‫‪Gas Dynamic‬‬

‫عدد‬
‫‪Week‬‬
‫الساعات‬
‫‪Subject‬‬ ‫الموضوع‬ ‫ت‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Basics of compressible flow‬‬ ‫اساسيات الجريان األنضغاطي‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Isentropic flow‬‬ ‫الجريان األيزنتروبي‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪Isentropic flow through variable area‬‬ ‫الجريان األيزنتروبي في مقطع متغير‬
‫‪3-4‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪duct‬‬ ‫المساحة‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Normal shock wave‬‬ ‫الموجة الصدمية العمودية‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Fanno and Rayleigh lines‬‬ ‫خط فانو و خط ريليه‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Oblique shock wave‬‬ ‫الموجة الصدمية المائلة‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Prandtl Meyer Function‬‬ ‫دالة براندل‪ -‬ماير‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Adiabatic flow‬‬ ‫الجريان األديباتيكي‬ ‫‪7‬‬

‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Jet propulsion- Rocket engine‬‬ ‫الدفع النفاث –المحرك الصاروخي‬ ‫‪8‬‬

‫‪10-11‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Turbojet engine‬‬ ‫المحرك التوربيني النفاث‬

‫المحرك التوربيني النفاث مزدوج‬
‫‪12-13‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Twin spool turbojet engine‬‬
‫التيار‬
‫‪Water turbines -Impulse type- Pelton‬‬ ‫التوربينات المائية‪ -‬النوع الدفعي‬
‫‪14-15‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪wheel‬‬ ‫(توربين بلتون)‬
‫‪16-17‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Reaction type- Francis Turbine‬‬ ‫النوع التفاعلي‪ -‬توربين فرانسس‬

‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Reaction type- Kaplan Turbine‬‬ ‫النوع التفاعلي‪ -‬توربين كابالن‬

‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪Homologous rules‬‬ ‫‪ 11‬عالقات التشابه الهندسي‬

‫‪20-21‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Centrifugal pumps and fans‬‬ ‫‪ 11‬المضخات و المراوح المركزية‬

‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Cavitations in pumps‬‬ ‫ظاهرة التكهف في المضخات‬

‫‪23-24‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Axial compressor‬‬ ‫الضواغط المحورية‬ ‫‪12‬‬

‫‪25-26‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Centrifugal compressor‬‬ ‫الضواغط المركزية‬ ‫‪13‬‬

‫‪27-28‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Axial gas turbine‬‬ ‫التوربينات الغازية المحورية‬ ‫‪14‬‬

‫‪29-30‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪Centrifugal gas turbine‬‬ ‫التوربينات الغازية المركزية‬ ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
Books:
1-" Fluid Mechanics" Victor L. Streeter
2-"Fundamentals of Fluid mechanics" Brunce Munson
4- "Gas Turbine Theory" H. Cohen
5-‫ كامل الشماع‬.‫"ميكانيك الموائع" د‬

Compressible Flow

Compressible flow is the study of fluids flowing at speeds comparable to the local
speed of sound. This occurs when fluid speeds are about 30% or more of the local
acoustic velocity. Then, the fluid density no longer remains constant throughout the
flow field. This typically does not occur with fluids but can easily occur in flowing
gases. Two important and distinctive effects that occur in compressible flows are (1)
choking where the flow is limited by the sonic condition that occurs when the flow
velocity becomes equal to the local acoustic velocity and (2) shock waves that
introduce discontinuities in the fluid properties and are highly irreversible. Since the
density of the fluid is no longer constant in compressible flows, there are now four
dependent variables to be determined throughout the flow field. These are pressure,
temperature, density, and flow velocity. Two new variables, temperature and density,
have been introduced and two additional equations are required for a complete
solution. These are the energy equation and the fluid equation of state. These must be
solved simultaneously with the continuity and momentum equations to determine all
the flow field variables.

We need to do review for some thermodynamic relations:

1
Equation of state P=ρ R T, 
v

2
  u   h 
Cv    Cp    Specific heats in constant volume and pressure
 T  v  T  p
respectively.

h= u + pv = u + RT
dh= du +R dT
Cp dT=Cv dT + R dT  Cp = Cv + R

Cp kR R
k  Cp  ,Cv 
Cv k 1 k 1

The first law of thermodynamic:

T ds = du + p dv
du p
dS   dv
T T
C v dT R
dS   dv
T v
T 
S  Cv ln 2  R ln 1
T1 2
T2 
S  Cv ln  Cv ( k  1 ) ln 1
T1 2
T  1 
k 1

S  Cv ln  2   
 T1  2  
For reversible, adiabatic process (Isentropic), ΔS=0.0 
k 1
k 1
T2   2  T2  p2  k
   
T1  1  and T1  p1 

3
Stagnation Condition

Recall definition of enthalpy

which is the sum of internal energy u and flow energy P/

For high-speed flows, enthalpy and kinetic energy are combined into stagnation enthalpy ho

Steady adiabatic flow through duct with no shaft/electrical

work and no change in elevation and potential energy

Therefore, stagnation enthalpy remains constant during

steady-flow process

If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (V2 = 0) 

Therefore, h0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically.

During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy.
Properties at this point are called stagnation properties (which are identified by subscript
o)

- Stagnation enthalpy is the same for isentropic and

actual stagnation states

- Actual stagnation pressure Po,act is lower than Po due

to increase in entropy s as a result of fluid friction.

-Nonetheless, stagnation processes are often

approximated to be isentropic, and isentropic properties are
referred to as stagnation properties

4
 For an ideal gas, h = CpT, which allows the h0 to be rewritten

To is the stagnation temperature. It represents the temperature an ideal

gas attains when it is brought to rest adiabatically.

V2/2Cp corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called the dynamic

temperature.

Speed of sound
Consider a duct with a moving piston
Creates a sonic wave moving to the right
Fluid to left of wave front experiences incremental change in properties
Fluid to right of wave front maintains original properties
Construct CV that encloses wave front and moves with it

Continuity equation (Mass

Balance)

5
Energy Equation (Energy balance)
Ein = Eout

From thermodynamic relations:

Tds=dh-vdp
ds=0
 dh=dp/ρ
Combining this with mass and energy equations gives:

Speed of sound for Gases

From ideal gas relation (equation of state p=ρRT)

Speed of sound for Liquids

dp
E Bulk modulus of compression
d

E
c


6
 Mach waves

ISENTROPIC FLOW

When the flow of an ideal gas is such that there is no heat transfer (i.e., adiabatic) or
irreversible effects (e.g., friction, etc.), the flow is isentropic. The steady-flow energy
equation applied between two points in the flow field becomes

From thermodynamic relation

and h=Cp T , ho=CpTo

7
 k
Po  k  1 2  k 1 Example: Air is flowing isentropically through a
 1 M 
P 
duct is supplied from a large supply tank in which
2  the pressure is 500 kPa and temperature 400 K.
1 What are the Mach number, the temperature,
o  k  1 2  k 1 density and fluid velocity v at a location in this duct
 1  M  where the pressure is 430 kPa
  2 
1
co  k  1 2  2
 1  M 
c  2 

Po=500 kPa, To=400 K (Stagnation conditions)

k
Po  k  1 2  k 1
 1 M 
P  2 
1.4
500  1.4  1 2  1.41
 1 M 
430  2 

M=0.469

400  1.4  1 
 1  0.469 2 
T  2 

T=383K

P 430,000
   3.91kg / m3
RT ( 287)(383)

V  M kRT  0.469 1.4 * 287 * 383  184 m / s

8
Critical (Sonic ) Condition

The values of the ideal gas properties when the Mach number is 1 (i.e., sonic flow)
are known as the critical or sonic properties and are given by:
To k 1
*
 1
T 2
k k
Po  To  k 1  k  1  k 1
    1  
P*  T *   2 
1 1
  T  k 1  k  1  k 1
    1  
o o

 *  T *   2 
1 1
co  To  2  k  1  2
    1  
c*  T *   2 

Both the critical (sonic, Ma = 1) and stagnation values of properties are useful in
compressible flow analyses.

Flow Through Varying Area Duct

Such flow occurs through nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages, where flow
quantities vary primarily in the flow direction. This flow can be approximated as 1D
isentropic flow.

Continuity

Derived relation (on image at right) is the

differential form of Bernoulli’s equation (Euler
equation) and combining this with speed of sound
gives:
d
C2  VdV

d V
 dV
 C2
Substitute the result in continuity equation:
V dA dV
 dV   0
C2 A V

9
dA dV  V 2 
  2  1 
A V C 

dA A 2
 M 1
dV V
 
For subsonic flow (M < 1) dA/dV < 0
For supersonic flow (M > 1) dA/dV > 0
For sonic flow (M = 1) dA/dV = 0

Application: Converging or converging-

diverging nozzles are found in many
engineering applications
Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and
spacecraft propulsion, industrial blast
nozzles, torch nozzles

Flow Cases in Converging

Diverging Nozzle

1-: Po > Pe > Pc

Flow remains subsonic, and mass
flow is less than for choked flow.
Diverging section acts as diffuser

2-: Pe = Pc
Sonic flow achieved at throat.
Diverging section acts as diffuser.
Subsonic flow at exit. Further
decrease in Pb has no effect on
flow in converging portion of
nozzle

3-:Pc > Pe > PE

Fluid is accelerated to supersonic
velocities in the diverging section
as the pressure decreases.
However, acceleration stops at
location of normal shock. Fluid
decelerates and is subsonic at
outlet. As Pe is decreased, shock
approaches nozzle exit.

11
PE > Pe > 0
Flow in diverging section is supersonic with no shock forming in the nozzle. Without
shock, flow in nozzle can be treated as isentropic.

Flow Cases in Converging (Truncated) Nozzle

The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (M
= 1), which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (M > 1) requires a diverging flow section
Forcing fluid through a C-D nozzle does not
guarantee supersonic velocity, It requires proper
back (exit) pressure Pe

State 1: Pb = Po, there is no flow, and

pressure is constant.
State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along nozzle
decreases.
State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is sonic,
creating maximum flow rate called choked
flow.
State 4: Pb < Pb, there is no change in flow
or pressure distribution in comparison to
state 3
State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4.

11
To Find the Critical Area:

m=ρAV= ρ*A*V*
A * V *

A*  V
1 1
 *
 o  2 
*
k 1  k 1 2  k 1
   1  M 
 o   k  1  2 
1
V *
1  2  k  1 2  2
  1  M 
V M  k  1  2 
 k 1 k 1

A 1  2  2 ( k 1)  k  1 2  2 ( k 1) 
   1  M 
A* M  k  1   2  
 
k 1
2 ( k 1 )

A 1  2  k  1 2 
  1  M 
A *
M  k  1  2 
k 1
2 ( k 1)

A 1  2  ( K  1) M 2 
  
A *
M k 1 

The Maximum Mass Flow Rate

If the sonic condition does occur in the duct, it will occur at the duct minimum area.
If the sonic condition occurs, the flow is said to be choked since the mass flow rate is
maximum (mmax) Which is defined as the maximum mass flow rate the duct can
accommodate without a modification of the duct geometry.

1
 2  *  2k
k 1 
m max   * A*V *  o  A RT 
 k  1 k 1 
and for gases having k  1.4 :

0.686 Po A*
m max 
RTo

12
Ex: The reservoir conditions of air entering a converging-diverging nozzle are 100
kPa and 300 K. Mach number at exit equals to 3.0 and the mass flow rate is 1.0 kg/s.
Determine: (a) throat area (b) the exit area and (c) the air conditions at exit section.

0.686 Po A* At
m max 
RTo Po Me=3.0
To
0.686 A* ( 100 ,1000 )
m max 
287( 300 )
e
2
= 0.00428m
k 1
2 ( k 1 )

1  2  ( K  1 )M e 
2
Ae
  
A* M  k 1 
=4.234
Ae=0.0181m2

From tables at M=3.0 , (Pe/Po)=0.027, (Te/To)=0.357

Pe=2.7 kPa, Te=107.1K

Ρe=Pe/(RTe)=0.088 kg/m3

Shock waves
Under the appropriate conditions, very thin, highly irreversible discontinuities can
occur in otherwise isentropic compressible flows. These discontinuities are known as
shock waves. Flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot
be approximated as being isentropic. Shocks which occur in a plane normal to the
direction of flow are called normal shock waves, some are inclined to the flow
direction, and are called oblique shocks.

Normal Shock Wave

Developing relationships for flow properties
before and after the shock using
conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy:

13
Conservation of mass

------------(1)
Conservation of momentum
-------------(2)

Conservation of energy

V12 V22
C pT1   C pT2  -----------(3)
2 2
Now, from equ(2), P2=P1+ρ1V12 –ρ2V22 -----(4)
Equ(1) into (4) : P2=P1+ρ1V12 –ρ2V1V2 -----(5)

Substitute on ρ2 from equ(1) into equ(2)

V12 k P1 V12 k P1 V2
   -------(6)
2 k  1 1 2 k  1 1 V 1
By substituting V2 from equ (5) into equ(6), we obtain:

Normal Shock Wave Relations

P2 1  kM 12

P1 1  kM 22

 2 V1 ( k  1) M 12
 
1 V2 (k  1) M 12  2

2 2 kM 1  ( k  1)
2
T2
 [2  (k  1) M 1 ]
T1 (k  1) 2 M 12

14
 k ( k 1) 1 ( k 1)
Po 2  o 2  (k  1) M 12   k 1 
    
Po1  o1  ( k  1) M 1
2
 2   2 kM 1
2
 ( k  1) 
( k 1) [ 2 ( k 1)]
A
M  2  (k  1) M  2
2

 2 
1
1 2
A1 M 1  2  (k  1) M  2
2
Shock wave

Important Notes:

When using these equations to relate conditions upstream and downstream of a

normal shock wave, keep the following points in mind:
1. Upstream Mach numbers are always supersonic while downstream Mach numbers
are subsonic.
2. Stagnation pressures and densities decrease as one moves downstream across a
normal shock wave while the stagnation temperature remains constant (a
consequence of the adiabatic flow condition).
3. Pressures increase greatly while temperature and density increase moderately
across a shock wave in the downstream direction.
4. The critical/sonic throat area changes across a normal shock wave in the

downstream direction and A2* A1*

.

5. Shock waves are very irreversible causing the specific entropy downstream of the
shock wave to be greater than the specific entropy upstream of the shock wave.

15
EX:
A normal shock wave exists in a air flow with upstream
M=2.0 and a pressure of 20 kPa and temperature of 15 oC.
Find the Mach number, pressure, stagnation pressure,
temperature, stagnation temperature and air velocity
downstream of the shock wave

From Shock wave table: M2=0.577, (P2/P1)=4.5,

(T2/T1)=1.688
(Po2/Po1)=0.721

P2=4.5*20=90 kPa
T2=1.688*(273+15)=486 K
M2=V2/C2 V2=0.577[1.4*287*486]1/2 =255 m/s

To find P02 and To2

From Isentropic table
At M1=2.0, (P1/Po1)=0.128, (T1/To1)=0.556
Po1=20/0.128 =156.25 kPa
Po2=0.721*156.25=112.6 kPa
To1=288/0.556=518 K
To2=To1=518 K

H.W.
Air is supplied to the converging-diverging nozzle shown here from a large tank
where P = 2 MPa and T = 400 K. A normal shock wave in the diverging section of
this nozzle forms at a point where the upstream Mach number is 1.4. The ratio of the
nozzle exit area to the throat area is 1.6. Determine (a) the Mach number downstream
of the shock wave, (b) the Mach number at the nozzle exit, and (c) the pressure and
temperature at the nozzle exit.

16
Fanno and Rayleigh Lines

Fanno Line
Combine conservation of mass and
energy into a single equation and
plot on h-s diagram
Fanno Line : locus of states that
have the same value of h0 and
mass flux

Energy equation:
ho=h+v2/2 ………(1)
continuity:
d(ρV=const.)
ρdV+Vdρ=0 …..(2)

From thermodynamic relations:

Tds=dh-dp/ρ
At the point of maximum entropy, ds=0:
dh=dp/ρ
d(1) dho=dh+vdv=0
-vdv=dp/ρ
ρ from equation (2)
ρ=-Vdρ/dV

-VdV=dP*dV/(-Vdρ)
V2=dP/dρ=C2
Hence, the maximum entropy occurs at M=1

Rayleigh Line
Combine conservation of mass and momentum into a single equation and plot on h-s
diagram :Rayleigh line
Points of maximum entropy correspond to Ma = 1. Above / below this point is
subsonic / supersonic

P+ρV2=const (momentum equation)

P+GV=const
dP+GdV=0
dp+ρVdV=0
from equ(2) dV=-(V/ρ) dρ
dP=ρV (V/ρ)dP
V2=dp/dρ=C2
Also at M=0, But not necessarily the same value of stagnation enthalpy

17
There are 2 points where the Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersect: points where all 3
conservation equations are satisfied
Point 1: before the shock (supersonic)
Point 2: after the shock (subsonic)
The larger Ma is before the shock, the stronger the shock will be.
Entropy increases from point 1 to point 2 : expected since flow through the shock is
adiabatic but irreversible

Oblique shock and expansion waves

Mach waves can be either compression waves (p2 >p1) or expansion waves (p2 <p1),
but in either case their strength is by definition very small (|p2 −p1|<<p1). A body of
finite thickness, however, will generate oblique waves of finite strength, and now we
must distinguish between compression and expansion types. The simplest body shape
for generating such waves is
– a concave corner, which generates an oblique shock (compression), or
– a convex corner, which generates an expansion fan. The flow quantity changes
across an oblique shock are in the same direction as across a normal shock, and
across an expansion fan they are in the opposite direction. One important difference
is that po decreases across the shock, while the fan is isentropic, so that it has no loss
of total pressure, and hence po2 = po1

At leading edge, flow is deflected through an angle  called the turning angle
Result is a straight oblique shock wave aligned at shock angle  relative to the flow
direction
Due to the displacement thickness,  is slightly greater than the wedge half-angle .

18
 Like normal shocks, Ma decreases across the oblique shock, and are only
possible if upstream flow is supersonic
However, unlike normal shocks in which the downstream Ma is always
subsonic, Ma2 of an oblique shock can be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic
depending upon Ma1 and .
All equations and shock tables for normal shocks apply to oblique shocks as
well, provided that we use only the normal components of the Mach number

M1,n = V1,n/c1=V1sinβ/C1=M1sinβ
M2,n=V2,n/c2=V2sin(β-θ)/C2=M2Sin (β-θ)

tanβ=V1,n/V1,t
tan(β-θ)= V2,n/V2,t
β
But V2,t=V1,t (there is no pressure β-θ
change in the tangential direction)
Hence:
tan  V
 1,n
tan    V2 ,n
V1,n 2 k  1M 12 Sin2 
 
V2 ,n  1 2  k  1M 12 Sin2 
Hence:
tan  k  1M 12 Sin2 

tan    2  k  1M 12 Sin 2 

Solving the above relation for θ:

19
The oblique shock chart above reveals a number of important features:

1-There is a maximum turning angle θmax for any given upstream Mach number M1.
If the wall angle exceeds this, or θ>θmax, no oblique shock is possible. Instead, a
detached shock forms ahead of the concave corner. Such a detached shock is in fact
the same as a bow shock discussed earlier.
2-If θ<θmax, two distinct oblique shocks with two different β angles are physically
possible. The smaller β case is called a weak shock , and is the one most likely to
occur in a typical supersonic flow. The larger β case is called a strong shock , and is
unlikely to form over a straight-wall wedge. The strong shock has a subsonic flow
behind it.
o
3-The strong-shock case in the limit θ → 0 and θ → 90 , in the upper-left corner of
the oblique shock chart, corresponds to the normal-shock case.

21
Prandtl-Meyer Waves
An expansion fan, sometimes also called a Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave, can be
considered as a continuous sequence of infinitesimal Mach expansion waves. To
understand the analysis clearly, we shall back to explain Mach cone or Mach wave.

Mach Cone

Mach number =V/C

Small disturbances created by a slender body in a supersonic flow will propagate

diagonally away as Mach waves. These consist of small isentropic variations in ρ, V,
p, and h, and are loosely analogous to the water waves sent out by a speedboat. Mach
waves appear stationary with respect to the object generating them, but when viewed
relative to the still air, they are in fact indistinguishable from sound waves, and their
normal-direction speed of propagation is equal to a, the speed of sound.

The angle μ of a Mach wave relative to the flow direction is called the Mach angle. It
can be determined by considering the wave to be the superposition of many pulses
emitted by the body, each one producing a disturbance circle (in 2-D) or sphere (in 3-
D) which expands at the speed of sound a. At some time interval t after the pulse is
emitted, the radius of the circle will be Ct, while the body will travel a distance Vt.
The Mach angle is then seen to be

21
 ct 1
  tan 1  tan 1
Vt M

which can be defined at any point in the flow. In the subsonic flow case where M =
V/C < 1 the expanding circles do not coalesce into a wave front, and the Mach angle
is not defined.

To analyze this continuous change, we will now consider the flow angle θ to be
a flow field variable, like M or V.
Across each Mach wave of the fan, the flow direction changes by dθ, while the
speed changes by dV. Oblique-shock analysis dictates that only the normal velocity
component u can change across any wave, so that dV must be entirely due to the
normal-velocity change du.

22
Prandtl-Meyer Function
The differential equation (1) can be integrated if we first express V in term of M.
1

 k 1 2  2
V  MC  MCo  1  M 
 2 
1 k -1 2
ln V  ln M  ln C o   1  M 
2 2 
Differentiation the above relation:
1
dV dM 1  k 1 2  k 1
  1  M  2 M dM
V M 2 2  2

dV 1 dM

V k 1 2 M
1 M
2

Equation (1) then becomes:

23
 M 2  1 dM
d  (2)
k 1 2 M
1 M
2

which can now be integrated from point 1 to any point 2 in the Prandtl-Meyer wave

2 M2 M 2  1 dM
1 d  M 1 k  1 2 M
1 M
2
 2   1  ( M 2 )  ( M 1 )   (3)
k 1 k 1
Where ( M ) 
k 1
tan 1
k 1
 
M 2  1  tan 1 M 2  1 (4)

θ: is the total turning of the corner

Here ν(M) is called the Prandtl-Meyer function, and is shown plotted for k=1.4

Equation (3) can be applied to any two points within an expansion fan, but the most
common use is to relate the two flow conditions before and after the fan. Reverting
back to our previous notation where θ is the total turning of the corner, the relation
between θ and the upstream and downstream Mach number is

24
25
Adiabatic Flow
All the isentropic flow relations can be used through the adiabatic flow, in any
section, provided that all variables of the relation refer to the same section.
1 2
Choked Throat
A, A*
Po M
To P, Po
T

Isentropic flow Adiabatic flow

Find A*1, and A*2 :

0.686 Po A*
m max 
RTo
Hence
m max RTo
A1*  (1)
0.686 Po1

m max RTo
A2*  (2)
0.686 Po 2
divide (1) by (2)

We got:
A*1Po1=A*2Po2

Generally
Through adiabatic flow:

A* Po=constant

Ex:
A constant area adiabatic duct has the following conditions of air flow: At section 1,
the pressure P=0.8 bar, T=350K, air velocity=160 m/s. At section 2, Mach
number=0.5, Find P, T, V at section 2.

26
 1 2

Sol.
P=80kPa M=0.5
A*1Po1=A*2Po2 T=350K
V=160m/s
V1 160
M1    0.426
kRT 1.4 * 287 * 350
k
Po1  k 1 2 k 1
 1  M1 
P1  2 
Po1=80(1+0.2(0.426)2)3.5=90.632
k 1
2 ( k 1 )

1  2  ( K  1 )M 1 
2
A1
    1.511
A*1 M 1  k 1 

A2/A*2=1.34

Hence: (A1/1.511)*90.632=(A2/1.34)*P o2
Po2=80.3 kPa
k
Po 2  k  1 2  k 1
 1 M2 
P2  2 
P2=80.3/1.1863=67.7
To2=To1=T1(1+0.2(0.426)2)=362.7K
T2=345.4K
V2=186.3m/s

27
 Jet Propulsion

Rocket Engine

Turbojet Engine

1- Rocket Engine
̇
̇ ̇
̇

Vef: is the effective jet velocity (resulting from the sum of exit gas
velocity together with the velocity resulting from pressure difference)

82
 .
( k 1) /( k 1)
*
A Po k 2 
m max   
To R  k 1
.
( k 1) /( k 1)
*
A Po k 2 
Fth  2Cp (To  Te)    Ae( Pe  Pa)
To R  k 1
Fth 2kR Te k 2 ( k 1) k 1 Ae Pe Pa
 (1  ) ( )  (  )
A* Po k 1 To R k  1 A * Po Po
k 1
Fth 2 Pe 2 ( k 1) k 1 Ae Pe Pa
k (1  ( ) k
)( )  (  )
*
A Po k 1 Po k 1 A * Po Po
k 1
Fth max 2 Pe 2 ( k 1) k 1
k (1  ( ) k
)( )
*
A Po k 1 Po k 1

To find Maximum thrust : Put (dFth/dAe)=0 Pe=Pa

k 1 k 1
Fth max 2 2 k 1 Pa
Hence, k ( ) [1  ( ) k
]
A * Po k 1 k 1 Po

82
Propulsion Efficiency

It is define as the thrust power to the total thrust power

Fth V
 pr  .

FthV  Vef  V 
m 2

2
.
m Vef .V Vef .V
 
 
.
1 2
m
  Vef  V 2
.
m Vef .V  Vef2  2VVef  V 2 2
2
2V Vef 
 pr 
1  V Vef 
2

Ex:
The max thrust generated from a rocket is 2300 kN when its operating
at an altitude where the ambient pressure is 5.1kPa and the
combustion temperature is 2200 K. If the rocket uses 120 kg/s of
gases, determine the stagnation pressure in the combustion chamber
and the nozzle throat and exit areas. (Assume choked nozzle)
(k=1.333, Cp=1147 J/kh.K, R=287J/kg)

Sol.
Fthmax=230 kN, Pe=Pa
To=2200 K
mmax=120 kg/s
At=A*

Fthmax=mVe Ve=230x103/120=1916.67 m/s

CpTo=CpTe+Ve2/2
Te=To-(Ve2/2Cp)=2200-(1916.67/2x1147)
Te=598.6K
k
Po  To  k 1
  Po=5.1(2200/598.6)4=930.3 kPa
Pe  Te 

03
m=ρeAeVe

ρe=Pe/RTe=5.1x103/(287x598.6)=0.0296kg/m3

Ae=120/(0.0296*1916.67)=2.11 m2

k 1 ( k 1 )
Fth max 2 Pa 2
k (1( ) k
)( ) k 1
*
A Po k 1 Po k 1

2.333
230 2 5.1 0.25 2
 1.333 (1( ) )( ) 0.333  1.625
930.3 A*
1.333  1 930 2.333
A*=0.152m2

03
Turbojet engine
Turbojet engine use gas turbine as main part in the engine. Aircraft gas turbine
differs from shaft power cycles in:
1- The useful output power of aircraft engines is produced wholly or in part
as a result of expansion nozzle.
2- In aircraft engine, the forward speed and altitude effect on the
performance of the engine.
3- The (power/Weight) ratio must be considered in aircraft engine.
4- Gases are expanded in the turbine to a pressure where the turbine work is
just equal to the compressor work plus some auxiliary power for pumps
and generators i.e. the net work output is zero
5- Typically operate at higher pressure ratios, often in the range of 10 to 25

Momentum balance:

For steady flow;

0=moVe+PeAe-(PaAe+miV)+ΣFx
mo=mi+mf

It is always preferred to use excess air for cooling process, hence the
fuel to air ratio mostly 1/50, so that
mf<<mi
Hence:

Fth=mo(Ve-V)+Ae(Pe-Pa)

08
 Simple Turbojet engine Cycle:

Diffuser
To1  Ta
i 
To1  Ta :
T
is the intake usentrioc efficiency Po1
defined in term of temperature
To1
k 1 k
To1  Po1  T'o1
   Pa
To1  Pa 
k k 1
 Po1   To1  Ta

 P  
T  
 a   a  S

T'o1=Ta+(To1-Ta)ζi

k k 1
 Po1   Ta  To1  Ta  i 
    
 Pa   Ta 
k k 1
 Po1  

T  T  
   1  o1 a i 
 Pa   Ta 

00
To1=Ta+V2/2Cp

Compressor

To2  T01
c 
To 2  T01
ζc: is the compressor isentropic efficiency

k k 1
 Po 2   To2 
    
 o1   o1 
P T
k k 1
 Po 2  

T  T  
   1  o 2 o1 c 
 Po1   To1 
Po2/Po1is the compressor pressure ratio

Polytropic efficiency of the compressor

k .c k  1
 Po 2   To 2 
    
 Po1   To1 
Where ζc∞ is the compressor polytropic efficiency which is should be discussed
later in the subject of the axial flow compressor.

Combustion chamber
Energy Balance
298=Room temp.(25oC+273)
mCpa(To2-298)+mfhf=m(1+ft)Cpg(To3-298)

ft=mf/m is the theoretical fuel to air ratio

C pg ( To 3  298 )  C pa ( To 2  298 )
ft 
hf  C pg ( To 3  298 )
hf: Enthalpy of reaction (depends on fluid type), for most aircraft fuels its value
is 43100 kJ/kg.K

Combustion efficiency ζb=ft/fa

fa : is the actual fuel to air ratio

03
Combustion pressure loss ΔPb=Po2-Po

Turbine T
To 4  To 3 Po3
t 
To4  To 3
ζt: is the isentropic turbine efficiency To3
Po4
k k 1
 Po 4   To4  To4
    
 Po 3   To 3  T'o4
k k 1
 Po 4  

T  To 3  
   1  o 4 S

 Po 3    t To 3 

Polytropic efficiency of the turbine

k  t ( k  1 )
 Po 4   To 4 
    
 Po 3   To 3 
Where ζc∞ is the turbine polytropic efficiency which is should be discussed later
in the subject of the axial flow turbine.

Mechanical transmission
Compressor power mC pa ( To 2  To1 )
m  
Turbine power mC pg ( To 3  To 4 )

C pa ( To 2  To1 )
m 
C pg ( To 3  To 4 )
ζm : is the mechanical transmission efficiency

Nozzle
Te  To 4
j 
Te  To 4
ζj: is the nozzle isentropic efficiency

03
 k k 1
 Pe   Te  To 4  
    1  
  j To 4 
 Po 4  

Specific thrust is the net thrust per unit mass flow of air (e.g. Ns/kg)
Fs=Fth/m

Specific fuel consumption:

S.f.c.=mf/Fth (kg/s/N)

Example
A single-spool turbojet engine is cruising with Mach number of 0.8 with
ambient conditions of 55 kPa and 258 K. The mass flow rate interring the engine
is 10 kg/s. The compressor pr. ratio is 9.0 and the maximum temp. in the engine
is 1200 K. The intake isentropic efficiency is 90% and the compressor isentropic
efficiency is 87%, the turbine polytropic efficiency is 86%. The mechanical
efficiency is 98% and the combustion pr. loss is 3 percent of compressor
delivery pressure. Calculate the generated thrust force.

Solution
V=MC=0.8(1.4*287*258)1/2= 257.6 m/s
To1=Ta+V2/2Cp =258+(257.6)2/2010= 291K
k k 1
 Po1  

T  T  
   1  o1 a i 
 Pa   Ta 
Po1=81.34 kPa
Po2=9*81.34=732 kPa
k k 1
 Po 2  

To 2  To1  c 
   1   →To2=583 K
 Po1   To1 
To3=1200 K (given)
Po3=po2-0.03*Po2=0.97*732=710 kPa
Cpa(To2-To1)= ζmCpg (To3-T04)
To4=To3-(Cpa/Cpg* ζm)(To2-To1)=993 K
k  t ( k  1 )
 Po 4   To 4 
     →Po4=227 kPa
 Po 3   To 3 

Nozzle

03
Assume Me=1
P*=(2/(k+1))4*Po4= 122.6 kPa
P*>Pa →choked nozzle
T*=(2/2.333)To4 =805 K
V*=(kRT*)1/2=555m/s
m=ρeAeVe
ρe=P*/RT*=122.6x103/(287x805)=0.53kg/m3
Ae=0.034m2
Fth=m(Ve-V)+Ae(Pe-Pa)=10(555-257.6)+0.034(122.6-54)x103=5306.4 N

Twin Spool-Turbofan Engine

mc
ec

m
mh
eh

 The turbofan engine was developed as a method of improving the

propulsive efficiency of the jet engine by reducing the mean jet velocity.

 But reducing the jet velocity has a considerable effect on jet noise.

 The thrust is made up of two componenets, the cold stream thrust and the
hot stream thrust.

 The by-pass ratio (B=mc/mh) is usualy more than unity

m=mh+mc m=mh(1+B)

03
 Fth=(mcVec+mhVeh)-mV+Aeh(Peh-Pa)+Aec(Pec-Pa) Aft-Fan
Engine

The turbofan engine was develpoed from existing turbojet engine to 'aft fan'
configutation.

A combined turbine-fan wa mounted downstream of the gas turbine. Two

major problems arise with this configuration:

 The blading of the turbine-fan unit must be desinged to give turbine

bladesection for the hot stream and compressor blade section for the
cold stream, and this leads to high cost.

 The problem of sealing between the two streams?

Improoving the Engine Performance

The improvement and development of the jet propulsion engine is to be in:

1- Increasing fuel consumption (s.f.c.)
2- Reducing weight
3- Increasnig thrust

1-Iprooving s.f.c.

The s.f.c. could be improoved by:

 Higher turbine inlet tempearture
 Higher compressor pressure ratio
 Improoving the efficiencies of intake, combustion chamber, turbine and
exahust nozzle.

02
 It is found that:
 1% increase in compressor efficeiency can reduce the s.f.c. to 0.3% -
0.5%
 1% increase in turbine efficienecy can reduce the s.f.c. to 0.6-0.8%

2-Reducing Weight

The present researches is to reduce the turbine compressor length (hence,

weight) i.e . reducing the number of stages. This require a special design of
blades.
The engines of this decade operate at much higher temps. and prs. and higher
RPMs than the engine of earlier decades with lighter and stonger structure
components. This improvent have reduced the engine weight to half of the
engine weight of 50s and 60s.

3-Incresing Thrust

It is necessary to increase thrust for short periods of time like, take-off, climb or
combat performance. Two methods are followed for this purpose

1-Afterburning
The gases leaving the turbine are reheated in order to increase the velocity of the
gas stream at the engine exit. Afterburner have been used in both turbojet and
turbofan engines.

Ve=(2Cp(To4-Te))1/2
To4

2-Water injection
(A) Water injection into the inlet of the compressor
 Reduces the compressor inlet temperature which increase the mass flow
rate of the engine.
 Reduces the work needed fot the compressor.

02
(B) Water injection into the inlet of the combustion chamber
 Increases the mass flowrate through the turbine for a given compressor
flow rate.

33