integrate
the knowledge of all different area of studies or subject areas of studies to
develop a deeper understanding in the learner. In the process of coming across
different subjects, curriculum should focus on solving problems through
interdisciplinary approach.
On the other hand, Existentialist does not believe in curriculum in itself. Various
interpretations are to be considered in to development of the objectives and
curriculum to be developed to fulfill these objectives. They want learners to realize
the free existence of his/her existence. They want to make them free from religious
orthodox, philosophy and God, therefore, don’t want to include these areas of
studies or subjects in curriculum. Existentialists want learners to be what they
want to be. This could only be possible when curriculum is broad enough and
learner is free to choose any subject. For mental and intellectual development of
the learners language and literature are to be included in curriculum. To develop
intellectual and decision making at different situations learner need to be creative.
To show the physical presence in the world some philosophers, under school of
thought existentialist, propose inclusion of activities and games in curriculum too. 115
Philosophical Perspective 6.5.3 Methods of Teaching
of Education
Pragmatism school of thought has two major dimensions. One is psychological
and the other social. The psychological aspects pertain to various characteristics
of the learner that are by birth like interest, inclination, attitude and ability. Hence
the topics must be linked to the present learners’ context and also be important
and beneficial. Learners learn from hands on activities and observations, hence
activity method is preferred. Knowledge comes as a unit for the learner to infer
or relate, hence unitary method of teaching becomes more effective if used. With
respect to the social aspect of the teaching methods must connect them with their
surroundings, thus learning becomes easier and faster. Sometimes they come
across a problem on their own, therefore, problem solving is also a recommended
method of teaching.
Teaching methods under the Existentialism school of thought focus on hands-
on activities, problem-solving, experimenting and conducting projects and prefer
group learning or team learning. It also believes learners should apply their
knowledge to real situations as this would prepare them for citizenship, daily living
and future careers.
As we know this school of thought supports freedom of the learner; as a result
of which some considers Socrates method to be the best method i.e. teacher and
learner are equal, both are free to ask questions to each other. Both can express
their ideas freely. Teachers view the learner as an entity within a social context in
which the learner must confront others’ views to clarify his/her or her own. By the
mutual efforts, new knowledge is constructed. Sartre says true knowledge is
something which is learned by the experience and efforts of oneself. Hence it
supports the activity method and experiential learning as methods of teaching.
Generally, group teaching is not advocated when individual focus is on learning is
required for the learners.

6.5.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

A pragmatic teacher does not act as information provider to the learner, but on
the other hand learners are encouraged to discover the knowledge by themselves.
Therefore the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide to the learner so that s/he is
able to construct knowledge. Teacher must make the learner aware of and sensitive
towards problem and its solution. According to pragmatist school of thought, a
teacher is not only the creator of learning environment but the complete environment
in him/her. Here, teacher has to be very active and observant towards the learner
behaviour and manage them with love and empathy.
According to pragmatist school of thought the learner needs to be developed
according to the needs and demands of the society. He/she needs to develop his/
her personality according to his/her own interest, ability and inclinations. He/she
needs to seek situations of self-development and develop him/herself. According
to do this, he/she has to be free from imposed expectations, but care has to be
taken for the all-round growth of the learner so that she/he would be productive
for the society.
You may like to appreciate that an Existentialist teacher first tries to create a
conducive learning environment in which the learner develops his/her own way of
learning in consonance with their surroundings. In doing so, consciously or
116 unconsciously, s/he explores, recreates, reinvents him/herself and realizes his/her
existence in the entire process. To do this, the teacher must also have a self- Schools of Thought
realization of him/herself.
Activity 2
Fill the blanks in each columns by mentioning the major focus of Pragmatism
and Existentialism on the following aspects
Aspects Pragmatism Existentialism
Aims of Education

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Role of Teachers
and Students

Check Your Progress 6.2

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
4. Mention any three principles for preparing curriculum according to
pragmatic school of thought.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. Why project method as a teaching method emphasized by pragmatism
school of thought.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.6 NATURALISM AND HUMANISM

Naturalism is another school of thought that accepts the reality of nature. The
founder of this school of thought was Émile Zola (1840–1902). This school believes
that there is nothing beyond the nature. Here nature is considered in a wider
sense, on one side it is the physical material world that is observed by the human
beings and the other is the whole bio-system where life exists. Thus the nature can
be understood as the function of all the events and the materials occurred at any
time span. In other words, it can be said that naturalism is the school of 117
Philosophical Perspective thought which considers the nature as the ultimate. According to J. S. Ross,
of Education
“Naturalism is the term loosely applied in educational theory to systems
of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the
manipulation of the actual life of the educated.”
The naturalists suggested many concepts and the main concepts of naturalism are
as follows:
 The true knowledge can be attained through senses only.
 The basis of truth is our sense experiences.
 Every object originates from nature and diminishes in it at last.
 Morality, values, soul, God, immortality, prayer-power and freedom of choice
are all a myth.
 Science has converted the life of the human being in the physical form.
Humanism is another important school of thought and was founded by Rousseau
(1712-1778) and Pestalozzi. They emphasized nature and the basic goodness of
human beings, understanding through the senses and education as a gradual and
leisurely procedure in which the progress of human character follows the unfolding
of nature. Francesco Petrarca is considered as the Father of Humanism.
According to this school of thought man is an end not a mean, free but not a
slave, that means the learner should be in control of his/her own destiny. Since
the learner should become a fully self-governing person, personal freedom, choice,
and responsibility are the focus. S/he is self-motivated to achieve the highest level
of opportunity. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism.
Humanist school of thought is based on two basic concepts:
1. The values upheld by a people, affect history i.e. it is up to the person to
use the lessons from the history to overcome the problems and conflicts of
their own time; and
2. It gives emphasis on literature because it embodies different values of times
immemorial and from this a human takes lessons from the moral decisions
taken in the past.

6.6.1 Aims of Education

In Naturalism school of thought, different philosophers have given different
orientations of Education. The following are the common aims of education in this
school of thought:
 Preparing the individual for survival: Survival is a scientific phenomenon
where the best ones manage to continue the race of the bests.
 Training for adaptation in the environment: Adaptation leads to continuing
of the characteristics that are adapted at different natural conditions that
support the existence in extremes or unfavourable situations. A learner must
also develop the adaptation skills to develop his/her own niche or protection.
 Attainment of higher progress in life: Struggle and adaption are actually
for an individual to attain progress in life.
118
 Natural development of individual and his/her individuality: Schools of Thought
Development of an individual and his/her individuality is a natural phenomenon
where an individual is let free to develop in his/her own way and imbibe
values from the surroundings and hence develop his/her individuality.
 Working for improvement of the basic instincts and strengths to attain
perfection.
 Preparing individual for self-conservation and self-satisfaction.
Humanistic school of thought is human centred. Its main objective is to develop
or prepare an individual a better human being. S/he has to be creative and
progressive with the humane values. Objectives of humanistic school of thought
are as follows.
 Physical and Mental Development of an individual: It means person
has to be physically healthy and mentally stable with logic.
 Social and cultural development: Humanistic philosophers expect a
continuous social improvement for an individual. They see the entire human
society as one. Hence development of the society and the culture becomes
ultimate.
 Development of higher level of human values: Development of humane
values is the biggest focus. According to them, it is ‘good for all’, love,
service, cooperation, etc. are the core values included in it.
 Development of productivity: Two basic requirements of human are
Emotional and Materialistic needs. For the fulfilment of emotional requirement,
social and cultural development is instrumental whereas for the attainment of
materialistic requirement the person has to be skilled enough to produce the
desirable products.
 Development of creativity: Humanists consider a person creative since
birth, thus education has to enhance creativity in human beings.

6.6.2 Curriculum
Curriculum emphasized under naturalism school of thought has to prepare learners
for development and further enhancement of their basic instincts. It takes care of
the interest of the learner, the natural process of development and individual
differences. Hence in the naturalistic curriculum, the subjects suggested to be
taught are Physical Sciences, Health Sciences, Mathematics, Life Sciences, Home
Science and Languages, Geography, History, Arts and Music in the curriculum.
On the other hand, Humanistic curriculum talks about good human being. As per
this school of thought, good human being is one who thinks good for all and
behaves accordingly. Similarly, the curriculum is designed to fulfill this objective.
According to Humanist curriculum, must have Health Science and Physical
Education. The latter is important to develop the healthy mind that can have a
better logic. For the cultural sovereignty, different languages, literature, Arts and
Humanities subjects need to be incorporated. For the inclination of high human
values, social service and for development of productivity enhancement of skill
oriented subjects are to be integrated. For the enhancement of creativity, science
and technological components need to be given due place in curriculum.
119
Philosophical Perspective 6.6.3 Methods of Teaching
of Education
Naturalism emphasizes upon the individual methods in the place of group methods.
Methods like learning by doing, activity based learning, learning by experience
and by play-way are to be used for teaching-learning process. This school of
thought establishes student as a free researcher, which has led to the emergence
of observation, play, Heuristic, Dalton Method and Montessori Method as teaching-
learning methods.
On the other hand, Humanism emphasized on the logic and wisdom. They have
accepted the inferred knowledge after they have been tested logically. Accordingly,
question-answer, debate, problem solving and logic are the best methods of
learning and teaching.

6.6.4 Role of Teachers and Learners

Naturalists believe that nature itself is the biggest teacher. The learner and his/
her natural abilities and characteristic could be developed optimally in the nature
only. This school of thought do not propagates artificial teacher and environment.
Rousseau believed nature to be the tutor of the learner and supports the
natural development of the individual. S/he supports the teacher’s facilitation
as an anchor which has to be supervisory and sympathetic.
While in the Humanism school of thought, teacher should be a subject expert
which s/he is going to teach and also know the learners in order to areas what
is to be taught and how it is to be taught. They must accept and respect the
individuality and personality of the learners and work for their overall development.
Teacher needs to be dynamic and progressive as s/he has to restructure the
society.
The student needs to accept and respect each other but don’t have to follow the
teacher blindly as they need to think freely and take decisions. Both the teacher
and student must have humane relationship and learners must learn in an environment
that is free from conflict, fear and stress.
Activity 3
Go through the given table and mention at least one major focus of Naturalism
and Humanism on the following columns against each aspect:
Aspects Naturalism Humanism
Aims of Education

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Role of Teachers
and Students

120
 Schools of Thought
Check Your Progress 6.3
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
6. ‘Nature is a true teacher’! Justify this statement in the context of naturalism.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
7. Write any three characteristic of a humanistic teacher and learner.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.7 LET US SUM UP

Dear learners, in this Unit, six schools of thoughts i.e., Idealism, Realism,
Pragmatism, Existentialism, Naturalism and Humanism have been discussed. The
contribution of these schools of thought on education and its principles and their
implications in education have been discussed. For an undergraduate in the area
of education, it is important to be aware of the different schools of thought and
their influence on the aims of education, curriculum, methods of teaching and role
of teachers and learners.
The idealist considers idea to be supreme or utmost important while for the
realists, the physical world is the ultimate truth. Need of the human is of utmost
priority for pragmatist, whereas existentialists consider the individual as supreme.
For Naturalist, the nature is the ultimate truth and humanism considers the values
and literature of man to be supreme.
According to different schools of thought, various changes have been taking place
in education system due to major change i.e. shifts from teacher centered approach
to learner centred approach. Further, curriculum is becoming interdisciplinary in
nature and learning is promoted through experiential learning rather than rote
learning and teacher centric methods.

6.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Aggarwal, J.C. (2010). Theory & Principles of Education, New Delhi, Vikas
Publishing House.
Bhatia & Bhatia. (1994). Theory and Principles of Education, New Delhi, Doaba
House.
Ellis, A. K., Cogan, J. J., & Howey, K. R. (1991). Introduction to the Foundations
of Education (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
121
Philosophical Perspective Giroux, H. A., & McLaren, P. L. (1989). Schooling, Cultural Politics and the
of Education
Struggle for Democracy.
Gutek, G. L. (2004). Philosophical and Ideological Voices in Education. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Lal, B. (2012). Samkaleen Paschatya Darshan; New Delhi, MotilalBanarsi Das.
Oad, L.K. (2016). Shikshaki Darshnik Pristhboomi, Jaipur, Rajasthan Hindi Granth
Academy.
Pandey R.S.(2007). Principles of Education, Agra – 2 Vinod Pustak Mandir.
Saxena, N. (2014). Shikshake Darshink Evam Samayshastriya Siddhant, Meerut,
R. Lal Book Depot
Sharma, G. & H. Vyas (2013). Udayimaan Bhartiya Samaj Aur Shiksha, Jaipur
Rajasthan Hindi, Granth Academy.
Sharma, U. (2012). Shiksha ke Darshik Evam Samaj Shastriya Adhaar. Delhi,
Pearson.
Sinha, A. (1985). Samkaleen Darshan. Chandigarh, Haryana Sahitya Academy.
Tyagi, G. (2012). Shiksha ke Darshnik Evam Samaj Shastriya Adhaar, Agra,
Agrawal Publication.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Exaltation of personality or self-realization and to ensure spiritual development.
2. Preparation for practical life; making life happy and successful; and adjustment
between social and natural life.
3. Observation and Experimentation methods were suggested by the realist
school of thought.
4. Curriculum must be based on principle of use, interest of child and making
child participate actively. Curriculum must be based on experiences of child
and integrating all the knowledge of different subjects.
5. Project method is an activity oriented method and it requires actions and
active involvement of the students. It is therefore, project method is emphasized
by the pragmatics school of thought.
6. It emphasizes nature as a powerful teacher for development of the child.
Learning and natural development of the child is not possible without coming
contact to the nature.
7. Teacher should know what to teach, involve with the children whole-heartedly,
respect the personality of the child and must take responsibility of the overall
development of the child. Students need to be dynamic and progressive as
s/he has to restructure the society.

122
 Contribution of Indian
UNIT 7 CONTRIBUTION OF INDIAN Philosophers

PHILOSOPHERS
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
7.3.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.3.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.3.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.4 Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

7.4.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.4.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.4.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.5 Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941)

7.5.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.5.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.5.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.6 Jiddu Kishnamurti (1895-1986)

7.6.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.6.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.6.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.7 Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

7.7.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.7.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.7.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.8 Gijubhai Badheka (1885-1939)

7.8.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.8.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.8.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

7.9 Let Us Sum Up

7.10 References and Suggested Readings
7.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Units, you have studied the meaning, concept and nature of
Education and Philosophy and how philosophy helps to understand Education
and vice versa. Further, you have also studied the concept, aims and methods of
education as visualized by different Schools of thought, such as: Idealism, Realism,
Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. In this Unit, we will be discussing and describing the
Prof. Asheesh Srivastava, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar. 123
Philosophical Perspective contribution of Indian philosophers in understanding the Concept, Aims and
of Education
Processes of Education and its function for the individual in specific and society
in general. You may be aware of some of the eminent Indian philosophers who
have contributed towards the evolution and development of education in India.
The present unit will specifically focus on the educational philosophy, curriculum,
and process of teaching and learning as suggested by the Indian philosophers like
Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Jiddu Krishnamurti,
Aurobindo Ghosh and Gijubhai Badheka. Discussions in this Unit also focus on
the educational philosophy of the above philosophers and their relevance on the
present educational system.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 describe the views of Swami Vivekananda on education and its
implications;
 explain Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy on education and its implications
for basic education;
 explain Sri Rabindranath Tagore’s views on education with its implications
in education;
 explain Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy of Integral Education and its
implications for the present educational scenario;
 describe J. Krishnamurti’s concept on education and its implications in
education;
 explain Gijubhai’s concept on education and its implications to education
and schooling process; and
 discuss the relevance of Indian philosopher’s views on the present
educational scenario.

7.3 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

Among the Indian philosophers, Swami Vivekananda
is quite popular and inspirational for all. His philosophy
is based upon idealistic thought and spiritualism. Let
us discuss in details Vivekananda’s philosophy of life,
his concept on education, educational process and
implications in education.

Swami Vivekananda
(1863-1902)

7.3.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life

Brief Life Sketch
Naren, popularly known as Swami Vivekananda, was born on 12 January 1863
in Calcutta presently known as Kolkata. During the childhood time he excelled
124 in music, gymnastics and studies. He was graduated from Calcutta University. He
had acquired a vast knowledge of different subjects especially in philosophy and Contribution of Indian
history. He used to practise yoga and meditation even from his childhood and was Philosophers
associated with Brahmo Movement for some time. He will be always remembered
for awakening young India in spiritual realisation and devotion. In the year 1893,
he gave his historic speech at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, USA,
which is ever remembered by every Indians. Vivekananda has been hailed as an
intensely spiritualistic philosopher and scientific saint (IGNOU, MES-051, 2014).
Philosophy of Life
Vivekananda’s philosophy of life is based upon Vedantic philosophy and he looked
at Vedantic views from the stand point of spiritualism, modernity, science,
rationalism, and equality. His philosophy of life can be best interpreted in terms
of metaphysical, epistemological and axiological point of views.
In Metaphysical view, he explained Karma doctrine in terms of social significance.
His views on God are for service to the poor. In a radically changed social
context, by emphasizing the potential equality of all souls at the spiritual level, he
intended to make Vedantic prescriptions as the very basis for the regeneration of
Indian society. Vivekananda’s philosophy has been characterized as ‘Vedantic
Socialism’. The Epistemological views of his philosophy of life focussed on
scientific methods in interpreting reality from the Vedantic perspective. He accepts
empirical knowledge, rational knowledge, intuitive knowledge, and also revealed
knowledge. Another important aspect of Vivekananda’s epistemology was his
insistence that the explanation of all phenomena must be from ‘within’ the individual.
He was against resorting to extra-cosmic and supernatural explanation even with
regard to religious phenomena. The Axiological interpretation of Vivekananda’s
philosophy emphasises traditional Indian value structure which comprises dharma,
artha, kama and moksa. However, with the intention to rejuvenate the Vedantic
tradition, he reinterpreted purushartha without deviating from the basics with his
appeal to the youth to find moksa in social service. (IGNOU, MES-051, 2014)

7.3.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education

Swami Vivekananda viewed education in comprehensive and practical sense with
a special emphasis on behavioural aspect of education. This could be well reflected
by Swamiji’s statement, “Education is not the amount of information that is
put into your brain and runs riot there undigested all your life. We must have
life-building, man-making, character making and assimilation of ideas. If
you have assimilated five ideas and made them your life and character, you
have more education than any man who has got by heart a whole library.
If education were identical with information, the libraries would be the
greatest sages in the world and encyclopaedias the rishis.”
According to Swamiji, through education an individual gets help for own physical,
mental and spiritual development. He used to say that, “Education is the
manifestation of the divine perfection already present in man.”
He strongly criticised bookish knowledge and used to say that for my young
students, ‘I would prefer them playing football rather reading Gita without
having capacity to understand its essence. Education is helpful in
understanding and realizing Reality (Sat), Consciousness (Chit), Bliss
(Anand) in true sense’.
125
Philosophical Perspective He has also expressed his ideas on mass-education, women-education, religious-
of Education
education, national-education and vocational-education. According to him, education
must emphasize on creativity, originality and excellence of an individual. As per his
thoughts, a good education is one that unfolds the hidden potential in human
beings. True education needs cultivation of a sense of humanity. This sense of
humanity is a foundation of man’s character, the true and essential prerequisite of
a balanced personality.
Basing upon the above concept of education of Swami Vivekananda, the important
features of education are as follows:
 God resides in every human heart.
 The best worship of God is service to mankind.
 Spirituality, ethics and morality should be the real basis of life as well as for
education.
 Love and renunciation should permeate the universe.
 Religion means self-realisation through self-control, yoga and meditation.
Aims of Education
Vedanta and its teaching were the main reference point for Swami Vivekananda.
The main aims of education are as follows:
 Expressing ‘internal completeness’ into external world so that one can realize
holistic development of oneself or Man Making Education.
 Development of Humanity.
 Serving Society and Humanity.
 Development of Physical Strength.
 Development of International Brotherhood and World-consciousness.

7.3.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

As deduced from Vivekananda’s concept and aims of education, the concept of
curriculum, pedagogy and teacher and students are as follows:
Curriculum
To achieve the aforesaid aims of education, Swamiji suggested curriculum to be
divided into two parts - materialistic (worldly) and spiritualistic (abstract) curriculum.
Development of soul and self-realization to be included in the spiritualistic curriculum
while teaching of Languages, Sciences, Psychology, Arts, Agriculture, etc. have
been kept in the worldly curriculum. According to him modern education is more
career-oriented and do not give emphasis on the cultivation of values and virtues,
disciplining the mind, strengthening morality and formation of strong character. He
suggested that education must not be for stuffing few facts or overloading information
into the brain, but it should aim at transforming the mind of human beings. True
education should not be only carrier oriented, but also for the national development.
Pedagogy
To him, ideology education must provide life-building, man-making, character-
126 building, assimilation of ideas, etc. The purpose of such education would be to
produce an integrated personality. Swamiji says that it is wrong to think that we Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
promote the development of a child, in fact, the child furthers his development
himself. Swamiji says, “Everyone develops according to his own nature.
When the time comes everyone will come to know this truth. Do you think
you can educate a child? The child will educate himself, your job is to
provide the necessary opportunity to him and remove the obstacles in his
path. He will educate himself on his own. A plant grows itself, does the
gardener grow it? He just provides the necessary environment to it; it is
the plant itself that does its own growing.”
The specific methods that he suggested to be used in the teaching-learning process
are concentration, yoga and meditation, intuition, lecture and discussion, self-
exercise, creative activities, etc. He believed that the child has enough power
which is divine in nature and the methods of teaching are the means to exhibit that
power.
Teacher and Students
Swami Vivekananda advocates the principle of self– education. It is therefore the
role of teacher is to facilitate students and to create an environment to develop
a sense of self-learning. In order to make education useful, it must be according
to the nature and needs of the learner and not determined by the teacher. The
teacher is supposed to see God in the soul of the child. Child should be considered
as manifestation of God. For the acquisition of knowledge, concentration is very
important. Thus to get success in life, this power is also very helpful. With the help
of communication power one is able to select and acquire the relevant information
and arrange it in his/her mind for use whenever and wherever necessary.
According to him, to vitalize the Indian society, practical wisdom and justice is
needed and it is only possible through education. He advocated spirituality as
social service and true religion.

Check Your Progress 7.1

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Mention any two points that could be elicited from Vivekananda’s concept
on education.
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2. Name the two types of curriculum as suggested by Vivekananda.
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Philosophical Perspective
of Education 3. What were the methods of teaching suggested by Swami Vivekananda?
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7.4 MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of life and his
concept on education is equally popular in the
present time. Gandhi’s thought on education is
being reflected in various policy documents of
education in India. In this section, we will discuss
the details on Gandhi’s philosophy of life, his
concept on education, teaching-learning process Mahatma Gandhi
and its implications in education. (1869-1948)

7.4.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life

Life Sketch
Mahatma Gandhi, as we all are familiar, is the father of the nation, was born at
Porbandar in Kathiawar of Gujarat State on October 2, 1869. His father was the
prime minister of the State’s Porbandar and Rajkot. He went to England for
further education in Law. When we talk about Gandhiji, certain ideals come to
our mind as truth, nonviolence (ahimsa), simplicity, love for all, leadership, dignity
of labour and implementation of ideas in real life rather than just propagating them.
These ideals also reflected in his educational philosophy.
Philosophy of Life
Gandhi’s philosophical ideas are based upon concept of man, freedom of
individual and the concept of God and truth. According to him, man is not a
physico-chemical aggregation, but a socio-cultural and political-economic being.
Over and above, he is a spiritual entity. For him, individual is the supreme
consideration. Therefore, man and his moral regeneration occupy the central
position in the Gandhian thoughts. On freedom of individual, Gandhi says,
‘individual is spiritual in origin, social in nature and rational in selection’.
Freedom is inherent trait of an individual. It is within the individual and it does not
come from outside. His concept of individual freedom is in relation to socio-
political context, associated with democracy, self-rule and self-sufficiency. Gandhi’s
concept on God and Truth is the ultimate reality of life. He expressed ultimate
reality is the truth, truth is God and God is truth. To him, realisation of self is the
realisation of truth and God. God is the goal of all values and aspirations of man.
7.4.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
Gandhi’s educational vision took shape through his educational experiments and
experiences at the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa. He continued his educational
experiments for a short period at Shanti Niketan also and then at Sabarmati and
Sewagram ashram, and he established Sewagram ashram, located at Wardha and
from there he not only conceived the idea of his new education system but also
128 fought his battle for freedom.
By education, Gandhi means ‘an all-round drawing out of the best in the Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
child and man – body, mind and spirit’. As per his views, education is not
the same as literacy and vice versa. Nor does literary training in a school constitutes
education because generally literary training in a school lays more emphasis on the
tools or skill development and subject master rather than on the complete
development of personality of individual. According to Gandhi, the concern of
education is for all round development of individual personality. Education which
draws out the best or truth corresponds to the development of the mind and body
with an awakening of the soul.
Aims of Education
Gandhi’s aim of education can be clearly understood by his statement appeared
in the Harriman of 11th September, 1937. He remarked: ‘education ought to be
for them (the people) a kind of insurance against unemployment. The child at the
end of 14 years, after he had finished his 7 years of schooling – is to be discharged
as an earning unit, but it may be remembered that he never wanted the child to
be mere bread earner. He wanted him to learn while he earns and to earn while
he learns and it is the only immediate aim of education. According to him, cultural
aim of education lays emphasis on obtaining knowledge, apart from any material
use. The knowledge is to be the knowledge of Indian culture. Culture according
to him is the quality of the soul that deals with all aspects of human behaviour.
The complete development of the child is another aim that Gandhiji advocated.
According to this view, our innate and acquired powers should be developed as
to bring about a harmonious development of all those powers.
The moral aim also emphasised by him in the sense of character building or
character development. According to him, ‘character development implies the
cultivation of such moral virtues as courage, strength of conviction, purity of
personal life, righteousness, and self-restrained service of mankind’. This character
is to be build up in terms of non-violence and universal life. The ultimate aim of
education reflects Gandhi’s concept of the ultimate goal in human life – the realisation
of the ultimate reality, knowledge of God and Truth.
There are three major aspects of education which Gandhiji conceptualised as
aims of education. They are:
 Self-sufficiency aim – The aim of education should be to make the individual
economically independent and self-sufficient.
 Cultural aim – He advocated the preservation and transmission of Indian
culture.
 Character building aim – All education must aim at character building,
education is the means and character building is the aim.
7.4.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students
Gandhiji educational philosophy and his ideas on education have been reflected
in curriculum, methods of teaching and role of teacher and students. He has given
top priority on basic education which is based upon craft-centred curriculum. In
this section you will study the nature and processes of craft-centred curriculum of
education. 129
Philosophical Perspective Craft-Centred Curriculum
of Education
According to Gandhiji, in order to train the whole man, education needs to be
craft centred, because it develops skills among the students and further it leads
them to be self-sufficient. Craft centred education lays emphasis on experiences
and activities as well as correlation of subjects with varieties of crafts. It helps to
develop an all-round personality, in which knowledge, action and feelings are
evenly balanced. The children after completing their course of education should
be able to earn their livelihood. He also suggested integration of craft in curriculum
not only to use craft as an isolated practice but as a means of livelihood.
The curriculum aims at the all-round development of the learner should have the
following:
 A basic craft in accordance with the local needs and conditions.
 Mother tongue be the medium of instruction.
 Arithmetic
 Social studies
 General Science including nature study, botany, zoology, physiology, hygiene,
chemistry and physical culture.
 Art work
 Music
 Domestic science for girls.
Gandhi’s craft–centred education encourages collaborative and co-operative
activities and out of these two, emerges a sort of social control or social discipline.
The concept of social discipline also is evident from his emphasis on the ideals
of citizenship through education. Craft-centred education is also known as basic
education. In the next section, the basic education system has been explained and
also the pedagogy to be used in order to provide this education.
Basic Education System and Pedagogy
In the basic education scheme, Gandhiji has given equal importance to community
life. Education through community develops the qualities like team spirit, co-
operation and a sense of mutual help. A child acquires competence of social
adjustment through community life. In basic education system, development of
children is imparted through co-curricular activities like community life, mass prayer,
common dinner, physical exercise, team works, games and sports, assignment
(homework), cultural programmes, celebration of special days, and creative
programmes. During residential education, children take up various activities in
various teams/groups or collectively. These include cleaning of room and ground,
dining, toilet and urinal and also fetching water, cooking, watering plants, washing
clothes, taking bath, etc.
In short, training is related to life was imparted in the basic education system. By
this, values like cleanliness, self-reliance, labour, team spirit, co-operation, endurance
power, loyalty, good conduct, honestly, discipline, obedience, punctuality, exercises,
games and sports related to physical education are also organized with a view to
developing health related values in children. In this education, celebrations such
130
as national festivals, birth anniversary, death anniversary, parents (guardians) day,
self-education day, environment day, world population day and such other days Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
are celebrated. Cultural programmes are organized on such occasions. Moreover,
community service programmes given by Gandhiji such as cleaning of village
roads and other areas, prevention of untouchability, communal harmony, prohibition
of alcoholic drinks, Khadi activities, adult education, women upliftment, health
education, nursing of lepers, addiction relief, etc. are celebrated in the basic
schools as well as in the community and hostels. All these help for developing
moral and other values among the children. He suggested that basic education
should be given in the mother tongue.
Teacher and Students
Gandhiji thinks that only the best and appropriate teachers can help in achieving
the aforesaid aims of education. These teachers should possess knowledge, skill,
enthusiasm, patriotism and special training. They should be inspired by social
attitudes and imbibed with ideals of non-violence or Ahimsa. In the Gandhian
scheme, teacher-taught relationship is not established through syllabus or curriculum,
but for acquiring the life skills education which helps to lead one’s life meaningfully.
Emphasizing the role of teacher, he believed, ‘one who cannot take the place
of mother cannot be a teacher’. The prime role of the teacher is to prepare
non-violent child through deeds of non-violence rather than words of non-violence.

Check Your Progress 7.2

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
4. Mention Gandhiji concept of Education and how it differs from the one
given by Swami Vivekananda.
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5. What is the ultimate aim of education as defined by Gandhiji?
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6. What is Basic Education scheme given by Gandhiji?
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Philosophical Perspective
of Education 7.5 RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941)
Rabindranath Tagore was a worldwide known poet
and educationist, versatile, synthetic and original
personality. Though he was inspired by the writers
and poets like Shakespeare, Goethe, Wordsworth,
Ruskin, Shelley, Keats and Browning, but roots of
his intellect, spirituality and philosophy lie in the
rhymes of Upanishads, in the poetry of Kalidas, in
the lyrics of Vaisnavas, in the mystic poems of Kabir
and the religious atmosphere of the Brahmo Samaj.
He was a believer in cultural synthesis and Rabindranath Tagore
international unity. His songs and messages were (1861-1941)
inspirations to both social and political workers. His educational thoughts also
stand as a landmark in the Indian education system. He tried to synthesise and
fulfil the spiritual and natural needs of human being through education.
Early in the twentieth century, Tagore demonstrated through his school in Shanti
Niketan, the true value of education in the vitalization of Indian society. There was
no discrimination on the basis of caste or creed. All were welcome (including
foreigners) to live and learn together as brothers and sisters, in Shanti Niketan.
To touch leather and make beautiful leather bags or sandals were not merely the
work of an untouchable cobbler, it is a work of art that all can undertake. The
dignity of Labour was demonstrated in Shanti Niketan. Education at all levels is
provided at Shanti Niketan or Visva Bharati i.e. from Kindergarten to University
level.
7.5.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
Brief Life Sketch
Rabindranath Tagore had little formal schooling and dropped out from the school
by the age of fourteen. He was basically a self-taught person. His childhood
experiences, especially the traditional educational methods followed in formal
schools, left a profound influence on his educational thinking. In the year 1901,
He started a school of his own, namely, ‘Shanti Niketan’, where he began his
educational experiments. In 1921, the school became the world famous
‘Vishwabharathi’, an International University.
Tagore’s Philosophy of Life
His philosophy of life emphasizes on humanism, individualism, universalism and
spiritual harmony. Advocating on humanism, Tagore said, human beings are absolute
entities. They are free from caste, class, religion, gender and even nationality. On
individualism, Tagore said, pure individual ultimately unites with universal humankind
and he upheld the uniqueness of the human individual and the right and freedom
of every individual to pursue a unique path for development. His concept on
universalism is not on political understanding but on spiritual understanding. On
spiritual harmony, Tagore said, spiritualist and spirituality was one of the main
tenets of his philosophy of life. He believed in the spiritual unity of the individual.
7.5.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
Rabindranath Tagore was a great educational practitioner. It was his believe that
132 “education is an all-round development of an individual in harmony with
the Universe”. His educational philosophy is based upon blending the idealistic Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
principles with some naturalistic practices which is today evident in Shantiniketan.
According to Tagore, ‘children should be brought up in an atmosphere of
freedom’. Too many restrictions should not be imposed on them. Schools become
like education factories without no life and colour.
Tagore believes that education should be given in the natural surroundings. Children
should be brought into direct contact with nature as child’s mind is curious, alert,
restless and eager to receive direct experience from the nature.
Tagore was a spiritualist as well as a naturalist. He was a great champion of
education for international understanding. His patriotism and nationalism leads to
internationalism in his educational endeavour.
Aims of Education
Tagore viewed education as the process for evolving new patterns of life culminating
in the realisation of Universalism. Aims of education suggested by him are presented
in the following points:
 Education should be real and create whole individual in terms of his/her
emotion, senses and intellect.
 Education should be aimed at development of the complete life, i.e. which
includes economic, intellectual, aesthetic, social, and spiritual development.
 Education is to help an individual realize the inner principle of unity of all
knowledge and all activities of our social and spiritual being.
 Education should be to achieve universality through individuality.
7.5.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students
Curriculum and Concept of a School
Tagore recommended a curriculum must aim at spiritual, creative, aesthetic and
vocational i.e. on the wholistic development of an individual. He emphasized
cultural subjects to include in the construction of curriculum. He pursued culture
in the widest sense through art, dance, drama, music, crafts and practical skills
of daily life. Tagore was a strong supporter of activity based curriculum. For
harmonious development of the individual, he had given emphasis on spiritual side
along with the intellectual and physical sides of the individual in the curriculum.
Ideas of a School
The school, which may be termed as an ideal, according to Tagore, must be
located away from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and
surrounded by natural environment viz. vistas of fields, trees, and plants. The vast
background of nature helps in the development of grand and divine vision within
the children. He used the word ‘forest’ not in terms of dense jungle, but as
‘Tapovana’ in ancient Indian tradition.
Pedagogy
The medium of education is also an important point pertaining to Tagore’s idea.
The use of English in education as a medium made education confined only to
urban areas and the upper classes rather than rural areas. Therefore, if the vast
rural masses were to be benefited, it was absolutely essential to the use of mother
133
tongue.
Philosophical Perspective Tagore wanted science to be taught along with philosophical and spiritual knowledge
of Education
at Indian universities. He suggested use of activity-based, play activities, teaching
while walking, learning with joy, self-learning, heuristic, narration-cum discussion,
field-trips, and experience-based learning methods of teaching. He advocated
fullness of experience – physical, mental, aesthetic and emotional. All these truly
accords with the modern pedagogy.
Teacher and Students
According to Tagore, more important thing is that the educators must believe in
themselves as well as in universal-self, underlying his individual soul. An educator
should follow the principles of freedom, perfection and universality in his/her
teaching. Tagore’s scheme of education keeps the child in the centre and the role
of the teacher is to facilitate the child to learn his/her own. He emphasized that
the teachers should be a good learner first, unless she/he learns, it is simply
impossible to teach the students.

Check Your Progress 7.3

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
7. Mention the name of the school of thought as reflected from educational
philosophy of Tagore.
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8. Name the teaching methods suggested by Tagore.
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9. Explain the idea of a School according to Tagore
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7.6 JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI (1895- 1986)

Jiddu Krishnamurti was also not in favour of book
learning and the formal school system like
Rabindranath Tagore. He was a true practitioner
of education. In this section you will study his
educational philosophy, his concept of school and
pedagogy practices in the process of teaching and J. Krishnamurti
134 learning. (1895-1986)
7.6.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
Life Sketch

J. Krishnamurti was born on 11 May 1895 in Madanapalle in Andhra Pradesh,

he established the Rishi Valley Education Centre, an institution in 1928. At the age
of 15, Krishnamurti accompanied Miss Annie Besant to England in 1911. Like his
father he also became a member of the Theosophical Society. In 1912, he wrote
a book entitled ‘Education as Service‘ in which he described the life of an ideal
school where love rules and inspires, students grow into noble adolescents under
the fostering care of teachers.

Philosophy of Life

Krishnamurti is truly a free thinker, therefore, refused to fit himself into any belief,
creed or system or to become a system himself. He proposed that nothing more
than a total transformation of individual self as a cure for conflict and suffering in
the world. His message to mankind was, ‘first understand the purpose of our
existence, the purpose of our life, and understand what we were thriving
for. Then utilize everything, to strengthen us. To find out what you really
love to do is one of the most difficult things. That is part of education.’
His teaching is his ideas on truth, mind, thought, intelligence, attention, perception,
freedom, love and self.

7.6.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education

Educational Philosophy

He was very critical of the contemporary educational systems its aims, processes,
and content. He was against the present education on its excessive and exclusive
emphasis on techniques and neglect the human dimensions. He says merely provide
information to the students and fit them to pass the examination is the most
unintelligent form of education. He said, knowledge is essential only as a means
of cultivating the mind and not an end in itself. Jiddu Krishnamurti like Rabindranath
Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda and others founded his own
educational institutions to put into practice what he preached.

Aims of Education

The following aims of education were suggested by him:

 Development of an integrated/whole personality of the child who is able to

deal with his/her life at any moment and any situation.

 To make the child able to discover his/her own talent and suitable livelihood.

 Education brings freedom among the individual and not merely to produce
scholars and technicians.

 The purpose of education is to see the overall development of the self in

each and every individual.

 The purpose of education is to cultivate healthy relationships based on love

and compassion. 135
Philosophical Perspective 7.6.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students
of Education
Curriculum and Ideas of a School
According to Krishnamurti, an ideal school should have limited number of students
because mass instruction is not in a position to develop integrated, personality of
children must be dedicated, thoughtful and alert. The school must work for
understanding the children of their potentials and limitations.
Education was always close to Krishnamurti’s heart. He established some co-
educational schools in India and abroad to implement his ideas into practice. He
used to visit them every year for open interaction with the students and teachers.
Although the conventional curriculum was followed in these schools, his main
objective in starting these schools was to provide children adequate opportunities
and freedom so that they could grow up without any national, racial, class and
cultural prejudices and build harmony among human beings.
Pedagogy
The following teaching-learning methods were suggested by Krishnamurti:
 Question-answer method.
 Observation and experimentation
 Activities and field-visit experiences
 Exploration and discovery of facts
Teachers and Students
According to him, a true teacher, besides a content expert, is also the one who
shows the way to wisdom and truth to his students. According to Krishnamurti,
the concept of communication includes listening and learning. Understanding the
difference between the two is of great benefit to the teachers. Truth is more
important than the teacher himself. To create a new society each one of us has
to be a true teacher. This means that we have to be both the learner and the
teacher. He considers that the child has all the abilities for their own development,
but the role of teacher is to develop the child in his/her right destination.
Krishnamurti’s concept on methods of teaching, school organization and the role
of a teacher is truly progressive in nature. His emphasis on development of an
integrated personality through integral approach to education which is highly
recommended by almost all educationists and thinkers.

Check Your Progress 7.4

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
10. Explain the concept of education suggested by Krishnamurti.
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136 ............................................................................................................
 Contribution of Indian
11. Who is a true teacher as per Krishnamurti? Philosophers

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7.7 SRI AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872 – 1950)

Aurobindo Ghosh is one of the popular educational
thinkers of idealism philosophy in the field of
education. The concept of integral education and
practice of integral school by Sri Aurobindo is very
popular among the masses. This section will make
you understand about the educational philosophy
and other pedagogic aspects of education as
suggested by Sri Aurobindo.
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
(1872-1950)

7.7.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life

Life Sketch
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh was born in Calcutta on 15th August 1872. In 1893, he
joined as professor of English at Baroda College in Gujarat. His ideas and theories
of education were as per the needs of the Indians. He initiated an International
Ashram and International Centre of Education and Social Activities. Auroville, ‘as
a city of human unity’, was his experiment in Pondichery in India.
Philosophy of Life
Integral is the concept that forms the basis of Aurobindo’s philosophical and
educational ideas. His educational philosophy is based upon the ideas of idealism
school of philosophy. He believed that reality is the truth and an integral whole
of the individual and its action. Aurobindo’s educational theory centres on his
concept of mind. He considers the true sense of education is the study of human
mind. Aurobindo’s theory of mind culminates in his belief in the existence of super
mind. According to him, super mind represents a higher place of consciousness.
Aurobindo’s philosophy is an affirmation of Indian belief which is spiritual in
nature and rational. His philosophy aims to attain knowledge of the ultimate
reality.
7.7.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
Aurobindo’s Idea on Education
According to Sri Aurobindo, true education is not only spiritual but also rational,
vital and physical. In other words, it is the Integral Education in which education
should have five major aspects relating to the principal activities of a human being:
the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual. This type
education is complete and complimentary to each other and continues lifelong.
Aurobindo’s scheme of education is integral in two senses:
 Firstly, it is inculcating all the five aspects of a human being. 137
Philosophical Perspective  Secondly, education is not only for the evolution of the individual alone, but
of Education
also for the nation and humanity.
The ultimate goal of education is the evolution of total humanity. In this evolution,
the principle of development is ‘unity in diversity’. This unity subsequently,
maintains and helps the evolution of diversity. The ultimate aim of education is
man-making.
Aims of Education
According to Sri Aurobindo, the main aim of education is to help the growing soul
to draw out that the best and make it perfect for a noble cause. Education should
enable him/her to realize his/her inner self which is a part of the universal
consciousness. According to him, senses can be trained fully when manas, chitta
and nerve are pure. Another important aim of education is to develop
consciousness. According to him, the aims of education have the following four
levels.
(i) Chitta
(ii) Manas
(iii) Intelligence
(iv) Knowledge
A teacher should develop all these four levels harmoniously. This will promote the
development of conscience. According to him, ‘the utilisation of the Super
mind for the development of an integrated human personality should be
the true aim of education’.

7.7.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students

According to Sri Aurobindo, colleges and universities should educate through
their academic as well as social activities. The schools are a unique part of a
society. Education cannot give in isolation. The school has to develop different
types of activities such as collaboration, consultation and lectures in an integral
manner. The school needs to provide opportunities for integral development of
learners. Therefore, aims, curriculum and methods of teaching to be the light of
the concepts of integral education.
Idea on Curriculum
According to him, curriculum should be confined to a limited syllabus and a few
text books. It must include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual
development of the learners. Education is a means towards an end, not an end
in itself. There must be due flexibility to meet individual needs. Subjects of curriculum
should be able to motivate the learners. Curriculum should involve creativity of life
and constructive activities and be interesting. He has prescribed the following
subjects in the curriculum.
 Primary stage: Mother Tongue, English, National History, Art, Painting,
General Science, Social Studies, and Arithmetic.
 Secondary stage: Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic, Art, Chemistry,
Physics, Botany, Social Studies, Physiology, and Health Education.
138

 University Stage: Indian and Western philosophies, History of Civilization,

 English, Literature, French, Sociology, Psychology, History of Science, Contribution of Indian
Chemistry, Physics, Botany, International relations and integration. Philosophers

 Vocational Education: Arts, Painting, Photography, Sewing, Sculpture,

Drawing, Typing, Shorthand, Cottage Industries, Carpentry, Nursing,
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Indian and European music, and
dramatization.
Pedagogy
The following teaching methods/pedagogy has been suggested:
 Love and sympathy for the child
 Education through mother tongue
 Education according to the interests of the child
 Education through self-experience
 Emphasis on learning by doing
 Education through co-operation of teacher and students in the education
process
 Free environment to the child to gain more knowledge through his/her own
efforts
Teacher and Students
He believed that nothing can be taught, but everything can be learned. The
teacher is a helper/facilitator and guide, but not an instructor or task master. A
teacher should not impart knowledge but should show the path to acquire
Knowledge which is already within a learner. It is wrong to mould the child into
the shape as desired by the elders ignoring and destroying the divine in the child.
Education should be according to the nature of the child.

Check Your Progress 7.5

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
12. Name the five principal activities of human being as per Integral Education.
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13. Explain the concept of curriculum as per Aurobindo’s Integral Education.
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139
Philosophical Perspective
of Education 7.8 GIJUBHAI BADHEKA (1885-1939)
Gijubhai Badheka is one of the famous educationists
who focused on child-centeredness of school education.
His educational thought is quite relevant for the present
educational scenario of the country. His educational
thought reflects use of constructivist approach in
teaching and learning.

Gijubhai Badheka
(1885-1939)

7.8.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life

Gijubhai Badheka was a famous patriot, a devoted teacher and an inspiring pillar
of education. He was born on 15 November, 1885 in Gujarat. He gave an
important place to child in his educational thoughts. Gijubhai advocated child
centred education. Perhaps he was the first educator in India who focused his
attention at the pre-primary stage of education.
7.8.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
Educational Philosophy
His principles of child-centred education like freedom, respect, spiritual
development, creativity and development of good qualities of citizenship
emphasized on the method of self-learning through self-dependence, self-discipline,
self-expression, sense training and nature study. Gijubhai dreamt for such a school
for children that cannot instil fear in their mind and is a place where they would
go happily and willingly.
His dream was turned into a reality in his ‘Bal Mandir’, a school set up by him
for children between two and half years to six years of age in 1920 at Bhavnagar,
Gujarat. In this Bal Mandir, he provided free opportunities to children for playing,
singing, poetry reciting, story-telling, gardening, nature study and used the play-
way method for teaching-learning activities. Thus, Bal Mandir, in the real sense,
provided a healthy and playful environment so that children enjoy full happiness
during their stay at school.
Aims of Education
The following major aims of education were suggested :
 To provide education in a fear-free environment where children should feel
free to perform their activities.
 Dealing children with empathy.
 Development of child’s individuality and completeness.
 Emphasizing education through sense training, motor-efficiency and self-
learning.
 Development of atmosphere of ‘education for learning through living’.
140
 Contribution of Indian
7.8.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students Philosophers
Curriculum and Pedagogy
Gijubhai cites several useful learning activities like story-telling, drama, games and
paper folding that could serve many objectives of teaching-learning at the pre-
primary and primary level and make it relevant for children. However, teacher’s
intuition to link all these methods to curriculum is the real challenge. Children do
not depend merely on textbooks or teachers as the only source of information.
This way, he advocated for meaningful education for children in different areas,
such as: History, Language or preparing for exams or school function. He had a
firm faith in alternative methods/structures he wishes to try with children and made
possible changes. Gijubhai makes it possible by saying that ‘experimentation’
is the key to bring the change. A very novel experiment by him was to divide the
day into activities, games, and stories and not go by strict authority of the pre-
set time table.
Teacher and Students
Gijubhai believes that teacher should figure out the underlying concept and then
help children to identify that through interesting activities. He happened to use his
own instinct to organise his days with the children. Several other features of good
and useful teaching-learning practices one could find in his works. Gijubhai had
an intense love for children. His philosophy is based on the following observations
made by him. Gijubhai further said, “A child is a complete person who has
intellect, emotions mind and understanding, has strengths and weaknesses
and has likes and dislikes. He believed the concept of teacher as a friend,
philosopher and guide’.

Check Your Progress 7.6

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
14. Explain the concept of child-centred education as focused by Gijubhai.
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15. Name the teaching activities as suggested by Gijubhai.
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7.9 LET US SUM UP

This Unit is in continuation of the previous unit in which concept of education and
various aspects of education such as aims of education, curriculum, methods of
teaching and role of teachers and learners have been discussed. In this unit, you 141
Philosophical Perspective have studied educational concepts and thoughts of some Indian philosophers.
of Education Swami Vivekananda, in his educational thought, stressed upon ‘education is the
manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man’. Therefore,
emphasized that each and every human being has enough divine power to
accomplish knowledge and it is education that helps them to exhibit that knowledge.
While Gandhiji’s educational thought, emphasized on all round development of
personality, which include development of physical, social, emotional, intellectual,
spiritual, moral and value education of the child. Accordingly, Tagore stressed on
both aspects of a human being, i.e. naturalistic as well as idealistic aspects can
be dealt effectively on system of education. Aurobindo Ghosh highlighted the
importance of the integral system of education in which he emphasized the
importance of five aspects of education. Jiddu Krishnamurti and Gijubhai Badheka
highlighted on their experimental schools and child-centeredness of education.

7.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Aggarwal S. (2007). Philosophical Foundations of Education, Author Press,
New Delhi.

Altekar (1975). Education in Ancient India (7thEd.). Varanasi :MonoharPrakashan.

Badheka, Giju Bhai. (1990). Divasvapna An Educator’s Reverie translated by

Chittaranjan Pathak. NBT, New Delhi.

Brubacher J.S. (1969). Modern Philosophies of Edu cation. New York: McGraw
Hill Co.Inc.

Chaube S.P. (1988). Indian and Western Educational Philosophers, Vinod

PusthakMandir, Agra.

Dhavan, M.L. (2005). Philosophy of Education Delhi, Editor, Isha Books.

IGNOU (2014). Thinkers of Education: Indian (Unit-3), Block-2, MES-051

‘Education: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives’. M.Ed.:IGNOU.

Joshi S. (2006).Great Indian Educational Thinkers, Authors‘ Press, New Delhi.

Krishnamurti Foundation The “official” Krishnamurti site Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1974)

On Education, Pondicherry, India: All India Press.

Krishnamurti, J. (1953). Education and the Significance of Life, London: Victor

Gollancz Ltd.

Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1956). 5th Public Talk, 18th March, at Bombay.

Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1962). 2nd Public Talk, 7th June, at London.

Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1964). This Matter of Culture, London: Victor Gollancz.

Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1975). Dialogue on Education, at Ojai.

Mishra P.K. & Dash P.C. (2010). An introduction to Philosophical and Sociological
Foundations of Education, Mangalam Publications Delhi. Pandey

142
Nayar, P. R., Dave, P.N., and Arora, K. (1982). Teacher and Education in Contribution of Indian
Emerging Indian Society, New Delhi. Philosophers

Pachuri, G. (2010).Great Educationist. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.

Pandey R. S., (1997). East-West Thoughts on Education, Horizon Publications,

Allahabad.

Pandya, Mamta. (2008). Giju Bhai on Education.

Pani, R.N.(1987). Integral Education, Thought & Practice New Delhi. Ashish
Publishing House,

Pani, S. P. &Pattnaik. S. K. (2006).Vivekanada, Aurobindo& Gandhi on

Education,New Delhi : Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd.

R.S. (1997). East-West Thoughts on Education, Horizon Publications, Allahabad.

Shehsad A. (2006).Educational thinkers of India, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi.

7.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Vivekananda stressed upon the knowledge that has already with the child
which is a divine power. The child should get proper education and exposure
to exhibit that divine power.

2. Materialistic (worldly) and spiritualistic (abstract) curriculum.

3. Yoga and meditation, intuition, lecture and discussion, self-exercise, creative

activities, etc.

4. Self-exercise.

5. The ultimate aim of education is realisation of the ultimate reality, knowledge

of God and Truth.

6. A basic craft in accordance with the local need and conditions; Mother
tongue; Arithmetic; Social studies; General Science including nature study,
Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Hygiene, Chemistry and Physical Culture; Art
Work; Music; and Domestic science for girls.

7. Idealism and Naturalism.

8. Teaching through tours and trips, learning by activities, narration-cum-

discussion and debate and heuristic method.

9. A school should be established away from the human habitation under an

open sky and surrounded by fields, trees, and plants.
10. According to Krishnamurti, education is about preparation for the whole life
not part.
11. A true teacher is not simply a source of information, but is the one who
shows the way to wisdom and truth. 143
Philosophical Perspective 12. The physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual.
of Education
13. According to Aurobindo, curriculum is not confined to a limited syllabus and
a few text books; it should include all those subjects which promote mental
and spiritual development.
14. Freedom for the child, spiritual development for the child, creativity of the
child and development of good qualities of citizenship of the child.
15. Story-telling, drama, games, paper folding etc.

144
 Contribution of Western
UNIT 8 CONTRIBUTION OF Philosophers

WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Plato (427 BC to 347 BC)
8.3.1 Concept and Aims of Education
8.3.2 Process of Education
8.3.3 Curriculum
8.3.4 Methods of Teaching
8.3.5 Criticism

8.4 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

8.4.1 Concept and Aims of Education
8.4.2 Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
8.4.3 Role of Teacher
8.4.4 Rousseau’s Contribution to Education
8.4.5 Negative Education
8.4.6 Women Education

8.5 John Dewey (1859 – 1952)

8.5.1 Concept and Aims of Education
8.5.2 Process of Education
8.5.3 Curriculum, Teaching Methods, Role of Teacher and Discipline

8.6 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

8.6.1 Concept and Aims of Education
8.6.2 Process of Education
8.6.3 Discipline
8.6.4 Methods of Teaching
8.6.5 Nature of Education and School

8.7 Let us Sum Up

8.8 References and Suggested Readings
8.9 Answers to Check your Progress

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we are going to learn about contribution of selected western
philosophers in in detail on the Concept, Aims and Processes of Education. These
Philosophers are Plato, J.J. Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel Kant. The
thoughts and ideas of these philosophers are universal in nature and applicable to
the field of education for all the stakeholders i.e. students, teachers and society.
Their ideas have been relevant to the system of education from the times of these
philosophers and thinkers and are still applicable. There is lot to learn from these
ideas especially when the present system of education and society is full of multiple
problems in education and challenges of the present day.
Prof. Neerja Dhankar, Formerly with School of Education, Central University of Haryana.
145
Philosophical Perspective
of Education 8.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the educational ideas of few western philosophers i.e. Plato, Rousseau,
Dewey and Immanuel Kant;
 describe and differentiate between the processes of education as given by these
philosophers;
 reflect on the relevance of their thoughts in the present system of education;
and
 implement their ideas in the teaching-learning process.

8.3 PLATO (427 BC to 347 BC)

Plato was a great philosopher, scholar, educationist
and thinker. He was one of the first founders of
idealism school of thought. As per idealist
philosophical thought, the mind and the self are the
ultimate truth or reality and creation of the universe
is a reflection of the mind. In other words, he
believed that the human mind is the supreme element
in life and the universe is not composed of material
in its ultimate nature or form. For example, the pen/
pencil you use for writing is not material, it only
seems material. Its essential form is the reflection Plato (427BC – 347 BC)
of the mind i.e. a pen or pencil and used
for writing. He wrote several books on education and the two important ones are
‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’.

8.3.1 Concept and Aims of Education

Plato’s ideas on education are very important. He believed that progress of any
nation depends upon its youth. Good education is able to prepare skilled citizens
with good character. By education he meant that training by which development
of morality takes place through good habits.
Plato’s ideas were tried and tested upon by him in a school which he established
for this purpose. This school was called Academy. He believed in tested and
established principles for education. He included Philosophy, Music, Mathematics,
Political Science and Psychology as teaching subjects in that academy.
Plato’s philosophy is idealistic. He believed that the real world is the world of ideas
only. Only ideas are true. The physical or material world is based on ideas. Only
Brahma or God is true and complete and the world is a myth and everything else
is incomplete. Ideas are eternal, perfect, unchangeable and everlasting. According
to Plato’s idealistic thoughts; there are two worlds, the world of ideas and the
material world which is experienced through senses. This material world is temporary
and is given shape through senses or ideas only. World of senses is destructible
and exists according to time and space. According to him, education of both
knowledge and morality should be provided. Education is an instrument to attain
146 Truth, God and Beauty i.e. ‘Satyam, Shivam, and Sundaram’.
He suggested the following Aims of Education: Contribution of Western
Philosophers
 Self-realization : It is the duty of the teachers that through the process of
education they develop such abilities in the students that they are able to self-
realize the truth or reality or God.
 Cultivation of truth, beauty and goodness: Another most important aim
of education as given by Plato is to arise faith in the Truth, the God and the
Beauty. In the initial stages of education; such environment should be provided
to the students that they learn to love and appreciate beauty in the universe
which in the later stages must develop into love for God.
 Development of spiritual values: He emphasized the need for development
of spiritual characteristics along with mental and moral characteristics in
learners/students.
 To develop personality: It is through education that the integrated personality
of learners should be developed. Development of good habits and character
is also part of personality development.
 To develop qualities of good citizenship: Through education, such qualities
should be developed in the students so that they become socially adjusted
and useful citizens. They should be able to discharge their duties towards the
society according to roles assigned to them. They should live in harmony with
fellow citizens.
 To manage conflict and establish equilibrium in human life: The aim of
education should be to prepare students for identification and management
of conflicts and establish equilibrium in life to live it with full satisfaction. An
educated person should be able to work in conflicting and opposing situations
also.
 To form unity in the State for the State: According to Plato, an important
aim of education is development of the state. Therefore, the individuals should
be ready to sacrifice their personal interests. Unity of the state is supreme.
Feelings and values of national integration should be developed among the
children through education.

8.3.2 Process of Education

According to Plato, intellect is gifted by nature. Therefore, depending on their
intellect, individuals can be divided into philosophers or scholars, soldiers or
warriors those are bold and strong and can be given training in warfare and on
the other laborers who produce and do hard physical work. Plato has categorized
people into three types i.e. gold, silver and copper metals respectively. He believed
that teaching is the process through which improvement in the nature of individuals
can be made.

8.3.3 Curriculum
Plato recommended different types of curriculum for different stages of education
as given here under:
a) Pre-Primary Education (from birth to 6 years)
This period of education has been further divided into two parts:
147
Philosophical Perspective i. Infancy (from birth to 3 years): During this period, there should be
of Education
emphasis on child’s proper rearing and health. The child should be
provided with balanced food and happy environment so that he/she
grows into a happy and healthy individual.

ii. Nursery (from 4 to 6 years): During this period imagination power

of the child should be developed through education. For the development
of good habits and character with moral values and mythological tales
should be told to children. Further development of sound body and mind
should be the focus. Development of values of the Truth, the God and
the Beauty should start at this stage. Mother is an important teacher as
the home is the main education place for the child during this stage.

b) Primary Education (from 7 to 16 years)

He divided this stage of education also into two parts as follows:

i. Primary Education (from 7 to 13 years): During this period

arrangement for separate education of boys and girls should be made.
Sports, Physical Education, Music, Religion, Moral Education and
Mathematics should be taught at this stage. Music, Physical Education
and Sports aims at development of physical, intellectual and emotional
dimensions required for a balanced personality among the students.

ii. Middle Education (from 13 to 16 years): Education under this stage

should start middle education. Song, Music, Poetry and Mathematics
should also be taught. At this stage, students can understand micro
principles and difficult subjects. This forms the basis for higher education.
Students should be provided education in morality, religion and literature
full of patriotism to prepare them for good citizen of the state/nation.

c) Soldier or warfare education stage (from 16 to 20 years)

This stage has also been divided into two parts:

i. From 16 to 18 years: During this period students should be provided

with training to make their body strong and healthy. For this, participation
in sports, exercises and wrestling should be encouraged.

ii. From 18 to 20 years: During this period students should be provided

with training in warfare. Horse riding, skill of using weapons and other
techniques of war should be taught so that at the time of need, the state
should be protected. He further recommended that along with warfare
education, general education should be avoided so that students can focus
on their physical training.

d) Higher Education (from 20 to 35 years)

This stage has also been divided into two parts :

i. Higher Education (From 20 to 30 years): Provision of entrance

examination for admission into higher education has been recommended
by him. Those who qualify in the entrance examination should be given
admission in higher education and those who do not qualify should be
engaged in public services. He emphasized upon study of mathematics
148
 and science in higher education. At this stage education should aim at Contribution of Western
Philosophers
acquiring knowledge and aesthetic sense. He believed that students must
develop ability for integration of logic, practice and sciences at this stage.

ii. Upper Higher Education (From 30 to 35 years): Plato kept this stage
for administrative officers. For entry into this stage also entrance
examination was must. Those who passed the entrance test were given
admission in this stage. Those who could not qualify were adjusted in
junior administrative posts in the State. In this highest stage of education,
study of philosophy was compulsory. Along with philosophy, political
science and law were also studied. This stage was to prepare efficient
administrators for the state’s highest posts.
e) Professional Education (from 35 to 50 years)
Plato considered education of this stage as professional education. During this
period, citizens work as administrators and rulers and take responsibility of
the efficient administration of the state. They are leaders of the state and the
society. After the age of fifty years, they are relieved from the regular services.
They now indulge into endeavors for self-realization but keep on giving their
services as advisors.
f) Education for Women
He did not discriminate between men and women, so he did not advise
different types of education for women. But he considered women, physically
weaker than men. He has written in his book ‘The Republic’ that women and
men both are capable of protecting the state but women are comparatively
weaker than men in the physical power. Difference is only in quantity, not
quality. He recommended same education for both men and women. He said
that women can be selected for any administrative post in the state. Women
should also be provided education or training in industrial, warfare, philosophical
and higher education. They should also be taught music, physical education,
political science, art and craft, etc. They should not be restricted to household
work only.

8.3.4 Methods of Teaching

According to Plato, the aim of education is pursuit of knowledge, so teaching
methods should be suitable for this purpose. In the Plato’s scheme of education,
the major subject is logic or debate among intellectuals. So the most important
method is the method of logic.
Second method, as recommended by him is question-answer method. This
method was started by Socrates. It has three stages; example, definition and result
or interpretation. The example starts from discussion, then common characteristics
are fixed and at the end, result or interpretation is made.
Third method is discussion method. It became a popular method of teaching in
higher education. Apart from the above, he also recommended imitation-method,
story-telling and self-study method.

8.3.5 Criticism
Plato considered society is above individual and is not in favour of individual
freedom. He could not establish equilibrium between individuals rights and duties. 149
Philosophical Perspective On one hand he talked about holistic personality development of an individual
of Education
through education and on the other hand the freedom from individuals and gives
it to the State. Individual has to perform all duties for the state but does not have
any rights. He did not consider professional and vocational education as important.
Plato considered it necessary for the administrators to study philosophy but it is
a point of debate to see the relevance of studying philosophy in any way helps
in good administration. Family is considered important in child’s education but Plato
does not recognize family’s contribution to child’s education. As nature and needs
of men and women are different, there may be somewhat different education for
women but he does not mention different education for women.
Activity 1
You have studied Plato’s ideas about women education. What is your stand
in it? Give your comments.
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Check Your Progress 8.1

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Fill in the Blanks.
a) Plato was disciple of ______________________.
b) The world of ______________________ is the real world
according to Plato.
c) Plato divided education into ________ stages.
d) According to Plato the Greatest of Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram
is________________________.
e) Plato established an educational institution
named____________________________.
2. Name two books written by Plato.
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150
 Contribution of Western
3. Write any two aims of education as given by Plato Philosophers

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4. Mentions any three methods of education as suggested by Plato.

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8.4 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

”Everything is good as it comes from the hands
of the Author of Nature but everything
degenerates in the hands of man.” Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Italy on 28th

June 1712 and one of the famous philosophers of
Naturalism school of thought. His ideas on education
have been clearly understood through his books. He
J. J. Rousseau
has written six great books and they are:
(1712-1778)
 The progress of Art and Science

 The Origin of Inequality among Men

 Discourse on Inequality

 The New Heloise

 Social Contract

 Emile ences of his school life as teachers used to give corporal punishment
to children and he was afraid of teachers. As the school environment was not
amicable to the growth of children, he considered school education is of no
use.

According to him, nature is the only pure, clean and ennobling influence on children.
Human society is thoroughly corrupt. Therefore, man should be freed from the
bondage of society and should live in the nature. Human nature is basically good
and it must be given ample opportunities for the free development in an open
atmosphere (IGNOU, 2000).

His famous book, ‘Emile’, is in the field of child education. Here he described
the process of education through education of an imaginary child ‘Emile’ who was
given education in a natural environment away from the society and school. In this
book, psychological principles of education were given more importance as the
child was left free to explore nature so that she could develop physically as well
as mentally in the lap of nature. 151
Philosophical Perspective 8.4.1 Concept and Aims of Education
of Education
Concept of Education
Rousseau suggested the given practices in education:
 Complete freedom to the child/learner.
 No imposed physical punishment, only the child can experience natural
punishment, that can subsequently help/teach the child to do the right and good
things.
 Follow the natural law(s), because neglect or violation invariably leads to pain
and suffering.
 Naturally possessed fine character.
Aims of Education
The following aims of education were suggested by Rousseau:
 Emphasis on natural activities of the child
According to Rousseau, “Goodness is an innate quality of the children. All
that is good which we get from nature.”
 Child as the centre of education
Nature and abilities of children should be kept in mind while planning for their
education. Child is not a young adult.
 Emphasis on Nature
According to Rousseau, Nature, Human and Physical environment are the
sources of education. Learning by doing and getting experience is the best
learning. Education is gardening of children. As plants develop through care
and nutrients and human develop through education. Children must realize their
weaknesses, inabilities and dependence so that they can overcome these with
hard work and efforts. Rousseau wants life of hard work and not comfort,
luxury and weakness. According to him the child should be provided education
according to child’s nature and love towards nature should be developed in
the child. Love of nature will develop all other faculties in the child. He
considered natural education as the real education and criticized regular and
artificial education imparted in the schools.
8.4.2 Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
The curriculum and methods of teaching as suggested by Rousseau were as follows:
Table 8.1: Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
Stages Curriculum Methods of
Teaching

Infancy  Development of body and senses  Training of sense

(0-5 Years)  Moral conversation through mother organs
tongue
 Counselling
 Debar from developing any bad method
habit
152
 Contribution of Western
Childhood  Learn everything through direct  Play way method Philosophers
(5-12 Years) experience and observation.
 Practical work
 No prescribed text book.
 Negative education  Self-learning
method
 Free play, movement and action
 No rigid curriculum suggested at  Learning through
this stage self-experience
Adolescence  Suggest formal curriculum including  Learning by
(12-15 Years Natural Science, Language, doing
Mathematics, Woodwork, Music,
 Observation,
Paining, etc.
enquiry and
 Active work based curriculum; experimental
not on books method.
Youth  Moral and religious education  Heuristic method
(15-20 Years) through actual experience not
 Demonstration of
through formal lectures.
real objects in
 Education for bodily health, music teaching
and hands on activities
(Source: BES-122, IGNOU, 2016)
To analyse the curriculum and methods of teaching suggested by Rousseau, it can
be said that he was against book reading and rigid curriculum, especially at the
early stage of life. He suggested formal curriculum only at the stage of adolescence.
The methods which engage the child in hands-on activities and learning by doing
something had given importance by him.

8.4.3 Role of the Teacher

According to him, a teacher is not the source of information but must act as a
motivator for learning. Children should not be directed but guided. Teacher must
understand the nature of children. So, he/she should be tolerant and able to check
his/her emotions. He/she must not think of keeping the child under his/her control
as the child needs to be provided with full freedom for exploring and learning. Proper
guidance should be provided by the teacher to the child.

8.4.4 Rousseau’s Contribution to Education

He discovered and recognized the childhood traits. He advocated basis of child
psychology as the founding step for education of children. This lead to child centered
education in the modern period. He was the forerunner of modern educational
psychology. He said that children should be treated as children and not as young
adults, so methods of providing them education should be different. He said that
the children should be given problems to solve without any help and instructions.
Therefore, let them find out the truths themselves by exploring the environment.
He laid the foundation of free and positive discipline. He said, “Let the child move
freely in nature and learn from his/her own personal experience and through actual
participation in day to day life activities.” He condemned the punishment which
destroys original and natural curiosity and intellect of the child due to fear of
153
punishment. He was against strict discipline enforcement on children. He was in
Philosophical Perspective favour of providing full freedom to children to do their work in their own creative
of Education
ways and not interfering in what they are doing.
8.4.5 Negative Education
He emphasized on negative education as compared to positive education as
formal and rigid education tries to prepare the child for adult roles before time by
providing lot of information and instructions in an artificial environment. Negative
education is without any ties and control mechanism. In this the child learns
according to his/her nature and at his/her own pace. In this type his/her all faculties
develop naturally. Advocating negative education, Rousseau emphasized on the
following:
 No learning through books rather learning through direct experiences from
the nature
 No time saving (provide enough time to the child to live in nature)
 No habit formation
 No social education for the children (as the upper class society was corrupt
at that time)
 No direct moral education
 No strict and formal discipline
 No traditional education method
8.4.6 Woman Education
Rousseau was not in favor of same education for men and women as he believed
that their nature of responsibilities is totally different. He said that women are born
to serve and men are born to enjoy. The role of women is to bring up children,
help them to grow up as adults, to provide them with advice to make their life
comfortable and acceptable. So instead of providing women with higher education,
they should be taught household, stitching, embroidery and education of religion.
He advocated moral and religious education for women. This may be a part of
debate. Rousseau said, “A woman of literary education is the plague of her family,
her servants and everybody.” It needs critical reflection in the context of present
day society with technical and enlightened society.

Check Your Progress 8.2

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
5. Fill in the Blanks:
a) In Rousseau’s book named _______ there is a story of education
of an imaginary child.
b) According to Rousseau ____________ is a great teacher.
c) Rousseau had ______________attitude towards women education.
d) Rousseau emphasized on _______________ education.

154 e) The famous slogan given by Rousseau was___________________.

 Contribution of Western
6. How many stages of child development have been given by Rousseau? Philosophers
Name these.
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7. Write any one aim of education as given by Rousseau for each stage of
child development
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8. What were Rousseau’s views about Women Education? Discuss.
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9. Mentions any three methods of education as suggested by Rousseau.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

8.5 JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

John Dewey is considered as a great philosopher,
thinker and educationist of the modern era. He is
one of the best known philosophers in the United
States. After graduating from the University, he
started his career as a school teacher. Later on
obtained his Doctorate Degree in Philosophy from
John Hopkins University. In 1884, he began his
teaching career at the University of Michigan in 1894
and later joined University of Chicago as head of
its newly created department of Philosophy,
Psychology and Pedagogy (IGNOU, 2011). John Dewey
(1859 - 1952)
His philosophy has been mainly referred to as ‘Pragmatism’. He has been one
of the most influential thinkers of modern times whose educational ideas have left
a long lasting impact on contemporary educational thinking and practice. Some of
his famous educational works include the following:
 The School and the Society (1899)
 The Child and the Curriculum (1902)
 How we Think (1910) 155
Philosophical Perspective  Interest and effort in Education (1913)
of Education
 Democracy and Education (1916)
 Experience and Education, The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relations
of Knowledge and Action (1929)

8.5.1 Concept and Aims of Education

Concept of Education
“Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will
enable him/her to control his environment and fulfill his/her possibilities.” Education
is a social need. It is progressive in nature both for the individual and the society.
It is a bipolar process having two aspects; psychological and social. Both are equally
important. Psychological aspect takes care of the child’s interests, capabilities,
talents and aptitude and the social aspect takes care of the social environment of
the child in which he/she takes birth and is brought up.
According to John Dewey, ‘education is life itself and not a preparation for
life’(Quoted from IGNOU, 2011). Education is for the child and not the vice versa,
i.e. child is not for education. Child is not a Tabula Rasa (clean slate) on which
anything can be written. Child is born with certain innate powers and capabilities
which can be developed in the right direction. Education develops the child in such
a way that he/she is able to find values and truth in every activity and experiment
done at all levels and is able to face the future challenges with confidence.
Aims of Education
According to Dewey, idea develops after an experience or an action. That
knowledge is true which is gained by direct experience. When an individual performs
any action and face challenges and difficulties in performing it, he/she thinks how
to overcome these. Thus thoughts and ideas are produced and actions are
performed further. Dewey calls these thoughts as education. He has given the
following as aims of education:
 Philosophy as a product of education: Dewey does not consider education
as the dynamic aspect of philosophy rather he considers philosophy as the
byproduct of education. He says, “Philosophy is the theory of education in
its most general phases”.
 Education means life: According to Dewey “education is life itself and not
a preparation for life” (Quoted from IGNOU, 2011). Education is a process
of living and not a preparation for future living. Only theoretical knowledge
is not useful, knowledge which can be used in life should be given more
importance. So behavioural and vocational skills are more important. Learning
by doing is important so that children get direct experiences. There should
not be a distance gap between future and school life. The real life experiences
should be provided in the school.
 Education is a miniature society: Development of an individual takes place
in the society. He/she gets many experiences while living in the society. So
the education of the child must takes place through society. According to John
Dewey, “Education is the social continuity of life”. He considers schooling as
an instrument of destroying social evils. He considers it as a small form of
156 society where the best practices of civilization are available. According to
 Dewey,” An individual is the soul of the body which is society”. Individual Contribution of Western
Philosophers
and society are dependent on each other, so development of both is necessary.
 Education is the process of reconstruction of experiences: In a
democratic world, education is the right of every individual. So the state must
take up total responsibility of children. By democratic society, Dewey meant
not only political democracy but democracy as a way of life. He is of the
opinion that individuals have different experiences so they have differences
of actions. So individuals are complimentary to each other and opponents in
a democracy. In such an environment, only social and individual development
takes place. Child gets true knowledge by experience. Slowly as his/her
experiences increase, his/her knowledge also increases. On the basis of
experiences there is change in the behavior of the child and on the basis of
that he/she gains more experiences. In this way there is reconstruction of
experiences are taking place continuously.

8.5.2 Process of Education

Dewey emphasized to provide education through activities and not through
theoretical subjects. The experiences one gets in life are not subject specific. So
knowledge should be associated with actions and experiences. It should be in
accordance with direct experiences and fulfillment of social needs.

8.5.3 Curriculum, Teaching Methods, Role of Teacher

and Discipline
Curriculum
Curriculum should be prepared according to children’s needs, interests, aptitude
and nature of social needs. It should be flexible, dynamic and change as per the
need of time and situation.
 Education at different stages: Dewey has divided his plan of education
into three different stages, they are:
- play period (4-8 years);
- period of spontaneous attention (8-12 years); and
- period of reflective action (12-18 years).
Play period was especially dedicated for teaching in activity based method,
spontaneous attention period was dedicated for independently solving problems
of life and reflective action period was referred for come out as responsible citizen
of the society.
Teaching Methods
For strengthening experiences of the child and involving them with varieties of
learning activities, Dewey suggested problem solving method, learning by doing,
project method, and field-based activity method for study.
Role of Teacher
According to Dewey, teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. S/he is the major
agent for the socialization of the child. S/he is the representative of the society.
S/he has right to motivate and inspire the child but not to burden the child with 157
Philosophical Perspective his/her own thoughts. A teacher’s role is to prepare students for living in the society
of Education
effectively. A teacher must have knowledge about the interests of child, changing
social environment and to guide children.
Discipline
Pragmatists unlike idealists for strict discipline and naturalists for unlimited freedom
for child have devised middle path between these two extremes. Dewey gave
importance to social discipline which is based on child’s nature, actions and social
answerability. According to him discipline is a mental state to develop social activities
which are necessary. He is not in the favour of artificial or unnatural enforcement
of discipline by creating fear in the children. He considers self-discipline is more
important than externally forced discipline.

Check Your Progress 8.3

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
10. Fill in the Blanks:
a) Philosophy of Education, given by John Dewey is known
as.................................. .

b) According to Dewey school is ....................... form of society.

c) Education is a ............................................ process, according to

John Dewey .

d) John Dewey emphasized on ................................... discipline.

e) Dewey emphasized on learning by ................................... .

11. In how many parts John Dewey has divided his educational planning?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
12. What were John Dewey’s views about teacher and their role in child
education? Explain.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
13. Mention any three methods of teaching as suggested by John Dewey.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

158 ............................................................................................................
 Contribution of Western
8.6 IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) Philosophers

Immanuel Kant, a great German Philosopher was

born in Konigsberg, Germany on 22 April, 1724. He
studied Latin, Greek and Theology. Experts in the
history of German Education describe the eighteenth
century as the ‘Age of Pedagogies’. He also made a
lot of contribution to education in pedagogical
philosophy or philosophy of education. He delivered Immanuel Kant
lectures on pedagogics from 1776 to 1787 and were (1724-1804)
published in 1803.
Immanuel Kant developed a system based on the idea that in order to understand
the nature of reality, one must just examine and analyse the reasoning process that
governs the nature of experience. “The idealism of transcendentalism gave way to
existential angst a long time ego”. He expressed his views that only human being
need education out of all living beings. Education includes nurturing when the child
is an infant, discipline when he/she grows up a little more and training when he/
she is able to understand instructions.

8.6.1 Concept and Aims of Education

The following aims of education have been given by Immanuel Kant:

 Development of what is already there in the human beings and that is natural
goodness.

 Education is also continuous betterment of society through educated persons

thus ensuring better future.

 To develop all natural gifts of a human being is the true education.

 Good education feeds to the true perfection of human nature which is naturally
good. Its planning should be cosmopolitan and best. Children should be
educated not only for present but for better future.

 To maintain dignity of self and others by all individuals. He said that the sense
of quality and respect for others should be instilled in children from an early
age.

 Education relating to gradual improvement of the world should be provided

by the educational institutions.

 To prepare individuals for future world ethics. In this way he wanted to

develop global moral society.

8.6.2 Process of Education

Kant gave his ideas on education of all age groups i.e. from infancy to adulthood
are into following types :

 Basic education, 159

Philosophical Perspective  Family education,
of Education
 School education,

 University education,

 General adult education, and

 Senior citizen education.

As per his views, the basic nature of the child should not be distorted by artificial
means. Children need to be happy, open hearted and their gaze as bright as the
sun. Children may have natural inclination to go their own way, that needs to be
checked if it becomes harmful/dangerous, as in the process they may harm
themselves. But in the process of controlling them, they should not be threatened.
Neither they should treat everything as a game nor should they try to reason out
everything. Children must not be restraint in their freedom but at the same time
due care must be taken so that they do not harm themselves and restrict freedom
of others through their actions. Children must work as well as play. There is no
need to abandon one for another and proper balance must be maintained.

8.6.3 Discipline
Disciplined behaviour and actions save human being falling in danger. In the early
years, children need to be sent to school not for instructions but to learn to stay
still and do what they are asked to do. In this way, they learn to discipline
themselves which must be difficult to be taught at home. This function needs to
be performed by education as God has already given power to human being for
reason, now the good and bad of self depends upon themselves only. The basis
of education needs to be cosmopolitan or international in nature so that world peace
is established.

8.6.4 Methods of Teaching

Curriculum must suit the age group. Children learn better when curriculum fits their
capabilities according to age. Education should not be a mechanical process.
Methods of teaching and learning must stimulate the children to think. Keeping in
view the above, Kant advocated Socratic Method for learning. Children may not
be able to understand central propositions without help from the teachers. But
teachers cannot instill perception of reason into children, slowly it will come from
within. The Socratic Method should also be the basis for imparting mechanical
instruction if needed. Kant is not against natural inclinations, interest and pleasure.
But these need to be exercised keeping in mind love for and well-being of other
human beings.

8.6.5 Nature of Education and School

The following nature of education and concept of school were suggested by Kant:

 Public vs Private Education: Kant gave his clear views whether education
should be provided by the state or by private institutions. Education should
cater to the needs of the learners or stakeholders. For example, if rulers
160 provide education, they will have welfare of the state into mind and not
 development of the individuals through education. So education should not Contribution of Western
Philosophers
be the responsibility of the rulers who may themselves be not educated and
disciplined. They must provide funds for education but not with the aim of
making profit out of it. Private educational institutions must take up cause of
educating youth for their personal and social development.

 Experimental Schools: According to Kant nothing should be taught before

doing experiments on it so that it becomes worthy for teaching. For this
experimental schools are necessary. In these schools teachers should be free
to try their content and methods of teaching which they think will be
appropriate for a certain age group of students. Only reason cannot establish
suitability of material and methods of teaching, so experimental schools should
be established before the normal schools. The experimental school he
established is named as ‘Dessau’.

Check Your Progress 8.4

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.

14. Fill in the Blanks.

i) Immanuel Kant was a ................. Philosopher.

ii) Kant’s lectures on education are called .........................................

iii) According to Kant, education must make the child

...........................................................

iv) Kant’s ideas on education were tested in an experimental school

called by the name ................................ .

v) Kant emphasized on learning by ............................ method.

15. Why did Kant emphasize upon opening experimental schools before
general schools?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

16. Write aims of education as given by Immanuel Kant.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................
161
Philosophical Perspective
of Education 17. Discuss Kant’s views about public vs private education.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

8.7 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have learnt selected Western Philosopher’s thoughts on education.
These philosophers are Plato, Jean Jacques Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel
Kant. You might be able to recall now that Plato is an idealistic thinker, Rousseau
a naturalist, John Dewey a pragmatist and Kant different from the three philosophers.

All of them have suggested on aims of education and also suggested these aims
according to different developmental stages of human beings. In addition to the
aims, methods to be used for teaching, qualities and roles of teachers in the students
life and the society, importance of different subjects to be taught to the students
and then ideas on disciplining and morality have been discussed.

While going through the previous and the present units, we came to know that
the ideas suggested by the Indian and Western Philosophers, thinkers and
educationists have given us for shaping educational process. Their views on
education are varying. They provided us with ideas as how education was
considered important part of human life in their times and how it was well planned
and managed.

Now you must have come to know that these ideas are eternal and still relevant
in the contemporary education system. Therefore, the present society and the
present system of education will give it a new life. As the present society and the
system of education need to reflect on how to manage value crisis and degradation
due to many unforeseen forces. All relevant ideas should be implemented and used
so that we may be able to bring back relevant and meaningful education system.

8.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Bryushinkin, V. N. (2005). Filosofiyanaputi k prosvescheniyu. Vstupitelnayastatya
[Philosophy and the Path to Enlightenment. Prefatory note]. In: Kant,
I.Izbrannyesochineniya [Selected Works] 2. Immanuel Kant Russian State
University Press, pp. 3.

Fichte, J.G. (1982). The First Introduction. The Science of Knowledge.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 7-29.

Gulyga, A.V. (1977). Kant. Moscow: Molodayagvardiya, pp. 247.

Hinske, N. (1998). ZwischenAufklärung und Venunftkritik:

StudienzumKantschenLogikcorpus.
162
IGNOU (2016). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122), Block-3, pp.29- Contribution of Western
Philosophers
30.IGNOU B.Ed.: New Delhi.

IGNOU (2011). Education: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (MES-

051). Block-2, p.81, IGNOU M.Ed.: New Delhi.

IGNOU (2005). Education: Nature and Purpose (MES-012), IGNOU M.A.

Education Programme: New Delhi.

Kant, I. (1992a). M. Immanuel Kant’s Announcement of the Programme of his

Lectures for the Winter Semester 1765 — 1766 (1765). In D. Walford (Ed.),
Theoretical Philosophy, 1755–1770(The Cambridge Edition of the Works of
Immanuel Kant, pp. 287-300). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (1992b). The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures (1762). In
D. Walford (Ed.), Theoretical Philosophy, 1755–1770 (The Cambridge Edition
of the Works of Immanuel Kant, pp. 85-88). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Kant, I. (1996a). An answer to the question: What is enlightenment? (1784). In

M. Gregor (Ed.), Practical Philosophy (The Cambridge Edition of the Works
of Immanuel Kant, pp. 11-22).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (1996b). The Metaphysics of Morals (1797). In M. Gregor (Ed.), Practical

Philosophy (The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, pp. 353-
604). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (2006). Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I. (2007). Lectures on Pedagogy. Anthropology, History, and Education.

Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 434-486.

Kant, I. (2011). Remarks in the Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and
Sublime (1764–65). In P. Frierson & P. Guyer (Eds.), Kant: Observations on the
Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings (Cambridge Texts in the
History of Philosophy, pp. 63-202).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kant, I. (2015). Critique of Practical Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Popov, P.S., Styazhkin, N.I. (1974). RazvitiyelogicheskikhideyotAntichnosti do

epokhiVozrozhdeniya [Development of Logical Ideas from the Antiquity to the
Renaissance]. Moscow: Moscow State University Press, pp. 37.

Safaya, R.N., Shaida, B.D., Shukla, C.S.(2009). Teacher in Emerging Indian

Society. Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi

Websites Referred

https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/s 163
Philosophical Perspective https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
of Education
277651549_Kant’s_View_on_Education

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
33039935_Kant_on_Teaching_Philosophy

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/education-philosophy/

https://www.cram.com/essay/platos-education-philosophy/FK4F8LNSC

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/...of_Education_and.../Educational_Philosophy/
Plato

https://www.biography.com/scholar/plato

https://www.plato-philosophy.org/why-plato/

https://www.ukessays.com/.../education/educational-theory-of-jean-jacques-
rousseau-e...

https://www.scribd.com/document/83628224/Rousseau-and-Educational-
Philosophy

https://study.com/academy/.../john-dewey-on-education-theory-philosophy-
quiz.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey

HYPERLINK “http://www.wilderdom.com/experiential/
JohnDeweyPhilosophyEducation.html

“ www.wilderdom.com/experiential/JohnDeweyPhilosophyEducation.html

8.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a) Socrates; b) Ideas; c) Five; d) Shivam or God; e) Academy

2. Two great books written by Plato are ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’.

3. Two aims of education as given by Plato are to develop personality and good
citizenship of the individuals and to know God and develop faith in the Truth,
Beauty and God.

4. Logic, Question-answer and Discussion Methods.

5. a) Emile; b) Nature; c) Negative; d) Physical; and e) Back to Nature

6. Rousseau gave four stages of child development i.e. infancy, childhood,

adolescence and adulthood.

7. Infancy:The main aim of education during this period should be physical

development;Childhood:The aim of education during this period should be
the development of all senses of the child;Adolescence: Personality
164
 development and sense training; and Adulthood: Development of feelings and Contribution of Western
Philosophers
emotions through education.

8. The role of women is to bring up children, help them to grow up as adults,

to provide them with advice to make their life comfortable and acceptable.
So instead of providing women with higher education, they should be taught
household, stitching, embroidery, etc. Rousseau’s views on women education
are of no relevance in present system of education.

9. Direct experience, learning by doing and play-way methods.

10. a) Pragmatism; b) Extended; c) Social; d) Self; and e) doing.

11. Dewey had divided his plan of education into three periods such as Play period,
period of spontaneous attention and period of reflective attention.

12. According to Dewey, teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. S/he is the
major agent for the socialization of the child. S/he has right to motivate and
inspire the child but not to burden the child with his/her own thoughts. A
teacher’s role is to prepare children for living in the society effectively. The
teacher’s role is to prepare the learners for life.

13. Learning by doing, problem solving and project method of teaching.

14. a) German; b) ‘On Pedagogics’; c) Think; d) Dessau; and e) Socratic.

15. According to Kant, nothing should be taught before doing experiment and
experiments must go on and provide new sets of principles for continuous
improvement in the scheme and process of education.

16. Continuous betterment of society through educated persons; develop all natural
gifts of man is the true education and children should be educated not only
for present but for the better future.

17. Public education focuses on the development of the States and it is therefore
State neglect individual need in education whereas Private education focused
on the need of the individual and their true development. It is therefore Kant
has the view to true development of individual by private education.

165
Philosophical Perspective
of Education

166