Morpheme: Definition and Comparison with Words

1. Definition of Morpheme
To begin with, word is a fundamental autonomous unit of the language in which
a particular meaning is associated with a particular sound complex. The word
consists of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest (indivisible) meaningful
language unit. Unlike the words morphemes are not free and occur in speech
only as constituent /kənˈstitjuənt/ складова частина, компонент parts of word.
A word, however, may consist of a single morpheme.
Morphemes are subdivided
1. According to the degree of autonomy into:
- bound morphemes (e.g. eleg-ant)
- free morphemes (e.g. sport-ive, sport-s-man).
Free morphemes can also function as words while bound morphemes not.
2.According to the role they play in constructing words into
- root morphemes (dishearten, kind-hearted).
- affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
In turn, affixes are subdivided into
- derivational (affixes used to derive new words: like - unlike, short - shortage,
beauty – beautiful).
- functional (affixes used to form new forms of the same word. They express a
grammatical category (tense, person, case etc.) e.g. worked, reads, father ‘s
A prefix /ˈpriː.fɪks/ /ˈpref.ɪks/ is a derivational morpheme that stands before the
root and modifies its meaning.
A suffix is a derivational morpheme that follows the stem and forms a new
derivative.
So, morphemes play a crucial role in the formation and understanding of words.
They allow for the creation of new words through processes such as derivation
(creating new words by adding prefixes or suffixes) and inflection (modifying a
word to express different grammatical categories).
For example:
  Derivation: The base morpheme "act" can be transformed into "action"
(adding the suffix "-ion") or "react" (adding the prefix "re-").
 Inflection: The verb "play" can change to "plays" (adding the suffix "-s"
for third-person singular) or "played" (adding the suffix "-ed" for past
tense).
In summary, morphemes are fundamental units of meaning that serve as the
building blocks of words. While words are complete units that convey thoughts
and ideas, morphemes provide insight into the structure and formation of these
units.
Structural types of words

According to their morphological structure words are subdivided into 4 groups:

• root/simple words– words consisting of one root morpheme and sometimes an inflexion
(heart, seldom, chairs, longer, asked)

• affixational derivatives –words consisting of a root morpheme and one or more affixes (hearty,
heartless, unemployed, disillusion)

• compounds/compound words – words in which two or very rarely more stems simple or
derived are combined into a lexical unit (sweetheart, heart-broken, girl-friend)

• derivational compounds/compound derivative – where words or a phrase are joined together

by composition and affixation (kindhearted, middle-of-the-roaders, job-hopper).

Analysis into immediate constituents

Analysis into immediate constituents is a synchronic morphological analysis, consisting of breaking a

word into two meaningful parts, layer by layer until the ultimate constituents are left. This analysis
was first suggested by L. Bloomfield and later developed by many linguists.

e.g. un - gentlemanly

un - gentleman - ly

un - gentle - man – ly

Comparing the word with other utterances we recognize the morpheme un- as a negative prefix
(compare unnatural, unfortunate, uncertain) and the morpheme gentlemanly. Thus at the first cut of
the analysis we obtain the bound negative morpheme un- and the free morpheme gentlemanly. At the
second cut we obtain the following immediate constituents: the noun stem gentleman- which occurs
in other utterances and the suffix -ly with the meaning “having the quality of the person denoted by the
stem” (compare womanly, masterly, soldierly). The third cut is an adjective stem gentle- (a similar
pattern is observed in nobleman) and -man which may be classified as a semi-affix.

2. Morphemic Analysis of Words

Morphemic analysis is the process of breaking down words into their smallest meaningful units,
known as morphemes. Morphemes include prefixes, roots, suffixes, and infixes, and they can be
classified into free morphemes (which can stand alone as words) and bound morphemes (which
cannot stand alone and need to be attached to free morphemes). This analysis helps linguists
understand the structure and formation of words.

2.1. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis

The procedure for morphemic analysis generally involves the following steps:

1. Identify the word you are analyzing.

2. Break the word into its constituent parts or morphemes. This involves recognizing roots (the
core meaning of the word) and affixes (prefixes and suffixes attached to the root).

3. Classify each morpheme:

o Is it free (can it stand alone) or bound (must attach to another morpheme)?

o Is it a root, prefix, or suffix?

4. Determine the meaning of each morpheme and how they contribute to the overall meaning of
the word.

For example, in the word "unbelievable":

 "un-" is a prefix (bound morpheme) meaning "not."

 "believe" is a root (free morpheme) that can stand alone as a word.

 "-able" is a suffix (bound morpheme) meaning "able to be."

So, the word means "not able to be believed."

2.2. Types of Word Segmentability

Word segmentability refers to the ability to break down a word into its morphemes. There are three
main types of word segmentability:

1. Complete segmentability:

o Words that can be easily divided into clear morphemes with distinct meanings.

o Example: "teacher" = "teach" (root) + "-er" (suffix, meaning "one who does").

2. Conditional segmentability:

o Words where some morphemes may not be easily recognizable or may have changed
in form, but they can still be segmented with analysis.

o Example: "receive" = "re-" (prefix) + "ceive" (root, though not commonly recognized
as a standalone morpheme).

3. Defective segmentability:

o Words where segmenting into morphemes is difficult because the morphemes have
lost their original meaning or form over time.

o Example: "cranberry" – here "cran-" cannot be identified as an independent

morpheme with meaning in modern English, but "-berry" is still recognizable.

2.3. Identification of Morphs

In morphemic analysis, the identification of morphs is crucial. A morph is the physical form or
actual linguistic realization of a morpheme. Morphs are the spoken or written segments that represent
the smallest units of meaning.

To identify morphs, one must:

1. Analyze the word structure to detect the different parts of the word that carry meaning. Each
part that corresponds to a morpheme is a morph.

2. Recognize the different variations of morphemes that exist in a language, known as

allomorphs. Allomorphs are different morphs that represent the same morpheme. For
example:

o The plural morpheme in English can be realized as different morphs: "-s", "-es", or
"-en" (as in cats, dishes, or oxen).

3. Observe the context to determine which morph appears, as the form of a morph can change
depending on phonological or morphological environments. For instance:

o In "walked", the past tense morpheme "-ed" is realized as /t/ (a morph), while in
"mended", the same morpheme is pronounced as /d/.

The goal is to map out how these physical forms (morphs) correspond to abstract morphemes in
language.

2.4. Classification of Morphemes

Morphemes can be classified based on several criteria:

1. By Autonomy:

o Free Morphemes: Morphemes that can stand alone as independent words. For
example, "book", "run", and "happy".

o Bound Morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand alone and must be attached to
other morphemes. For example, prefixes like "un-" (as in "unhappy") or suffixes
like "-ness" (as in "happiness").

2. By Function:

o Lexical Morphemes: These are morphemes that carry the core meaning of the word,
typically associated with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are often free
morphemes. For example, "book", "run", and "bright".

o Grammatical/Functional Morphemes: These morphemes serve a grammatical

function, such as indicating tense, plurality, possession, etc. They often include bound
morphemes like "-s" for plural, "-ed" for past tense, or "pre-" for before. Functional
morphemes include conjunctions, articles, and prepositions, like "and", "in", and
"the".

3. By Position in Relation to the Root:

o Affixes: Bound morphemes that attach to a root or stem. They can be further classified
into:

 Prefixes: Affixes placed at the beginning of a root (e.g., "pre-" in

"preorder").
  Suffixes: Affixes placed at the end of a root (e.g., "-ly" in "quickly").

 Infixes: Affixes inserted within a root (rare in English but common in other
languages).

 Circumfixes: Affixes that are placed both before and after the root (e.g., in
some languages, such as in "ge-...-t" in German past participles like
"gearbeitet").

4. By Form:

o Derivational Morphemes: These morphemes are used to create new words by

changing the meaning or the word class of a root. For example, "-ness" in
"happiness" or "un-" in "unhappy".

o Inflectional Morphemes: These morphemes do not change the core meaning or word
class but add grammatical information such as tense, number, or possession. For
example, "-s" for plurals (as in "dogs") or "-ed" for past tense (as in "walked").

3. Derivational analysis focuses on how words are formed and expanded through the process of
derivation. Derivation is a word-formation process in which derivational morphemes (prefixes and
suffixes) are added to base words (or roots) to create new words. This process often changes the
meaning of the original word and, in many cases, its grammatical category (part of speech). Here's a
deeper look at the derivational level of analysis:

Key Concepts in Derivational Analysis:

1. Base (Root) Words:

o The core unit of a word, carrying the primary meaning. For example, the base word in
"happiness" is "happy".
2. Derivational Morphemes:
o Affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes) that are added to base words to derive
new words.
o Prefix: An affix that comes before the base (e.g., "un-" in "unhappy").
o Suffix: An affix that comes after the base (e.g., "-ness" in "happiness").
o Infix: Rare in English, but it’s when a morpheme is inserted inside a word (common
in other languages).
o Circumfix: A morpheme added both at the beginning and end of the word (rare in
English, but present in other languages).
3. Change in Meaning:
o Derivational morphemes change the meaning of the base word. For example:
 "kind" → "unkind" (the prefix "un-" adds a negative meaning).
 "hope" → "hopeless" (the suffix "-less" adds the meaning of "without").
4. Change in Word Class (Part of Speech):
o Derivation often results in a change in the grammatical category of the base word. For
example:
 Noun to Adjective: "beauty" → "beautiful".
 Verb to Noun: "to teach" → "teacher".
 Adjective to Noun: "happy" → "happiness".
5. Multiple Derivations:
o A word can undergo multiple derivations, adding several layers of affixes. For
example:
 "nation" (noun) → "national" (adjective) → "international" (adjective,
with the prefix "inter-").
Derivational Process:

1. Identifying the Base Word:

o In derivational analysis, the first step is to recognize the base word (root), which
carries the core meaning of the word.
2. Adding Derivational Morphemes:
o Next, the derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes) are identified and analyzed. It
is important to determine how these morphemes change the word’s meaning or part of
speech.
3. Analyzing the Word Class:
o After adding the derivational morpheme(s), the resulting word is examined to see if
the part of speech has changed.
4. Understanding Word Formation Rules:
o Certain derivational processes follow specific rules. For example, adding "-ness" to
an adjective (e.g., "happy") forms a noun ("happiness"). Some derivational rules
are productive, meaning they can be widely applied to form new words, while others
may be more restricted.

Examples of Derivational Analysis:

1. Happy → Happiness:
o Base: "happy" (adjective).
o Suffix: "-ness" (derivational morpheme).
o Result: "happiness" (noun).
o Change in Meaning: From the state of being happy (adjective) to the abstract noun
representing that state.
2. Teach → Teacher:
o Base: "teach" (verb).
o Suffix: "-er" (derivational morpheme).
o Result: "teacher" (noun).
o Change in Word Class: From the action of teaching (verb) to the person performing
the action (noun).
3. Nation → International:
o Base: "nation" (noun).
o Prefix: "inter-" (derivational morpheme meaning "between").
o Suffix: "-al" (derivational morpheme forming adjectives).
o Result: "international" (adjective).
o Change in Meaning: From a single nation to something involving multiple nations.

Productivity of Derivation:

 Some derivational morphemes are highly productive, meaning they can be used to form many
new words (e.g., "-ness", "-er"). Others are less productive or specific to particular words or
contexts.

TASKS

1. Friendship:

 Free morphemes: friend, ship

 UC: friend + ship

2. Freedom:
  Free morphemes: free, dom
 UC: free + dom

3. Lucky:

 Free morpheme: lucky

 UC: lucky

4. Luckily:

 Free morpheme: lucky

 Bound morpheme: -ly (adverbial suffix)
 UC: lucky + -ly

5. Agreement:

 Free morpheme: agree

 Bound morpheme: -ment (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: agree + -ment

6. Frightful:

 Free morpheme: fright

 Bound morpheme: -ful (adjective-forming suffix)
 UC: fright + -ful

7. Merciless: /ˈmɜːrsɪləs/

 Free morpheme: mercy

 Bound morpheme: -less (negative suffix)
 UC: mercy + -less

8. Suddenly:

 Free morpheme: sudden

 Bound morpheme: -ly (adverbial suffix)
 UC: sudden + -ly

9. Lifeless:

 Free morpheme: life

 Bound morpheme: -less (negative suffix)
 UC: life + -less

10. Uncomfortable:

 Bound morpheme: un- (negative prefix)

 Free morpheme: comfortable
 Bound morpheme: -able (adjective-forming suffix)
 UC: un + comfort + -able

11. Steadiness:

 Free morpheme: steady

  Bound morpheme: -ness (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: steady + -ness

12. Bathroom:

 Free morphemes: bath, room

 UC: bath + room

13. Northern:

 Free morpheme: north

 Bound morpheme: -ern (adjective-forming suffix)
 UC: north + -ern

14. Actress:

 Free morpheme: act

 Bound morpheme: -ress (feminine suffix)
 UC: act + -ress

15. Blue-eyed:

 Free morphemes: blue, eye

 Bound morpheme: -ed (adjective-forming suffix)
 UC: blue + eye + -ed

Morphemic Analysis of the Remaining Words

1. Visitor:

 Free morpheme: visit

 Bound morpheme: -or (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: visit + -or

2. Ex-seaman:

 Bound morpheme: ex- (prefix indicating former status)

 Free morpheme: seaman
 UC: ex + seaman

3. Half-finished:

 Free morphemes: half, finish

 Bound morpheme: -ed (past participle suffix)
 UC: half + finish + -ed

4. Supernaturally:

 Free morpheme: supernaturally

 UC: supernaturally

5. Uncomprehendingly:

 Bound morpheme: un- (negative prefix)

  Free morpheme: comprehend
 Bound morpheme: -ing (present participle suffix)
 Bound morpheme: -ly (adverbial suffix)
 UC: un + comprehend + -ing + -ly

6. Unemployment:

 Bound morpheme: un- (negative prefix)

 Free morpheme: employ
 Bound morpheme: -ment (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: un + employ + -ment

7. Reinforcement: /ˌriːɪnˈfɔːrsmənt/

 Free morpheme: reinforce

 Bound morpheme: -ment (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: reinforce + -ment

8. Uplifted:

 Free morpheme: uplift

 Bound morpheme: -ed (past participle suffix)
 UC: uplift + -ed

9. Hopelessly:

 Free morpheme: hopeless

 Bound morpheme: -ly (adverbial suffix)
 UC: hopeless + -ly

10. Unworthiness:

 Bound morpheme: un- (negative prefix)

 Free morpheme: worthy
 Bound morpheme: -ness (noun-forming suffix)
 UC: un + worthy + -ness

11. Impassable непрохідний:

 Bound morpheme: im- (negative prefix)

 Free morpheme: pass
 Bound morpheme: -able (adjective-forming suffix)
 UC: im + pass + -able

12. Extravagant:

 Free morpheme: extravagant

 UC: extravagant

13. Unconsciousness:

 Bound morpheme: un- (negative prefix)

 Free morpheme: conscious
 Bound morpheme: -ness (noun-forming suffix)
  UC: un + conscious + -ness

In morphemic analysis, segmentability refers to the extent to which a word can be segmented into
meaningful morphemes. There are three categories based on the degree of segmentability:

1. Complete segmentability: Words can be easily divided into morphemes, where each part has
a clear and identifiable meaning (e.g., prefix + root + suffix).
2. Conditional segmentability: Words have parts that seem meaningful, but the relationship
between these parts and their meanings may be unclear or historical.
3. Defective segmentability: Words appear to be morphologically simple (not easily divided
into clear morphemes) due to historical or irregular development.

a) Complete Segmentability

These words can be clearly divided into distinct morphemes, where both the root and affixes are
recognizable and meaningful.

1. Amoral: a- (prefix, negative) + moral (root)

2. Cloudless: cloud (root) + -less (suffix, without)
3. Deformation: de- (prefix, reverse) + form (root) + -ation (suffix, noun-forming)
4. Disappear: dis- (prefix, reverse) + appear (root)
5. Disappointment: dis- (prefix, reverse) + appoint (root) + -ment (suffix, noun-forming)
6. Distrust: dis- (prefix, reverse) + trust (root)
7. Ex-champion: ex- (prefix, former) + champion (root)
8. Foresee: fore- (prefix, before) + see (root)
9. Foretell: fore- (prefix, before) + tell (root)
10. Misguided: mis- (prefix, wrong) + guide (root) + -ed (suffix, past participle)
11. Misunderstand: mis- (prefix, wrong) + understand (root)
12. Undressed: un- (prefix, negative) + dress (root) + -ed (suffix, past participle)
13. Unemployment: un- (prefix, negative) + employ (root) + -ment (suffix, noun-forming)
14. Uniformity: uni- (prefix, one) + form (root) + -ity (suffix, noun-forming)
15. Universal: uni- (prefix, one) + verse (root) + -al (suffix, adjective-forming)

b) Conditional Segmentability

The morphemes in these words are less transparent. While some parts can be segmented, the overall
meaning is not immediately clear from the combination of morphemes.

1. Contain: con- (prefix) + tain (root) – root isn’t fully independent in modern English
2. Deceive: de- (prefix) + ceive (root) – ceive isn’t independent in modern English
3. Exclaim: ex- (prefix, out) + claim (root)
4. Export: ex- (prefix, out) + port (root)
5. Import: im- (prefix, in) + port (root)
6. Introduce: intro- (prefix, into) + duce (root) – duce isn’t independent in modern English
7. Perceive: per- (prefix, through) + ceive (root) – ceive isn’t independent in modern English
8. Proclaim: pro- (prefix, forward) + claim (root)
9. Produce: pro- (prefix, forward) + duce (root) – duce isn’t independent in modern English
10. Receive: re- (prefix, again) + ceive (root) – ceive isn’t independent in modern English
11. Reduce: re- (prefix, back) + duce (root)
12. Retain: re- (prefix, again) + tain (root) – tain isn’t independent in modern English
13. Transmit: trans- (prefix, across) + mit (root)
14. Transplant: trans- (prefix, across) + plant (root)

c) Defective Segmentability
These words contain morphemes that are either obsolete or cannot be easily separated into clear
morphemes in modern usage.

1. Cranberry: cran (obsolete morpheme) + berry (root)

2. Culture: no clear division into morphemes in modern English
3. Lioness: lion (root) + -ess (suffix, gender-specific) – though -ess is clear, the root has become
opaque
4. Lionet: lion (root) + -et (suffix, diminutive)
5. Locket: lock (root) + -et (suffix, diminutive)
6. Obtain: ob- (prefix) + tain (root) – tain isn’t independent in modern English
7. Picture: no clear division into morphemes in modern English
8. Pocket: pock (root) + -et (suffix, diminutive)
9. Porter: port (root) + -er (suffix, agent-noun forming) – while this division exists, the semantic
relationship between port and porter is not immediately clear
10. Raspberry: rasp (obsolete morpheme) + berry (root)
11. Ringlet: ring (root) + -let (suffix, diminutive)
12. Speaker: speak (root) + -er (suffix, agent-noun forming)
13. Strawberry: straw (root) + berry (root) – the semantic connection is unclear
14. Streamlet: stream (root) + -let (suffix, diminutive)
15. Townlet: town (root) + -let (suffix, diminutive)

In morphemic analysis, free stems are roots that can function as independent words. Bound stems are
morphemes that cannot stand alone and need affixes to make sense. Semi-bound stems are
morphemes that can sometimes function as independent words but also appear bound with prefixes or
suffixes in other cases.

a) Free Stems

Free stems can stand alone as words:

1. Public
2. Voyage
3. Boyish (boy)
4. Manly (man)
5. Freedom (free)
6. Vital
7. Waiter (wait)
8. Experience
9. Careful (care)
10. Policeman (police, man)
11. Personal (person)
12. Difference (differ)
13. Patience (patient)
14. Likely (like)
15. Famous
16. Tremendous
17. Weekly (week)

b) Bound Stems

Bound stems cannot stand alone and require affixes to form a word:

1. Disrange (range is bound in this case, altered meaning in context)

2. Untrue (true cannot stand independently when negative)
3. Unselfish (self cannot stand independently with "un-")
 4. Terrorist (terror acts as a bound root in this context)
5. Length (leng- is not an independent word; bound form of long)

c) Semi-bound Stems

Semi-bound stems function both independently and as part of larger words:

1. Businesslike (business can stand alone, but -like is bound)

2. Annual (annu- is a root with Latin origins but is fixed in meaning)
3. Speechless (speech can stand alone, but -less is bound)
4. Well-known (well and known can stand alone, but together form a fixed compound)
5. Half-done (half and done can stand alone, but together create a semi-bound construction)
6. Longish (long can stand alone, but -ish is bound)
7. Likely (like can stand alone, but -ly in this case forms an adjective)

Definition of a Root-Morpheme:

A root-morpheme (or simply a root) is the primary lexical unit of a word that carries the core
meaning. It forms the base to which affixes (prefixes, suffixes) are attached and is often free (can
stand alone as a word), but in some cases, it may be bound (unable to stand alone). The root
morpheme represents the essential semantic content of a word, and all other morphemes modify or
elaborate on its meaning.

Identifying Roots in the Word Sets:

1. Bake, baker, bakery

Root: bake
(related to the act of baking)
2. Civil, civilian, civilise, civilised, civilisation
Root: civil
(related to citizenship or society)
3. Collect, collection, collector, collective, collectivisation
Root: collect
(related to gathering or bringing together)
4. Differ, difference, different, differential, differentiate
Root: differ
(related to being distinct or not the same)
5. Gentle, gentleman, gentility, gentleness, genteel, gently
Root: gentle
(related to kindness, nobility, or softness)
6. Please, pleasant, pleasure
Root: please
(related to giving satisfaction or enjoyment)
7. Describe, prescribe, inscribe
Root: scribe
(related to writing)
8. Success, successful, unsuccessful, successfully, succession, successor, successive
Root: success
(related to achievement or following in sequence)
 9. Porter, transport, import, export
Root: port
(related to carrying or movement)

In each case, the root-morpheme carries the essential meaning, while the affixes modify the word’s
form (e.g., noun, verb, adjective) or specific meaning.

a) Simple Words

Words with a single morpheme, no affixes:

 Child
 Toy
 Mute
 Deaf
 Act
 Dark
 Friend
 Big
 Space
 Old
 Teenager
 Ill
 Double
 Fame
 Norm
 Sharp
 Hand
 Moon
 Film
 Mistress
 Leg
 Light-blue

b) Derived Words

Words formed by adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to a base:

 Childish (child + -ish)

 Actor (act + -or)
 Darkness (dark + -ness)
 Friendship (friend + -ship)
 Boyishness (boy + -ish + -ness)
 Famous (fame + -ous)
 Normal (norm + -al)
 Sharpen (sharp + -en)
 Handy (hand + -y)
 Biggish (big + -ish)

c) Compounds

Words formed by combining two or more free morphemes without derivational affixes:

 Railway (rail + way)

 Deaf-mute (deaf + mute)
  Everything (every + thing)
 Daytime (day + time)
 Whatever (what + ever)
 Spaceman (space + man)
 Sunrise (sun + rise)
 Weekend (week + end)
 Bare-legged (bare + legged)
 Film-star (film + star)
 Breakdown (break + down)
 Overgrow (over + grow)
 Honey-mooner (honey + moon)

d) Derivational Compounds

Compound words with affixes added:

 Bald-headed (bald + head + -ed)

 Long-legged (long + leg + -ed)
 Open-hearted (open + heart + -ed)
 Narrow-minded (narrow + mind + -ed)
 Ill-mannered (ill + manner + -ed)
 Three-coloured (three + colour + -ed)
 Timesaving (time + save + -ing)
 Old-timer (old + time + -er)
 Handful (hand + -ful)